The Economic Turn in Japan’s English-Language Teaching

The Economi c Turn i n J apan’ s Engl i sh- Language Teachi ng

Ac c or di ng t o Ha r v ey ( 2005) , neol i ber a l i s t m, whi c h i s a t heor y of pol i t i c a l ec onomi c pr a c t i c es t ha t i ns i s t s t ha t huma n bei ngs a r e bes t of f by a c t i v el y i nt r oduc i ng ma r ket pr i n- c i pl es i nt o s oc i a l l i f e, ha s exer c i s ed c ons i der a bl e i nf l uenc e on s oc i et y t o t he ext ent t ha t many s oci al phenomena t end t o be i nt er pr et ed t hr ough t he economi c - i deol ogy l ens . 　 Bour di eu ( 1998) at t r i but es t he s our ce of t he s t r engt h of neol i ber al i deol ogi es t o t hei r f or mi ng a ki nd of ‘ gr ea t c ha i n of Bei ng’ , whi c h i s a t heol ogi c a l met a phor r ef er r i ng t o a hi er a r c hi c a l s t r uc t ur e wher e a t one end t her e a r e t he l owes t f or ms of l i f e, a nd a t t he ot her end t her e i s God as t he hi ghes t per f ect i on. 　I n t he neol i ber al uni ver s e, accor di ng t o Bour di eu, mat hemat i ci ans as s ume t he pl ace of God, and popul ar magaz i ne- t ur ned- ec onomi c s - s pec i a l i s t s f i nd a pl a c e a t t he l owes t l ev el . 　I n ot her wor ds , t her e a r e hi dden connect i ons bet ween t he or gani z at i ons whi ch appar ent l y wor k i n i s ol at i on. 　What i s i mpor t ant i s t hat t hi s chai n has pr oduced an ef f ect l i t t l e s hor t of t r agedy . 　Bour di eu ( 1998) t hus a r gues t ha t i t i s s oc i ol ogi s t s ’ dut y t o dec ons t r uc t t he c ha i n of neo- l i ber a l i s m and s how t hat t he di s s emi nat i on of t he i deol ogy i s backed up by t he di s s emi nat i on of power .

Koj i r o Mur a ka wa a nd Yui c hi r o Ya ma da

(Received on May 31,2012)

Abst r act

I n J a pa n, t he ec onomi c f i el d ha s es t a bl i s hed a s ys t em of gov er nment i n Engl i s h- l a n- guage t eachi ng ( ELT) by maki ng a chai n of hi er ar chi cal l i nks , whi ch l ocat e economi c el i t es at t he t op and l anguage pol i ci es i nf l uenced by neol i ber al i sm at t he bot t om. 　

Thr ough t hi s s ys t em, t he ec onomi c f i el d s eems t o t r y t o r e- or ga ni z e J a pa n’ s ELT. 　Wha t

i s c ons i der ed a s v a l ua bl e i n t hi s s ys t em i s t he pr a c t i c a l , s uc h a s c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es

and hi gh s cor es on s t andar di z ed t es t s . 　Thus , i t i s pr obabl e t hat l ear ner s f ocus on t he

ma s t er y of t he pr a c t i c a l a t t he expens e of a n i nt r i ns i c mot i v a t i on f or l ea r ni ng Engl i s h, but

t hi s di s r ega r ds t he r ol es of ELT a s a pa r t of s c hool i ng. 　I n t hi s a r t i c l e, t her ef or e, we wi l l

exa mi ne t he ec onomi c t ur n i n J a pa n’ s ELT, a nd c ons i der i mpl i c a t i ons f or ELT i n J a pa n i n

t he 21s t c ent ur y .

What has occur r ed i n J apan’ s Engl i s h- l anguage t eachi ng ( ELT) s i nce ar ound t he t ur n of t he c ent ur y i s s i mi l a r t o t he c ha i n of neol i ber a l i deol ogi es . 　Ma ny r es ea r c her s ha v e poi nt ed out t ha t t he i nf l uenc e of t he ec onomi c i deol ogi es a ppea r s not i c ea bl y i n t he f i el d of Engl i s h educ a t i on, a s s umi ng t he f or ms of t he a bus e of s t a nda r di z ed t es t s a t uni v er - s i t y, un c r i t i c a l i nt r oduc t i on of Engl i s h i nt o t he el ement a r y- s c hool c ur r i c ul um, a nd myopi c a dher enc e t o c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h ( e. g. Er i ka wa , 2009; Wa da , 2004) . 　How- ev er , onl y a f ew r es ea r c her s ha v e r ev ea l ed t he wa y i n whi c h t he ec onomi c f i el d exer c i s es power ov er t he educ a t i ona l f i el d. 　We s ee t hes e i s s ues , whi c h mi ght os t ens i bl y l ook i s o- l a t ed, a s a pa r t of wha t Fa i r c l ough ( 2002) c a l l s “ a c ol oni z a t i on of ot her f i el ds by t he ec o- nomi c f i el d” ( p. 163) , t hr ough whi c h ec onomi c pr i nc i pl es hol d s wa y ov er ma ny f a c et s of s oc i a l l i f e. 　J us t a s neol i ber a l i s m ma kes a s or t of ‘ gr ea t c ha i n of Bei ng’ , s o t hi s c ol oni z a - t i on c ons i s t s of a c ha i n of hi er a r c hi c a l l i nks , wher e a t t he t op a r e t he r ul i ng c l a s s i n t he economi c f i el d, and at t he bot t om ar e educat i onal pol i ci es i nf l uenced by economi c i deol ogi es . 　I nt r i ns i c mot i v a t i on f or l ea r ni ng Engl i s h f or i t s own s a ke wa s exc l uded f r om t hi s c ha i n. 　Thi s t r es pa s s es a ga i ns t t he f ounda t i ona l pr i nc i pl es of Engl i s h educ a t i on a s a pa r t of s c hool i ng. 　Ther e i s t hus a n ur gent need t o dec ons t r uc t t he mec ha ni s m t hr ough whi c h t he ec onomi c f i el d a s s er t ed i nf l uenc e ov er t he educ a t i ona l f i el d i n t he f i r s t dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y , i n or der t o c ons i der i mpl i c a t i ons f or a l t er na t i v e pol i c i es i n t he next dec a de.

To t hi s end, we wi l l f i r s t r ev i ew neol i ber a l i s m, a nd i t s hi s t or i c a l dev el opment i n J a pa n. 　

We wi l l t hen di s c us s t he r el a t i ons hi p bet ween t he educ a t i ona l a nd ec onomi c f i el ds , a nd r ev ea l t he mec ha ni s m t hr ough whi c h t he ec onomi c f i el d exer t s power ov er ELT. 　Fi na l - l y, we wi l l t r y t o r es t r uc t ur e knowl edge on t he pol i t i c s of l a ngua ge f or J a pa n’ s ELT i n t he 21s t c ent ur y .

A Revi ew of Neol i ber al i sm

Bec k ( 1992) of f er s a n or i gi na l v i ew of t he pol i t i c s of ec onomy . 　Ac c or di ng t o Bec k,

a n out l i ne of s oc i et y i s not ma de s ol el y by t he dec i s i on of gov er nment , but det er mi ned by

t echnol ogi cal and economi cal devel opment . 　Beck cal l s t hi s ‘ s ub- pol i t i cs ’ , becaus e t he

f i el ds of t ec hnol ogy a nd ec onomy, a s a ki nd of ‘ t hi r d pol i t y’ whi c h bel ongs t o nei t her pol i t i -

cal nor non- pol i t i cal cat egor i es , t ake over t he mai ns t ay of s oci et y . 　What i s s t r i ki ng i n

s ub- pol i t i c s i s t ha t t hi s t hi r d pol i t y br i ngs a bout wi de- r a ngi ng s oc i a l c ha nge i n wa ys whi c h

a r e of t en di f f i c ul t t o r ec ogni z e.

