A n I n t e r l a n g u a g e A n a l y s i s o n t h e E n g l i s h / r / a n d 1 1 1 *

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An Interlanguage Analysis on the English /r/ and 111*

Rieko Matsuoka

Abstract

The English /r/ and /1/, the most difficult phonemes to be acquired by Japanese adult learners in an acquisition-poor environment, have been

studied through both contrastive analysis (CA) and error analysis (EA) as well as phonetically; however, a whole process of their interlanguage has never been investigated. In this study, an attempt is made to explore it , by means of interlanguage analysis proposed by Mizuno(1986),

who incorporated the strong points and compensated for the weak points of CA and EA. In this paper, the findings from the preliminary survey will be analyzed and discussed in order to delineate the whole process of learning and acquiring English Ir/ and /1/ and to clarify the interfering factors.

Introduction

In this paper, I would like to clarify an outline of the developmental process of learning and acquiring English /r/ and /1/ in terms of both production or articulation and perception, based on the preliminary survey.

The English /r/ and /1/ are the most difficult phonemes for us Japanese adult learners to acquire. Personally, I have been learning English for over thirty years since I was twelve years old.

Even so I do not think that I have acquired these two annoying but beautiful phonemes especially on a perceptive level, no mat-

ter how much effort I may make and no matter how much I like

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English. This painful and cruel fact has made me interested in this study and now I am seriously eager to find out the factors persistently interfering with these phonemes. The Joseph Conrad phenomenon, quoted by Scovel (1977) as evidence to prove that the learner who starts to learn a second language after puberty cannot acquire its phonological system and use the second language with a foreign accent, could be verified.

Contrastive analysis theory, rooted in structurism and behav- iorism explains that this difficulty arises from the different phonotactics. Regarding Irl and /1/, one liquid phoneme in Japa-

nese must diverge into two liquid phonemes in English. This is called 'divergent negative transfer' by CA. In addition, the Japa-

nese phonotactical system is lacking in consonant clusters that the English phonotactical system has. This fact may add this difficulty as a negative transfer also.

At the advent of nativism by N. Chomsky, the learner's errors began to be recognized as an important reflection of the latent language system. Error analysis theory seemed to take the place of CA and the Japanese learners' Irl and /1/ were examined or illustrated as an example by several researchers ( Dickerson and Dickerson, 1977. Tarone, 1978. Beebe, 1980) . However, this approach has not covered the whole process of interlanguage since only the static data were investigated. Additionally, the failure in finding the latent errors caused by the avoidance by learners , pointed out by Schachter (1974), is another shortcoming.

The interlanguage analysis approach, proposed by Mizuno (1986), incorporated strong points and compensated for weak points of CA and EA. The theoretical background is interactionism which indicates that nature and nurture are both important , in- teracting with each other. More specifically, language acquisition takes place as a result of the interaction of input factors and an innate mechanism. The new language item is to be subsumed in the learners' schema or schemata by relating it to the existing knowledge. Accordingly, both the interlingual factors, namely

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An Interlangauge Analysis on the English /r/ and /U 45

interference from the first language and the intralingual or developmental factors are taken into consideration in a comprehensive way in an interlanguage analysis approach.

Some of the previous studies related to the English /rl and 11/

by the Japanese learners are listed blow. All of them are wonder- ful and intriguing, including meticulous and interesting analy- ses; however, none of them clarify the whole developmental pro-

cess.

Table 1

Previous Studies a) PRODUCTION:

Dickerson, L. & W. Dickerson. (1977)

`I nterlanguage phonology: current research and future directions.'

Beebe, L. (1980)

`Myths about interlanguage phonology .' Tarone, E. (1978)

`The phonology of interlanguage .' Riney, T. & J. Flege (1998)

`Changes over time in global foreign accent and liquid identifiability and accuracy.'

b) PERCEPTION:

Henly, E. & A. Sheldon. (1986)

'Duration and context effects on the perception and En- glish Ir/ and /1/: a comparison of Cantonese and Japa-

nese speakers.'

Lively, S., Logan,S & D.Pisoni. (1993)

`Training Japanese listeners to identify English Irl and X .' MacKain, K., Best, C. and W. Strange. (1981)

`Categorical perception of English /r/ and /1/ by Japa- nese bilinguals.'

Miura, I. (1996)

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`Discrimination of segmental and supersegmental

phones by Japanese students learning from an early age.' Takagi, N. & V. Mann. (1995)

`The limit of extended naturalistic exposure on the per - ceptual mastery of English /r/ and /1/ by adult Japanese

learners of English.'

Yamada, R. (1996)

`/r/ to /1/ o kikiwakeru.'

(To discriminate between Irl and /1/.) c) PRODUCTION AND PERCEPTION:

Sheldon, A. & W. Strange. (1982)

`The acquisition of Ir/ and /l/ by Japanese learners of English: Evidence that speech production can precede

speech perception.'

Problems and Assumptions

Applying the interlanguage analysis approach to the study of the English /r/ and /1l among adult EFL(English as a foreign lan-

guage) learners in Japan, the following questions can be explored:

(1) What types of errors do adult Japanese EFL learners in an acquisition-poor environment make as they learn and acquire English /rl and Ill? (2) When does each type of error appear and disappear in the developmental process of the interlanguage? (3) Why do such types of errors occur among these learners?

First, three types of errors are assumed, based on the comparison of Japanese and English phonotactics; errors of substitution, errors of deletion and errors of epenthesis.

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An Interlangauge Analysis on the English /r/ and /1/ 47

Table 2 Three Types of Error

(1) ERRORS OF SUBSTITUTION BY PHONE (ES)

e.g.) road for load or vice versa (2) ERRORS OF DELETION (ED)

e.g.) tabo for table

(3) ERRORS OF EPENTHESIS (EE) e.g.) torip for trip

THE OTHER

The phonological environments, or more specifically, the position of each Irl and /1/ will influence the learners' performance;

therefore, the three types of errors mentioned above can be classified into eight types respectively for perception and production as follow.

Table 3 Eight Types of Error

(1) ERRORS OF SUBSTITUTION i) in Initial Position (ESI)

ii) in Consonant Cluster (ESC) iii) in Medial Position (ESM)

iv) in Final Position (ESF)

(ES)

e.g.) 'lice' for `rice' e.g.) `pray' for `play'

e.g.) `collect' for `correct e.g.) `doll' for `door'

,

(2) ERRORS OF DELETION (ED) i) in Consonant Cluster (EDC) ii) in Final Position (EDF)

e.g.) e.g.)

* toviality' for triviality'

too' for `tour'

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(3) ERRORS OF EPENTHESIS (EE)

i) in Consonant Cluster (EEC) e.g.) ' fulea' for `flea' ii) in Final Position (EEF) e.g.) `*wallu' for `wall'

By observing when each type of error appears or disappears, the whole picture of the interlanguage of /r/ and /1/ can be delin- eated as a comprehensive system of the developmental continuum.

At the beginning level, the learners may try to adjust the phonological system of the target language (TL)-English- into that of their first language (L1)- Japanese- because their existing schemata for subsuming the new information is the Japanese phonological system. In other words, they may have the interference from their L1 (Japanese) in most of their performance both in perception and production. However, they may be able to recognize the words that they know correctly in their cognition even in the case that they cannot recognize them physiologically.

At the intermediate level, the learners may develop their new phonological system for English through habit formation; as a result, the errors may decrease in the position where they can control their motor reflexes easily. It might be hard for them to perceive and produce Ir/ and /11 where they cannot control or they

cannot automate their production and perception. In other words, they may succeed in doing so consciously. At the same time, as their vocabulary will be larger at their cognitive level, the number of words that they can recognize is expected to increase.

At the advanced level, the learners are supposed to have a sufficient amount of information in English; therefore, the errors that they may make might be developmental or intralingual. At the same time, their motor skills have already been trained in both production and perception sufficiently for an adequate com- munication with native speakers.

They can produce and perceive /r/ and /l/ provided they can control their motor reflexes on a conscious or unconscious level.