A f or m of s ub- pol i t i c s c a n be s een i n t he pr oc es s of gl oba l i z a t i on, whi c h ha s r ec ent l y been a buz z wor d a s a s our c e of t he r e- or ga ni z a t i on of s oc i et y. 　Gl oba l i z a t i on wa s pa r t i a l l y c a us ed by t ec hnol ogi c a l dev el opment ( Hel d, Mc Gr ew, Gol dbl a t t , & Per r a t on, 1999) , a nd new t echnol ogi es r evi t al i z ed economy on a gl obal s cal e. 　What under pi nned and was under pi nned by s uc h ec onomi c dev el opment wa s neol i ber a l i s m. 　Not i ng t he hi gh c or r el a - t i on bet ween t he gl oba l - s c a l e ec onomi c a c t i v i t i es a nd neol i ber a l i s m, Gi ddens ( 1998) s a ys t ha t “ neol i ber a l i s m i s a gl oba l i z i ng t heor y, a nd ha s c ont r i but ed v er y di r ec t l y t o gl oba l i z i ng f or c es ” ( p. 14) . 　Neol i ber a l i s m i s a n ec onomi c i deol ogy whi c h j us t i f i es a nd pr omot es t ha t ma r ket pl a c e pr i nc i pl es ext end t o ev er y c or ner of s oc i a l l i f e, a nd neol i ber a l s ma i nt a i n t ha t ev er yone c a n ma ke a pr of i t equa l l y t hr ough ma r ket mec ha ni s ms ( Hel d & Mc Gr ew, 2002) . 　 J us t a s s ub- pol i t i c s ha s f a r - r ea c hi ng i nf l uenc e, s o neol i ber a l i s m s pr ea d ov er s oc i a l l i f e t o t he ext ent t ha t neol i ber a l s s a y “ ‘ t her e i s no a l t er na t i v e’ - neo- l i ber a l i s m i s s omet hi ng wi t h whi c h we ha v e t o l i v e” ( Fa i r c l ough, 2000, v i i i ) .

Yet neol i ber a l i s m di d not a c qui r e s uc h a uni que pos i t i on ov er ni ght . 　Ac c or di ng t o Ha r v ey ( 2005) , behi nd t he gl oba l s pr ea d of neol i ber a l i s m, t her e wa s a s t r uggl e i n whi c h t he r ul i ng cl as s es had t o def end t hei r i nt er es t . 　Under t he Keynes i an wel f ar e s ys t em a f t er t he Sec ond Wor l d Wa r , ma ny c ount r i es s ha r ed t he i dea t ha t wea l t h mus t be equa l l y r edi s t r i but ed wi t h t he r ul i ng cl as s es ’ economi c power r es t r ai ned. 　The r ul i ng cl as s es c oul d ma ke a n a dequa t e pr of i t under t he Keynes i a n wel f a r e s ys t em, bec a us e t he ec on- omy enj oyed c ont i nuous gr owt h f or 30 yea r s a f t er t he Sec ond Wor l d Wa r . 　As ec onomi c gr owt h ha d l os t i t s s hi ne i n t he 1970s , a nd ha d onl y pr omi s ed a l ow di v i dend, howev er , t he upper c l a s s es wer e expos ed t o a t hr ea t t o t he s our c e of t hei r power , a nd bega n t o f eel t he need f or c ol l ec t i v e a c t i on t o a v oi d t hei r ec onomi c a nd pol i t i c a l degener a t i on.

Si nc e i t wa s demons t r a t ed by a neol i ber a l exper i ment i n Chi l e i n t he 1970s , whi c h

wa s i ni t i a t ed by US i nt er v ent i on, t ha t neol i ber a l i s m br ought a huge pr of i t t o t he wea l t hy

cl as s es , t he r ul i ng cl as s es devot ed t hems el ves t o di s s emi nat i ng neol i ber al i s m i n t hei r

c ount r i es ’ pol i t i c s ( Ha r v ey , 2005) . 　Tha t c her i s m a nd Rea ga nomi c s i n t he 1980s wer e t he

t ypi c a l exa mpl es of neol i ber a l pol i c i es by gov er nment i ni t i a t i v e ( Ba uma n, 2000; Ha r v ey ,

2005) . 　As a c ons equenc e, t he unev en di s t r i but i on of wea l t h a nd power ha s c ha r a c t er i z ed

many advanced capi t al s oci et i es s i nce t hen. 　As Har vey ( 2005) s ays , t her ef or e, “ We

c a n. . . i nt er pr et neol i ber a l i z a t i on a s a pol i t i c a l pr oj ec t t o r e- es t a bl i s h t he c ondi t i ons f or c a pi -

t a l a c c umul a t i on a nd t o r es t or e t he power of ec onomi c el i t es ” ( p. 19) .

The i mpa c t of neol i ber a l i s m a s a pol i t i c a l pr oj ec t der i v es ma i nl y f r om i t s di s c ur s i v e ef f ec t . 　Ac c or di ng t o Bour di eu ( 1991) , wha t pol i t i c s t r i es t o pr oduc e i s pa r t i c ul a r f or ms of r epr es ent a t i on of s oc i et y. 　I f a pol i t i c a l a c t i on s uc c eeds i n mol di ng di f f er ent f or ms of r ep- r es ent a t i on of t he wor l d bet ween s oc i a l a gent s t o a pol i t i c a l l y- gui ded pa r t i c ul a r r epr es en- t a t i on, t hi s l ea ds t o bui l di ng s oc i et y i n f a v or of pa r t i c ul a r gr oups . 　Neol i ber a l i s m i s a t ype of r epr es ent a t i on of s oc i et y , t hr ough whi c h t he r ul i ng c l a s s es t r i ed t o br ea k a wa y f r om Keynes i a ni s m a nd t o dr a w a pi c t ur e of t he wor l d i n t hei r f a v our by a c t i ng on t he wor ki ng cl as s es ’ r epr es ent at i on of t he wor l d. 　As a r es ul t , neol i ber al i s m may caus e “ cogni t i ve l oc ki ng” ( Ha r v ey, 2005, p. 114) bet ween s oc i a l a gent s , whi c h ma kes i t di f f i c ul t f or t hem t o c ons i der a l t er na t i v es t o t he neol i ber a l out l ook on s oc i et y .

Neol i ber al i sm i n J apan

I n c ont r a s t t o t he UK a nd US, whi c h ha d enf or c ed neol i ber a l pol i c i es i n t he 1980s , J apan was l aggi ng behi nd ot her capi t al i s t s oci et i es i n i t s r es pons e t o neol i ber al i s m, bec a us e i n t he 1980s , J a pa n r ej oi c ed i n a n unpr ec edent ed ec onomi c dev el opment i n i t s hi s t or y . 　As s hown i n t he f a c t t ha t Vogel ( 1979) publ i s hed J apan as Numb e r One a t t he end of t he 1970s , J a pa n’ s ec onomi c power ha d bec ome t oo s t r ong t o be i gnor ed by t he 1970s . 　Thi s ec onomi c dev el opment di d not s how s i gns of dec l i ne t hr oughout t he 1980s , and r eached i t s peak i n t he Pl az a Accor d i n 1985. 　The f ear t hat by t hi s accor d t he s t r engt hened yen woul d c a us e a r ec es s i on i n J a pa n ga v e a n i nc ent i v e f or t he c ont i nuous enf or c ement of l ow- i nt er es t pol i c i es whi c h r es ul t ed i n t he J a pa nes e a s s et pr i c e bubbl e i n t he l a t e 1980s .