However, on a perceptive level where it has been proven that the

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learners have more difficulties in acquisition by several research- ers (Sheldon, A & W. Strange, 1982; Takagi, N. & V. Mann, 1995), it is said to be impossible to acquire the sound system unless one start learning a foreign language before puberty (T. Scovel, 1988) or even at 5 or 6 years of age (M. Long, 1990).

Hypothesis

The whole process of learning and acquiring the English /rl and /11 is hypothesized considering my own experience and obser- vation together with the phonological characteristics.

At the beginning level, on production, the flapped /r/ and /1/

may be produced for English /r/ and /1/ in all phonological environments. Learners may also insert a schwa between a consonant cluster and add a schwa or vowel after the final ill. On perception, it may be impossible for them to identify /r/ and /1l in the initial, medial position and in consonant clusters. However, the final /r/ and 111 may be identified since they are often recognized as different sounds in the loan words in Japanese. By the same token, Irl or /1/ in words which are taken as loan words in the Japanese language system may be recognized in cases in which their spellings are familiar to them. The final /r/ and the /rl and Ill in consonant clusters may be deleted. They may perceive the ex- tra schwa after the final /1/ and in the consonant clusters.

At the intermediate level, on production, the initial Ir/ and /1/

may be produced correctly as it may be easy to control the first sound. In some cases, the final /rl and /1/ may be made distinc- tively. A schwa or some vowel sound may be added at the final Ill.

The /rl and /1/ in the medial position and in the consonant clusters may still be hard for the learners to distinguish from each other.

On perception, some initial /r/ and /l/ may be perceived. The Irl and Il/ in the medial position and in the consonant clusters may still be difficult for the learners to perceive correctly. Some Irl and /l/ in the consonant clusters may not be perceived.

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At the advanced level, the initial and final /rl and 11/ may be acquired. The Ir/ and 11/ in the medial position and the consonant clusters may be learned but not acquired; in other words, they can produce them correctly consciously but cannot unconsciously (S.Krashen, 1987). The 11] in the medial position and in the consonant clusters may be hard to articulate; therefore, it can be deleted or substituted by the other phones. On perception, the initial and final /rl and /1/ may be acquired. The Irl and /1/ in the medial position and in consonant clusters may be learned but acquired only partially.

Table 4 HYPOTHESIS

AT THE BEGINNING LEVEL

(Production) - ESI, ESC, ESM, ESF, EDC, EDF. EEC. EEF (Perception) — ESI, ESC, ESM, ESF, EDC, EDF

AT THE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

(Production) -- (ESI), ESC, (ESM), EDC, (EDF), EEF (Perception) -- (ESI), ESC, ESM, (EDC), EDF, AT THE ADVANCED LEVEL

(Production) — (ESM), (ESC), EDF (Perception) — (ESC),(ESM)

Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted in order to demonstrate the need for this study and to obtain an outline of the developmental pro-

cess.

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An Interlangauge Analysis on the English !r/ and /11 51

Subjects

The subjects of this study are all Japanese university learners of English, all of whom are my students. They are divided into three groups based on their English proficiency. None of them started to learn English and/or lived in an English-speaking community before puberty or 12 years of age.

Table 5 Subjects

Group Beginning Intermediate

LevelLevel

Advanced Level Production

Perception Age

N=26N= 19

N=30N=44 18. 2218-22

N = 11 N = 30 18-22

Method

In order to evaluate production, an articulation test was administered to the subjects. The results were transcribed by a native speaker and classified according to the types of errors and the phonological environments. In addition, words with both In/

and Ill and words with familiarity were collected for comparison.

For perception, a listening test and dictation test were given to the subjects. The listening test recorded by a native speaker

who teaches English at university consists of only alternative choice questions; therefore, only the ES of errors of substitution was elicited. The dictation test elucidates other types of errors and measures the familiarity.

For measuring motivation level and their previous experiences of learning English, the questionnaire including two writing questions and two 5-scaling questions was administered to the subjects.