As dar k s i gns began t o be r ecogni z ed i n J apan’ s economi c pr os per i t y ear l y 1990s , howev er , t he c ount r y wa s dr i v en by nec es s i t y t o dr a w up ef f ec t i v e pol i c i es f or ec onomi c r ec ov er y . 　Pol i t i c a l a mbi t i on ha d t o do wi t h t he c hoi c e of t he wa y f or ec onomi c r ef or m. 　

I t wa s i ns i s t ed l oudl y i n t he f i el d of pol i t i c s t hr oughout t he 1970s a nd 1980s t ha t J a pa n

s houl d ma ke i nt er na t i ona l c ont r i but i ons i n a c c or da nc e wi t h i t s ec onomi c pos i t i on i n t he

wor l d ( Wat anabe, 2001) . 　Mor eover , t he exper i ment i n pos t war r ehabi l i t at i on l ed t o

J a pa n gi v i ng pr i or i t y t o c ement i ng i t s a l l i a nc e wi t h t he US. 　Keepi ng s t ep wi t h t he ec o-

nomi c pol i c i es t ha t t he US ha d empl oyed met t hi s pur pos e. 　Gi v en t he ec onomi c need

a nd pol i t i c a l a mbi t i on, J a pa n s et a bout neol i ber a l i s m i n t he 1990s . 　Ri c e l i ber a l i z a t i on a nd

t he ea s i ng of r es t r a i nt s i n t he di s t r i but i on bus i nes s a r e l i s t ed a s t he r es ul t s of neol i ber a l

pol i c i es of t hos e da ys ( Wa t a na be, 2001) .

Wha t i s s t r i ki ng i n neol i ber a l i s m i s t he s pher e of i t s i nf l uenc e. 　J us t a s s ub- pol i t i c s ma i nl y c ompos ed of t he ec onomi c f i el d boa s t s i t s wi des pr ea d i nf l uenc e, s o t he i nf l uenc e of neol i ber a l i s m i s not l i mi t ed t o t he f i el ds of pol i t i c s a nd ec onomy . 　Li ke ot her c ount r i - es , J a pa n ha s obs er v ed neol i ber a l i deol ogi es i n t he educ a t i ona l f i el d.

Neol i ber al i sm i n Educat i on

An ear l y s i gn of neol i ber al i s m i n t he educat i onal f i el d was s een i n The Fr ont i e r Wi t hi n: I ndi v i dual Empo we r me nt and Be t t e r Go v e r nanc e i n t he Ne w Mi l l e nni um ( Pr i me Mi ni st er ’ s Commi ssi on on J apan’ s Goal s i n t he 21

Cent ur y [ PMC] , 2000) . 　Many r es ear cher s have al r eady exami ned t hi s document cl os el y , but t hei r anal ys es f ocus ed onl y on l a ngua ge, ov er l ooki ng bot h how t he v i ews on l a ngua ge i n t hi s pol i c y ha d been f or med a nd t he i mpa c t t hi s pol i c y mi ght ha v e on ot her pol i c i es .

PMC ( 2000) wa s a pol i c y dev el oped t o ha mmer out t he c our s e of a c t i on J a pa n s houl d t a ke f or t he c omi ng c ent ur y . 　Educ a t i on wa s s een a s es s ent i a l f or f ur t her dev el opment , a nd t hi s pol i c y pr opos ed a r ef or m pl a n f or educ a t i on.

The s t a t e ha s t wo br oa dl y def i ned r ol es t o pl a y i n educ a t i on. . . . t he t wo a r e c ompul - s or y educ a t i on a nd educ a t i on a s a s er v i c e. 　Pr es ent - da y J a pa nes e educ a t i on, how- ever , has conf l at ed t he t wo. . . . compul sor y educat i on shoul d be r i gor ousl y i mpl ement ed as t he mi ni mum r equi r ed of ci t i z ens , whi l e educat i on as a s er vi ce s houl d be l ef t t o ma r ket mec ha ni s ms , wi t h t he s t a t e of f er i ng onl y i ndi r ec t s uppor t ( PMC, 2000, p. 9) .

As ment i oned ear l i er , neol i ber al i s m i s t he i deol ogy t hat s ees mar ket pr i nci pl es as t he abs ol ut e s t andar d f or many of s oci al act i vi t i es ( Har vey , 2005) . 　The s t at ement above, whi ch r epr es ent s educat i on as “ a s er vi ce” , and cl ai ms t o ent r us t educat i on t o mar ket mec ha ni s ms , i l l us t r a t es t ha t educ a t i on c oul d not be f r eed f r om ec onomi c i nf l uenc e a t t he end of t he t went i et h c ent ur y .

Wha t ki nd of c ur r i c ul um di d educ a t i on a s a s er v i c e s uppos e? 　PMC ( 2000) gi v es t he

f ol l owi ng bl uepr i nt :

t he pr i ma r y a nd l ower s ec onda r y c ur r i c ul a c oul d be c ompr es s ed, wi t h t hr ee da ys a week dev ot ed t o c a r ef ul l y s el ec t ed c ompul s or y educ a t i on; t he ot her t wo da ys woul d be gi v en ov er t o r ev i ew of c ompul s or y s ubj ec t s f or c hi l dr en who wer e ha v i ng t r oubl e keepi ng up, whi l e chi l dr en who wer e achi evi ng wel l woul d be al l owed t o choos e f r eel y a mong s c hol a r s hi p, a r t s , s por t s , a nd ot her f or ms of per s ona l c ul t i v a t i on, a nd s pec i a l i z ed v oc a t i ona l educ a t i on. 　Us i ng s t a t e- i s s ued v ouc her s , t hes e c hi l dr en c oul d s t udy ei t her a t s c hool s or a t pr i v a t el y r un i ns t i t ut i ons out s i de t he of f i c i a l s c hool s ys - t em ( p. 9) .

Fr om t hi s s t a t ement , i t a ppea r s t ha t PMC ( 2000) t r i ed t o a ppr ov e of a neol i ber a l ‘ ha v es ’ and ‘ have- not s ’ s i t uat i on ( Cohen & Kennedy , 2000) and t o encour age s uch a di s par i t y t hr ough educ a t i on. 　The i dea t ha t c hi l dr en wi t h hi gh a c a demi c per f or ma nc e r a t her t ha n c hi l dr en wi t h poor s c hol a s t i c a c hi ev ement r ec ei v e t he s uppor t by t he s t a t e unmi s t a ka bl y r ef l ec t s t he neol i ber a l i deol ogy .