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Table 6 TESTS

(1) ARTICULATION TEST FOR PRODUCTION

28 Test Words

rice, lake, reader, loyal, collect , arrive, salt, terror, pray, flea, crew, bleed, wall, tour, doll, roar , real, already, cred-

ibility, translate unbelievable, tackle , blue, merit, res-

taurant, curry, rinse, strike

[ 28 x 56 = 1568 tokens ]

(2) LISTENING TEST FOR PERCEPTION

16 Pairs of Words for Discrimination

loom-room, rake-lake, wrong-long, royal-loyal , scare- scale, ally-awry, arrive-alive , berry-belly, fresh-flesh,

green-glean, crime-climb, grass-glass, core-coal, air- ail, tour-tool, war-wall

[ 16 x 104 = 1664 tokens ]

(3) DICTATION TEST FOR PERCEPTION

unbelieva(ble) power(less) (re)vo(lu)tion [ 4 x 104 = 416 tokens ]

t(ri)viality

(4) QUESTIONNAIRE a) Written Questions

i) Have you ever lived in a country where English is spoken?

If your answer is YES, when did you live there?

ii) When did you start to learn English?

b) 5- Scaling Questions

i) How much do you like an English language?

ii) How much do you like the Culture of English-speak-

ing countries?

1-hate 2-don't like 3-neither like nor hate

4-like 5-like very much

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An Interlangauge Analysis on the English Ir/ and /1/ 53

Findings

Regarding the hierarchy of difficulty in production in terms of phonological environments, at the beginning level, the initial po-

sition is most difficult, the consonant cluster is the second, the medial position is the third and the final position is the least difficult one. At the intermediate level, the medial position is most difficult, the initial position is the next, the consonant cluster is the third and the final position is the least difficult one. Here the hypothesis that I established is partially negated. The initial position seems not to be the easy position to make a correct articulation. The consonant cluster is not so difficult as it appears though the consonant before Ir1 and Ill may decide whether it is easy or difficult for the Japanese learners to produce correctly.

At the advanced level, surprisingly enough, the initial position is the most difficult one, the second most difficult is the final position, the third is the medial position and the least difficult one is the consonant cluster. The hypothesis is clearly negated at the advanced level. Some of the deviant performances might be from fossilization or stabilization by the advanced learners.

Table 7

HIERARCHY OF DIFFICULTY IN PRODUCTION

AT THE BEGINNING LEVEL (N=26)

Initial Position>Consonant Cluster>Medial Position>

Final Position

AT THE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL (N=19)

Medial Position>Initial Position>Consonant Cluster>

Final Position

AT THE ADVANCED LEVEL (N=11)

Initial Position>Final Position>Medial Position>

Consonant Cluster

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The figure 1 below shows the percent of correct production.

The lowest percent of correct production means the most difficult phonological environment.

Figure 1

PERCENT OF CORRECT PRODUCTION

PRODUCTION

80%

601a'- 40%;

2O%

i

I

6

Oce epoe'

P'6‘1

0 Initial C. Cluster 0 Medial 0 Final

PRODUCTION 80%

60% --

40% HIIIjTIT .

0% IntermedillAd

vanced ate

25% 59%

Initial C. Cluster ----A--- Medial

--- Final

Initial 2%

66%

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An Interlangauge Analysis on the English !r/ and /ll 55

Regarding the hierarchy of difficulty in perception, at the beginning level, the consonant cluster is most difficult, both the medial position and the initial position are the same in second place and the final position is the least difficult one. At the intermediate level, the medial position is the most difficult one, the second most difficult is the consonant cluster, the third is the initial position and the final position is again the least difficult one. At the advanced level, the hierarchy of difficulty is exactly the same as at the intermediate level. Therefore, the least difficult one or the easiest one is the final position at all levels.

Table 8

HIERARCHY OF DIFFICULTY IN PERCEPTION

AT THE BEGINNING LEVEL (N=30)

Consonant Cluster>Medial Position=lnitial Position>

Final Position

AT THE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL (N=44)

Medial Position>Consonant Cluster>Initial Position>

Final Position

AT THE ADVANCED LEVEL (N=30)

Medial Position>Consonant Cluster>Initial Position>

Final Position

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Figure 2

PERCENT OF CORRECT PERCEPTION

PERCEPTION

90%

80%

70%

60%

40%

30%

20%

10%-.