The i nf l uenc e of neol i ber a l i s m i s s een i n PMC’ s v i ews on l a ngua ge a s wel l , whi c h a r e s t a t ed i n r el a t i on t o gl oba l i z a t i on a s f ol l ows :

Gl oba l i z a t i on ha s pr ogr es s ed beyond t he s t a ge of bei ng a ‘ pr oc es s . ’ 　The ma r ket s a nd medi a of t he wor l d ha v e bec ome i nc r ea s i ngl y i nt egr a t ed. . . . 　Gl oba l i z a t i on wi l l accel er at e t he pr oces s of di ver s i f i cat i on, bot h domes t i cal l y and i nt er nat i onal l y . . . . 　 Gl oba l i z a t i on ha s r a i s ed a v a r i et y of i s s ues f or J a pa n. . . ( p. 3) .

Fr om t he f ol l owi ng, f ur t her mor e, i t i s c l ea r t ha t PMC ( 2000) s ees a pa r t i c ul a r l a ngua ge a s mos t v a l ua bl e i n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on:

The advance of gl obal i z at i on and t he i nf or mat i on- t echnol ogy r evol ut i on cal l f or a wor l d- c l a s s l ev el of exc el l enc e. 　Ac hi ev i ng wor l d- c l a s s exc el l enc e dema nds t ha t . . . a l l J a pa nes e a c qui r e a wor ki ng knowl edge of Engl i s h ―not a s s i mpl y a f or ei gn l a ngua ge but as t he i nt er nat i onal l i ngua f r anca. . . . 　Thi s i s not s i mpl y a mat t er of f or ei gn- l a ngua ge educ a t i on. 　I t s houl d be r ega r ded a s a s t r a t egi c i mper a t i v e ( p. 10) .

The f i r s t exc er pt ov er e mpha s i z es gl oba l i z a t i on, a nd t he s ec ond r ef er s t o a r el a t i ons hi p

bet ween gl oba l i z a t i on a nd Engl i s h. 　Mor eov er , i t i s ea s i l y r ec ogni z a bl e t ha t PMC ( 2000)

di s c us s es gl oba l i z a t i on ma i nl y i n t er ms of t he ma r ket s , a nd r ega r ds Engl i s h a s a mea ns t o dea l wi t h gl oba l ma r ket s . 　Yet i t needs a na l ys i s t o unpa c k t he wa ys i n whi c h t hi s pol i c y’ s s t yl e embodi es neol i ber a l i deol ogi es .

Ac c or di ng t o Bour di eu a nd Wa c qua nt ( 2001) , el i t es i n t he f i el ds of pol i t i c s , ec onom- i c s , a nd c ul t ur e ha v e a l l s t a r t ed t o us e newl y c oi ned wor ds t hes e da ys . 　The ext r a v a ga nt us e of ‘ gl oba l i z a t i on’ i s s uc h a n exa mpl e. 　Whi l e el i t es r epr es ent gl oba l i z a t i on a s wha t i ns ur es f ur t her ec onomi c dev el opment or a new s t a ge of c a pi t a l i s m, a c c or di ng t o Bour - di eu and Wacquant ( 2001) , “ ‘ gl obal i z at i on’ i s . . . a ‘ r het or i c’ i nvoked by gover nment s i n or der t o j us t i f y t hei r v ol unt a r y s ur r ender t o t he f i na nc i a l ma r ket s a nd t hei r c onv er s i on t o a f i duc i a r y c onc ept i on of t he f i r m” ( p. 4) .

The exc er pt s a bov e a c qui r e c ha r a c t er i s t i c s of wha t Fa i r c l ough ( 2006) c a l l s “ ‘ gl oba l i s t ’ di s c our s e” ( p. 9) . 　Thi s di s c our s e r epr es ent s gl oba l i z a t i on a s pur el y ec onomi c by r educ - i ng mul t i - f a c et s of gl oba l i z a t i on t o t he ec onomi c . 　At t he s a me t i me, ‘ gl oba l i s t ’ di s c our s e t r i es t o bui l d up a n i dea l i ma ge t ha t c a pi t a l i s m s houl d pur s ue. 　As a r es ul t , “ gl oba l i z a t i on i s gov er ned by ‘ r ul es ’ . . . , whi c h a r e s i mpl y pr ec ept s a nd pr es c r i pt i ons of ec onomi c neo- l i ber a l i s m” ( Fa i r c l ough, 2006, p. 10) . 　Ac c or di ng t o PMC ( 2000) , one of t hes e r ul es i s “ a l l J a pa nes e a c qui r e a wor ki ng knowl edge of Engl i s h” .

Rul es wor k a s r ul es when t hey a c hi ev e uni t y bet ween peopl e. 　I n or der t o r epr es ent a ma s t er y of Engl i s h a s a r ul e f or a l l J a pa nes e, PMC ( 2000) empl oys a l i ngui s t i c dev i c e, whi c h i s s een i n t he s ec ond exc er pt . 　Thi s pol i c y r epr es ent s Engl i s h “ not a s a f or ei gn l a n- gua ge but a s t he i nt er na t i ona l l i ngua f r a nc a ” , a nd ma i nt a i ns t ha t f or a l l J a pa nes e t o ma s t er Engl i s h i s “ not s i mpl y a ma t t er of f or ei gn- l a ngua ge educ a t i on” but “ s houl d be r ega r ded a s a s t r a t egi c i mper a t i v e” . 　Thi s i s c a l l ed s ynec doc he, whi c h “ r epl a c es t he na me of a r ef er - ent by t he name of anot her r ef er ent whi ch bel ongs t o t he s ame f i el d o f meani ng and whi c h i s ei t her s ema nt i c a l l y wi der or s ema nt i c a l l y na r r ower ” ( Woda k, de Ci l l i a , Rei s i gl , &

Li ebha r t , 1999, p. 44) . 　Thi s t ext ua l pr oper t y s er v es t o c ons t r uc t uni t y bet ween t he r ec ei v -

er s of t he mes s a ge by medi a t i ng di f f er enc es . 　By pr omot i ng Engl i s h f r om ‘ a f or ei gn l a n-

guage’ t o ‘ t he i nt er nat i onal l i ngua f r anca’ and f r om ‘ a mat t er of f or ei gn- l anguage

educ a t i on’ t o ‘ a s t r a t egi c i mper a t i v e’ , na mel y , by s ubl i mi ng f r om t he opt i ona l t o t he c om-

pul s or y, PMC ( 2000) r epr es ent s Engl i s h a s a r ul e a l l J a pa nes e s houl d f ol l ow t o s ur v i v e i n

t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on.

A Revi ew of J apan’ s Language Pol i ci es dur i ng t he Fi r st Decade of t he 21st Cent ury

Thes e neol i ber al i deol ogi es i n ELT wer e handed down t o t he 21s t cent ur y . 　The Mi ni s t r y of Educ a t i on, Cul t ur e, Spor t s , Sc i enc e a nd Tec hnol ogy ( MEXT) a nnounc ed a n Ac t i o n Pl an t o Cul t i v at e “ J apane s e wi t h Eng l i s h Ab i l i t i e s ” i n 2002. 　Thi s wa s s een a s t he f i r s t s t r a t egi c pl a n i n t he hi s t or y of J a pa n’ s ELT, not wi t hs t a ndi ng i t s f a ul t s ( Ya ma da , 2003) . 　 To ma ke t hi s pl a n’ s obj ec t i v es c l ea r , t he t hen Mi ni s t er of MEXT ma de c omment s i n 2003 i n t he f or m of Re g ar di ng t he Es t ab l i s hme nt o f an Ac t i o n Pl an t o Cul t i v at e “ J apane s e wi t h Eng l i s h Ab i l i t i e s ” ( MEXT, 2003) , whi c h s howed enor mous s i mi l a r i t i es wi t h PMC ( 2000) .

Recent l y , gl obal i z at i on i n var i ous f i el ds of t he economy and s oci et y has advanced r a pi dl y . 　Tr a ns f er s of i nf or ma t i on a nd c a pi t a l a c r os s na t i ona l bor der s a s wel l a s t he mov ement of peopl e a nd pr oduc t s ha v e i nc r ea s ed. . . . i nt er na t i ona l ec onomi c c ompet i - t i on ha s i nt ens i f i ed ent er i ng a s o- c a l l ed per i od of “ mega - c ompet i t i on” . . . . 　I n s uc h a s i t ua t i on, Engl i s h ha s pl a yed a c ent r a l r ol e a s t he c ommon i nt er na t i ona l l a ngua ge i n l i nki ng 　peopl e who ha v e di f f er ent mot her t ongues . 　For c hi l dr en l i v i ng i n t he 21s t cent ur y , i t i s es s ent i al f or t hem t o acqui r e communi cat i on abi l i t i es i n Engl i s h as a c ommon i nt er na t i ona l l a ngua ge ( MEXT, 2003) .

As s een a bov e, MEXT ( 2003) ov er empha s i z es gl oba l i z a t i on, a nd r epr es ent s i t r educ t i v el y a s ec onomi c . 　I n a ddi t i on, t hi s pol i c y r epr es ent s Engl i s h a s a mea ns t o c ope wi t h gl oba l mar ket s , and cal l s i t “ t he common i nt er nat i onal l anguage” . 　Thi s s hows t hat MEXT ( 2003) t ook ov er neol i ber a l i deol ogi es f r om PMC ( 2000) .

What needs t o be poi nt ed out r egar di ng MEXT ( 2002) i s t hat t hi s pol i cy s har es a

number of i dea s wi t h a pl a n pr opos ed by t he J a pa n Feder a t i on of Ec onomi c Or ga ni z a t i ons

( J FEO) . 　J FEO was a compr ehens i ve economi c or gani z at i on compos ed of compani es

l i s t ed on t he Fi r s t Sec t i on of t he Tokyo St oc k Exc ha nge, a nd ha d c ons i der a bl e i nf l uenc e

on s t a t e a f f a i r s t hr ough a mpl e f i na nc i a l r es our c es ( Er i ka wa , 2009) . 　J FEO f el t a nec es s i t y

f or devel opi ng human r es our ces t o cope wi t h gl obal i z at i on, and s aw educat i on as t he

gr ound f or i t . 　Thi s or gani z at i on t hen pr opos ed a pl an i n 2000, i n whi ch i t cl ai med t o

i nt r oduc e c ompet i t i v e pr i nc i pl es t o educ a t i on ( J FEO, 2000) . 　Li ke PMC ( 2000) , t hi s pl a n

s aw Engl i s h as es s ent i al f or gl obal i z at i on, and di s cus s ed t he r ef or m of J apan’ s ELT. 　

Wha t i s s t r i ki ng r ega r di ng J FEO ( 2000) i s t ha t , a s Er i ka wa ( 2009) s a ys , t her e a r e s t a r t l i ng s i mi l ar i t i es bet ween t hi s pl an and MEXT ( 2002) . 　The economi c and t he educat i onal f i el ds r ea c hed a gr eement on t he ma t t er s of ELT i n t ha t bot h f i el ds woul d enc our a ge dev el - opi ng c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h, i nt r oduc i ng Engl i s h i nt o t he el ement a r y- s c hool cur r i cul um, us i ng s t andar di z ed t es t s wi del y t o as s es s Engl i s h abi l i t i es , and empl oyi ng Engl i s h pr of i c i enc y a s a r equi r ement f or hi r i ng a nd pr omot i on. 　Er i ka wa ( 2009) t hus c on- c l udes t ha t a pl a n pr opos ed by t he ec onomi c f i el d a t t he end of t he 20t h c ent ur y ga v e t he ba s i c t enet s of ELT t o l a ngua ge pol i c i es i n t he 21s t c ent ur y .

Pol i c i es i n t he s ec ond ha l f of t he f i r s t dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y i l l us t r a t e Er i ka wa ’ s ( 2009) i dea . 　For exa mpl e, t he Meet i ng on Educ a t i ona l Rebui l di ng ( 2008a , 2008b, 2008c ) ga v e t he f ol l owi ng c onc er ni ng ELT.

I n or der t o c ope wi t h gl oba l i z a t i on, t ea c hi ng Engl i s h a s a n i nt er na t i ona l l a ngua ge ha s been advanced r api dl y i n As i an count r i es . . . and Eur opean count r i es . . . . 　J apan al s o needs t o i mme di a t el y gr a ppl e wi t h t he r ef or m of Engl i s h educ a t i on s uc h a s t he i mpl e- ment at i on of Engl i s h educat i on at el ement ar y s chool ( Meet i ng on Educat i onal Rebui l di ng, 2008a , p. 2 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor s f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

As s hown above, t he meet i ng di s cus s es ELT i n t er ms of gl obal i z at i on. 　The meet i ng t hen r ef er s t o t he us e of s t a nda r di z ed t es t s bet ween pr i ma r y a nd t er t i a r y l ev el s .

i n or der t o be t r ul y i nt er nat i onal i z ed, . . . t he Engl i s h- l anguage educat i on i n J apan s houl d be s t r engt hened by cl ear l y s et t i ng a t ar get f or achi evement i n each of t he s t eps bet ween el ement ar y s chool and uni ver s i t y wi t h t he us e of TOEI C [ Tes t of Engl i s h f or I nt er nat i onal Communi cat i on] , TOEFL [ Tes t of Engl i s h as a For ei gn Language] , t he EI KEN Tes t i n Pr act i cal Engl i s h Pr of i ci ency [ an Engl i s h- l anguage t es t admi ni s t er ed by a J apanes e non- pr of i t or gani z at i on] , et c ( Meet i ng on Educa - t i ona l Rebui l di ng, 2008b, p. 15) .

Fur t her mor e, t he meet i ng a r gues t he need f or c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h.

Cl os el y wa t c hi ng how Engl i s h educ a t i on i s a c t ua l l y c a r r i ed out i n t he f ut ur e, r ev i ew

s houl d be ma de on t he c ont ent s a nd met hods of Engl i s h educ a t i on. . . f r om t he v i ew- poi nt of ha v i ng s t udent s a c qui r e a c er t a i n f l uenc y i n da i l y Engl i s h c onv er s a t i on by t he t i me t hey gr aduat e f r om upper s econdar y s chool s ( Meet i ng on Educat i onal Rebui l di ng, 2008c , p. 16) .

As t hes e exc er pt s s how, t he meet i ng ma kes a r ef er enc e t o gl oba l i z a t i on, t he i mpl ement a - t i on of Engl i s h educ a t i on a t el ement a r y s c hool , t he wi de us e of s t a nda r di z ed t es t s , a nd t he devel opment of communi cat i on abi l i t i es i n Engl i s h. 　Thi s demons t r at es t hat t he Meet i ng on Educ a t i ona l Rebui l di ng ( 2008a , 2008b, 2008c ) t ook t he s a me l i ne a s MEXT ( 2002) .

I n 2009, f ur t her mor e, MEXT a nnounc ed a c ompr ehens i v e pl a n f or t he r ef or m of ELT f or t he pur pos e of ef f ec t i v e i mpl ement a t i on of ELT a t el ement a r y s c hool . 　The gi s t of t hi s pl a n i s s umma r i z ed a s f ol l ows .

I n t he mi ds t of gl oba l i z a t i on i n t he f i el ds of ec onomy a nd s oc i et y , i n or der f or c hi l - dr en t o s ur v i v e i n t he 21s t c ent ur y , t hey need t o a c qui r e c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h a s t he i nt er na t i ona l l i ngua f r a nc a . 　Thi s i s a c r i t i c a l i s s ue f or t he f ut ur e of chi l dr en as wel l as f or t he f ur t her devel opment of our count r y ( MEXT, 2009, [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor s f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

An educat i onal pl an announced ar ound t he end of t he f i r s t decade of t he 21s t cent ur y s hows a c l os e c or r el a t i on wi t h a pl a n pr opos ed by t he ec onomi c f i el d a r ound t en yea r s a go. 　Di f f er ent a s t hes e pol i c i es mi ght l ook a t f i r s t s i ght i n t er ms of os t ens i bl e f oc i , t hey a r e t he s a me i n t ha t ec onomi c i deol ogi es ha v e under pi nned t hem f or a dec a de.

The Rel at i onshi p bet ween t he Economi c Fi el d and ELT

Why di d t he ec onomi c f i el d ha v e s uc h a n i nf l uenc e on ELT? 　Er i ka wa ( 2009) a r gues

t hat t hi s r esul t ed f r om t he economi c f i el d’ s at t empt s t o nur t ur e pr omi si ng human

r es our c es f or c ompa ni es . 　J FEO ( 2004) ma i nt a i ned t ha t equa l educ a t i ona l oppor t uni t i es

br ought a bout t he homogeni z a t i on of educ a t i ona l c ont ent t ha t di s r ega r ded a n i ndi v i dua l

s t udent ’ s abi l i t y , and pr opos ed t he cr eat i on of a compet i t i ve l ear ni ng envi r onment . 　

J FEO t hen di r ec t ed i t s c r i t i c i s m a t ELT. 　For t he member c ompa ni es of J FEO, ma ny of

whos e s t oc ks wer e hel d by f or ei gn c a pi t a l , i t wa s ur gent t o c ul t i v a t e i ndi v i dua l s wi t h c om- muni cat i on abi l i t i es i n Engl i s h ( Er i kawa, 2009) . 　Fr om t he vi ewpoi nt of t he economi c f i el d, howev er , ELT ha d not c ont r i but ed t o meet i ng s uc h a need. 　Thr ough pl ent y of c on- t act s i n pol i t i cs and a power f ul s our ce of f unds , t her ef or e, J FEO s ent i t s di r ect or s t o gov er nment - r el a t ed educ a t i ona l c ounc i l s f or t he pur pos e of f ul f i l l i ng i t s r eques t ( Er i ka wa , 2009) . 　As a c ons equenc e, t he pol i c i es a nnounc ed by MEXT dur i ng t he f i r s t dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y bor e ma ny r es embl a nc es t o t he pr opos a l s a dv a nc ed by J FEO.

Gi v en t hi s ba c kgr ound, i t i s under s t a nda bl e t ha t gl oba l i z a t i on wa s r epr es ent ed r educ - t i v el y a s ec onomi c , a nd t ha t t he pol i c i es a nnounc ed dur i ng t he l a s t dec a de a dher ed t o t he dev el opment of c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h. 　Mor eov er , t he unc r i t i c a l us e of s t a n- da r di z ed t es t s i n t he educ a t i ona l f i el d ma y ha v e t o do wi t h t he hi s t or i c a l f a c t t ha t TOEI C wa s dev el oped by t he Educ a t i ona l Tes t i ng Ser v i c e t o meet t he r eques t by t he ec onomi c f i el d a nd t he Mi ni s t r y of I nt er na t i ona l Tr a de a nd I ndus t r y i n J a pa n, whi c h f el t t he need f or a new t ype of t es t t o a s s es s Engl i s h a bi l i t i es nec es s a r y f or bus i nes s s et t i ngs ( Mc Cr os t i e, 2009) . 　Er i kawa ( 2009) gi ves i t as f ur t her evi dence t o back up t he cl os e r el at i ons hi p bet ween t he ec onomi c f i el d a nd ELT t ha t i n a f or um t o di s c us s a n Ac t i o n Pl an t o Cul t i v at e

“ J apane s e wi t h Eng l i s h Ab i l i t i e s ” ( MEXT, 2002) , a s ubc ommi t t ee meet i ng wa s hel d t o c on- s i der wha t ki nds of Engl i s h a bi l i t i es c ompa ni es r eques t . 　As Er i ka wa s ugges t s , MEXT ma y pl a y a r ol e a s a s ubc ont r a c t or of t he ec onomi c f i el d.

Locat i ng t he Economi c Turn i n J apan’ s ELT i n a Br oader Soci al Cont ext

Whi l e t he di s cus s i on above s eems t o have demons t r at ed t he economi c t ur n i n J a pa n’ s ELT, t hi s phenomenon c a n bes t be under s t ood by l oc a t i ng i t i n a br oa der s oc i a l c ont ext , bec a us e t hi s l ea ds not onl y t o under s t a ndi ng t he whol e pi c t ur e of J a pa n’ s ELT, but a l s o t o gi v i ng a n i ns i ght i nt o t he whol e of t he educ a t i ona l f i el d. 　J us t a s s t a t e pol i c i es a ddr es s gl oba l i z a t i on, s o i t i s a na t ur e of t he s t a t e t ha t ha s t o do wi t h t he ma t t er s of ELT i n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on. 　Bour di eu def i nes t he s t a t e a s f ol l ows .

t he ens embl e of f i el ds t ha t a r e t he s i t e of s t r uggl es i n whi c h wha t i s a t s t a ke i s . . . t he

monopol y of l egi t i ma t e s ymbol i c v i ol enc e, i . e. , t he power t o c ons t i t ut e a nd t o i mpos e

a s uni v er s a l a nd uni v er s a l l y a ppl i c a bl e. . . wi t hi n t he bounda r i es of gi v en t er r i t or y , a

c ommon s et of c oer c i v e nor ms ( Bour di eu & Wa c qua nt , 1992, p. 112) .

Accor di ng t o Bour di eu, what exi s t s i n s oci et y i s obj ect i ve r el at i ons bet ween pos i t i ons whi c h a r e i ndependent of s oc i a l a c t or s ’ wi l l s . 　Ther e i s a c er t a i n t ype of ‘ c a pi t a l ’ i n a ‘ f i el d’

whos e v a l ue i s s ha r ed t a c i t l y by t he a gent s i n t he f i el d ( e. g. f i na nc i a l r es our c e i n t he ec o- nomi c f i el d, a c a demi c ba c kgr ound i n t he educ a t i ona l f i el d, a nd i ns pi r a t i on i n t he a r t i s t i c f i el d) . 　The pos i t i ons t ha t a r e oc c upi ed by di f f er ent a gent s who ha v e di f f er ent a mount s of c a pi t a l s et up a hi er a r c hi c a l net wor k, whi c h wor ks a s a ki nd of ma gnet t o f or m a gi v en f i el d. 　Al t hough a s oc i et y i s ma de up of di f f er ent f i el ds , ea c h of whi c h ha s i t s own a ut ono- mous s ys t em of r ul es , t hey i nt er l oc k i n pa r t , a nd f or m ‘ a ki nd of “ met a - f i el d” ’ ( Bour di eu

& Wa c qua nt , 1992, p. 18) . 　Bour di eu c a l l s i t ‘ t he f i el d of power ’ ( Bour di eu & Wa c qua nt , 1992, p. 18) , a nd def i nes i t a s a pl a c e of s t r uggl e i n whi c h t he r ul i ng c l a s s es t r y t o c ha nge t he exc ha nge r a t e a mong di f f er ent f or ms of c a pi t a l t o enha nc e t he v a l ue of t hei r own c a pi - t a l by di mi ni s hi ng t he c a pi t a l v a l ue of t hei r r i v a l s . 　The r ul i ng c l a s s whi c h won t he s t r ug- gl e i n a gi ven f i el d can monopol i z e s ymbol i c capi t al , t hr ough whi ch i t s t r engt hens t he val ue of i t s capi t al f ur t her , and by ext ens i on, i t s cont r ol over ot her f i el ds . 　I n ot her wor ds , a s t a t e i s dr i v en by t he r ul i ng c l a s s i n t he mos t domi na nt f i el d t hr ough i t s s ym- bol i c c a pi t a l .

Whi c h f i el d i s t he mos t domi na nt f i el d? Whi l e Bour di eu s a ys t ha t t he ec onomi c f i el d does not nec es s a r i l y ha v e t he f i na l s a y on ev er yt hi ng, a t t he s a me t i me he a dmi t s t ha t i t exer t s l ev er a ge ov er ma ny a r ea s of a dv a nc ed c a pi t a l s oc i et y ( Bour di eu & Wa qua nt , 1992) . Among ot her t hi ngs , a c c or di ng t o Bour di eu ( 1998) , t he f i na nc i a l ma r ket t ha t c ha mpi ons neol i ber a l i s m exer c i s es i t s i nf l uenc e a l l ov er t he wor l d t o t he poi nt wher e i t ma kes na t i on- s t a t es yi el d t hei r s ov er ei gnt y . 　Ac c or di ngl y , i t i s pr oba bl e t ha t a s t a t e a nd i t s c ons t i t uent f i el ds a r e r un by t he ec onomi c f i el d. 　As a r es ul t , a s s een i n J a pa n’ s ELT, t he educ a t i ona l f i el d ha s been una bl e t o ma i nt a i n i t s a ut onomy a ga i ns t t he ec onomi c f i el d i n r ec ent yea r s .

What I s at St ake by t he Economi c Turn?

Pol a nyi ( 1957) a r gues t ha t t he ma r ket ec onomy , whi c h dev el oped t hr ough t he 19t h

c ent ur y a nd c a me t o a n end ea r l y i n t he 20t h c ent ur y, wa s a uni que s ys t em i n t ha t unl i ke

ol d ec onomi c s ys t ems , i t wa s i ndependent of s oc i et y , a nd wa s s een t o ha v e a s el f - r egul a t -

i ng a bi l i t y . 　He c a l l ed t he ma r ket ec onomy ‘ s a t a ni c mi l l ’ ( Pol a nyi , 1957, p. 33) , by whi c h

t r adi t i onal val ues , t i es bet ween i ndi vi dual s , and ways t o i nt egr at e human bei ngs and nat ur e wer e al l gr ound i nt o pi eces . 　Whi l e t he r ecent economi c t r end as s umed t he r ev i v a l of t he ma r ket ec onomy , wha t wa s gr ound by t he new ‘ s a t a ni c mi l l ’ ?

When we f ocus on t he mat t er s of l anguage, what i s at s t ake s eems t o be i nt r i ns i c mot i v a t i on f or l ea r ni ng t he t a r get l a ngua ge. 　Ac c or di ng t o Bour di eu ( 1979) , onc e t he ec o- nomi c f a br i c of a c ount r y dev el ops , i t t ur ns i nt o a n a ut onomous l y wor ki ng s ys t em, whi c h r equi r es i ndi v i dua l s t o a c qui r e a pr edi s pos i t i on t o ec onomi c ef f i c i enc y . 　Bour di eu c a l l s t hi s pr edi s pos i t i on ‘ ha bi t us ’ , whi c h i s i nt er na l i z ed i n s oc i a l a gent s a s a s ys t em t o pr oduc e c er t a i n t ypes of s c hema t a whi c h gui de t he a gent s ’ beha v i or s f or t hei r i nt er es t i n t he f i el d i n whi c h t hey l i v e ( Boudi eu & Wa c qua nt , 1992) . 　I f l ea r ner s a c qui r e a neol i ber a l ha bi t us , i t ma y l ea d t hem t o beha v i or s whi c h go a ga i ns t t he pr i nc i pl es of l a ngua ge l ea r ni ng.

As not ed a bov e, neol i ber a l i deol ogi es hel d s wa y ov er ev er y f i el d i n J a pa n’ s s oc i et y dur i ng t he f i r s t dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y . 　I n t hi s neol i ber a l c l i ma t e, Engl i s h wa s s een a s a mea ns t o c ope wi t h gl oba l i z a t i on r e pr es ent ed r educ t i v el y a s ec onomi c , a nd Engl i s h pr of i c i enc y wa s mea s ur ed l a r gel y, i f not t ot a l l y, i n t er ms of a v a i l a bi l i t y f or bus i nes s . 　The l ea r ni ng of l a ngua ge bec omes mos t s uc c es s f ul when l ea r ner s a r e i nt r i ns i c a l l y mot i v a t ed t o l ea r n t he t a r get l a ngua ge ( Br own, 2001) . 　Gi v en t he c ont ext s a bov e, howev er , i t i s not s ur pr i s i ng t ha t l ea r ner s a r e enga ged wi t h t he l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h t hr ough i ns t r ument a l mot i v a t i on onl y f or t he s i de benef i t s t he l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h ma y br i ng, bec a us e “ Peopl e ar e ‘ pr e- occupi ed’ by cer t ai n f ut ur e out comes i ns cr i bed i n t he pr es ent t hey encount er onl y t o t he ext ent t ha t t hei r ha bi t us s ens i t i z es a nd mobi l i z es t hem t o per c ei v e a nd pur s ue t hem” ( Bour di eu & Wa c qua nt , 1992, p. 26) .

Educat i onal I mpl i cat i ons

Thi s a r t i c l e ha s f oc us ed on a s t r uc t ur a l a s pec t of educ a t i on, but t hi s does not mea n

t ha t i ndi v i dua l s ’ a genc y i s hel pl es s a ga i ns t t he s t r uc t ur e. 　By c ha ngi ng t he exc ha nge r a t e

a mong di f f er ent f or ms of c a pi t a l , i t i s pos s i bl e f or i ndi v i dua l s t o enha nc e t he v a l ue of t hei r

own c a pi t a l a nd t o c ha nge t hei r f i el d ( Bour di eu & Wa c qua nt , 1992) . 　I ndi v i dua l s c a n f ur -

t her wor k on s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e by expa ndi ng t hei r s oc i a l net wor k ( Gi ddens , 1984) . 　How-

ev er , a s Bour di eu s a ys , s i nc e s oc i a l i z a t i on, t hr ough whi c h s oc i a l a gent s a c qui r e a s ens e of

v a l ues i n a gi v en s oc i et y by bei ng expos ed t o i t s s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e, i s i nev i t a bl e f or ma ny

i ndi v i dua l s , s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e ha s a det er mi ni s t i c c ha r a c t er t owa r ds i ndi v i dua l s ( Ka t o, 2002) .

I n or der t o dec ons t r uc t t he s t r uc t ur e of educ a t i on, i t i s by no mea ns us el es s t o keep i n mi nd t ha t educ a t i on c oul d be a s ymbol i c v i ol enc e by i mpos i ng c ul t ur a l a r bi t r a r i nes s t hr ough power ( Bour di eu & Pa s s er on, 1990) . 　Wha t t hi s dr a s t i c i dea t r i es t o s a y i s t ha t educ a t i on ha s a pot ent i a l f or r epr oduc i ng r ul i ng c l a s s es ’ i deol ogi es by wor ki ng upon l ea r n- er s ’ per c ept ua l a nd ev a l ua t i v e s c hema t a . 　When educ a t i on s uc c eeds i n bui l di ng a br i dge bet ween s oci al s t r uct ur e and l ear ner s ’ s chemat a, par t i cul ar i deol ogi es ar e r epr oduced over t he gener at i ons . 　The r ul i ng economi c cl as s i s abl e t o have acces s t o educat i on owi ng t o i t s c a pi t a l s t r engt h a nd pol i t i c a l power , a nd t her ef or e, i t t r i es t o br i ng ha r mony t o t he r el at i ons hi p bet ween economi c envi r onment and l ear ner s ’ ps ychol ogy t hr ough educ a t i on.

J a pa n’ s ELT mi ght exper i enc e t hi s s ymbol i c v i ol enc e i n t he 21s t c ent ur y . 　Engl i s h pr of i c i enc y i s a s s es s ed i n t er ms of a v a i l a bi l i t y f or bus i nes s , a nd t hi s ma y ha v e a n ef f ec t on t he wa y of l ea r ni ng Engl i s h. 　Ac c or di ng t o Ba uma n ( 2001) , a new wa y of l ea r ni ng ha s r ec ent l y r a i s ed i t s v a l ue i n t er ms of a da pt a bi l i t y t o pos t - moder n wor l ds . 　Fol l owi ng Ba t e- s on ( 1972) , Ba uma n expl a i ns t ha t t her e a r e t wo t ypes of l ea r ni ng. 　One i s pr ot o- l ea r ni ng, or f i r s t degr ee l ea r ni ng, whi c h r ef er s t o t he c ont ent s of wha t l ea r ner s t r y t o l ea r n. 　The ot her i s deut er o- l ear ni ng, whi ch has t o do wi t h t he s t yl e of l ear ni ng. 　I n ot her wor ds , deut er o- l ea r ni ng mea ns ‘ l ea r ni ng how t o l ea r n’ ( Ba uma n, 2001, p. 124) , a nd wi t hout t hi s s ec ond degr ee l ea r ni ng, pr ot o- l ea r ni ng onl y l ea ds t o r ot e memor i z a t i on l a c ki ng t he c a pa c - i t y t o a da pt t o c ha ngi ng c ont ext s a nd t o l ook a hea d i nt o a wa y t owa r ds t he a c hi ev ement of a goa l . 　Thes e t wo t ypes of l ea r ni ng a r e c ons i der ed t o be a c ons equenc e of huma n ev o- l ut i on ( Ba t es on, 1972) . 　By c ont r a s t , wha t Ba uma n ( 2001) c a l l s ‘ t er t i a r y l ea r ni ng’ , whi c h ha s been s een a s v a l ua bl e i n r ec ent yea r s , ma y ha v e ‘ pa t hogeni c c ons equenc es ’ ( Ba uma n, 2001, p. 124) . 　I n t he mi ds t of f l ui d s oc i a l c i r c u ms t a nc e i n pos t - moder n wor l ds , t he t r ue v a l ue of t hi s t hi r d degr ee l ea r ni ng l i es a t ‘ l ea r ni ng how t o br ea k t he r egul a r i t y, how t o get f r ee f r om ha bi t s a nd pr ev ent ha bi t ua l i z a t i on, how t o r ea r r a nge f r a gment a r y exper i enc es i nt o her et of or e unf a mi l i a r pa t t er ns whi l e t r ea t i ng a l l pa t t er ns a s a c c ept a bl e s ol el y “ unt i l f ur t her not i c e” ’ ( Ba uma n, 2001, p. 125) . 　To put i t di f f er ent l y , t er t i a r y l ea r ni ng r ef er s t o r e- or ga ni z i ng f r a gment ed knowl edge a nd exper i enc e f l exi bl y f or t empor a l pr of i t , di s c a r d- i ng c ons i s t enc y , r egul a r i t y , a nd s ys t ema t i c i t y .

Wha t we obs er v ed i n J a pa n’ s ELT i n t he f i r s t dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y ma y be t he

a ppl i c a t i on of t er t i a r y l ea r ni ng t o t he l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h. 　Pr omot i ng t he dev el opment of

c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h a nd t he us e of s t a nda r di z ed t es t s a t s c hool ma y gui de

l ea r ner s t o t empor a l pr of i t a t t he expens e of t he s ys t ema t i c i t y of l ea r ni ng. 　Li ke a ny t ype of l ea r ni ng, l a ngua ge l ea r ni ng mus t ha v e a c er t a i n s ys t ema t i c i t y t hr ough whi c h l ea r ner s c a n a c qui r e t he r equi r ed c ons t i t uent s i n or ga ni c wa ys . 　I f f oc us i ng on t he a c qui s i t i on of c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es a nd a c hi ev ement of hi gh s c or es on s t a nda r di z ed t es t s pr omi s es no s ma l l pr of i t i n t er ms of l ea r ner s ’ c a r eer s , howev er , i t i s not s ur pr i s i ng t ha t l ea r ner s t r y t o gai n t empor al pr of i t by s acr i f i ci ng t he cons i s t ency , r egul ar i t y , and s ys t emat i ci t y of l ea r ni ng. 　Gi v en t ha t l ea r ner s ma y s ens e c er t a i n f ut ur e pr of i t i ns c r i bed i n t he pr es ent ( Bour di eu & Wa c qua nt , 1992) , t er t i a r y l ea r ni ng i n ELT wi l l l ea d t o di s t or t i ng t he l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h, a nd by ext ens i on, how educ a t i on s houl d be.

Concl usi on

Pr omot i ng communi cat i on abi l i t i es i n Engl i s h, i nt r oduct i on of Engl i s h i nt o t he el ement a r y- s c hool c ur r i c ul um, a nd t he us e of s t a nda r di z ed t es t s c oul d be ef f ec t i v e f or t he l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h. 　Howev er , t hes e wor k onl y a f t er c ons i der i ng wha t c ons t i t ut es c om- muni c a t i on a bi l i t i es , wha t s houl d be t a ught a t pr i ma r y educ a t i on i n l i ght of t he c ont i nui t y bet ween el ement a r y a nd j uni or hi gh s c hool s , a nd wha t s t a nda r di z ed t es t s t r y t o a s s es s . 　 Wi t hout r ega r d t o t hes e i s s ues , no l a ngua ge pol i c i es wi l l be us ef ul f or l ea r ni ng Engl i s h. 　

For t he t ea c hi ng a nd l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h i n t he s ec ond dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y, t her e- f or e, J a pa n’ s ELT s houl d f r ee i t s el f f r om ec onomi c pr i nc i pl es , a nd c ons i der t he wa ys i n whi c h l ea r ner s c a n be i nt r i ns i c a l l y mot i v a t ed t o l ea r n Engl i s h.

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