1r6

'36ketk64

1-

I

,.I MIN

i

~a 3'

0 Initial C. Cluster

^Medial 0 Final

PERCEPTION

100% --- --- —--- 1 80%

40%

Beginning Intermediate Advanced

Initial 31% 50%79% G -

--- C. Cluster 23% 45% 68%

—* -- Medial 31%42% 57%

— - Final64°6 79% 88%

The types of errors in production at the three levels are shown in the following tables respectively.

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AnInterlangaugeAnalysisontheEnglish/r/andIll57

Tableg TYPESOFERRORSINPRODUCTIC)N

ATTHEBEGINNINGLEVEL(N=29)

日■anniǹ

ES

Errorsof 3ubstitutiu nkl&N

ノr/

〃

ED

EE

Errors 鼎Be巴inning閣

lnitiak

醐ノA

閥!A

C.Cluaters

N/A

Medial 輔

61f

鱈髄

囲!A

口!r/

圏〆1/

口ES 露ED .,

閥!A

N/A

Finai

○/r/

鳳!畢!

閥ノA

ロ/「/

■ ノr/

日/'/

●others

N/A

WA

閥ノA

N/A

口/r/

.層/1/

ロノTノロ ◎b●r

ATTHEINTERMEDIATELEVELtN=19}

1酌●m■d胎加

ES

陀rror墨o「

S瞳h6til瞳Iw nIrl&IV

Ir/

/t/

ED

EE

Errars

‑lnternlediate一

InitLl

、 ⑤

5嶋

概

閣ノA

N/A

閥ノA

C.CI鵬鞠閥

鮪

髄.dial

'幅㊧

隅

N/A

鮪!A

髄ノA

Find

蹴

創騰儲

鵬口/r/

圏/1/

o/'ノ

● ルF 日ノレ

m● 帽

ロノ汀!

劇/r!

n/r/

囲oth㎝

口/r/

置/1〆

口〆r/

朧/1/

口ES 曝1三〇 QlEE

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AT THE ADVANCED LEVEL(N=11)-

Advrncsd tniliil C.Clustsrs Medial Final

ES

Errors of

Substitution ^G

71K

50%

• 10K

141

us

^ /t/

®/1/

In

aK

1111116111111!!!! 11l1 1

0%

1>tK

25%ijj1111

era sK

14% i1111 14%~

.K•l

MOW

100K

o/r/

^ /1/

CUT/

13 others

/ll

0%

100K

!OK

71K

4" 411111IIW111i11":`"'11%0% .:

01

0%

~111[1111ur^

04/

O/r/

u /r/

Cdother.

ED ^N/A ^N/A ^N/A

0%

4111111111111111W :

10011

^ /r/

/1/

EE ^N/A ^N/A ^N/A

0K

100K

^ /r/

^ /1/

Errors -Advanced-

N/A

0K

31011111W

100K

N/A

10%

20%

loK

©ES

• ED

^EE

As the table on the previous page indicates, ES is dominant on the whole at all the levels. Especially at the beginning level, there is no ED and EE can be found only in the consonant cluster. More- over, the beginners seem to use the flapped Irl or /l/ which may be

considered to be a negative transfer from their native language Japanese. Therefore, the hypothesis that the beginners may make

all kinds of errors is clearly refuted. Regarding the number of types of errors, the intermediate level has the most variety. Even at the advanced level, the errors which are regarded as developmental or intralingual are just a few.

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An Interlangauge Analysis on the English In and /11 59

Figure 3

FAMILIARITY IN PERCEPTION

100.00%

80.00%

60.00%

40.00%

20.00%

0.00%

—o-- unbelievable revolution triviality powerless

4).1,40°4°5

1;60,

•S‘II‘C

XC‘‘c.06 1P

Figure 3 elucidates the correlation of familiarity and perception. In other words, the learners can perceive words including the liquid phonemes if they are familiar with that word. This proves that cognition may play an important role in perception.

Figure 4

Comparison in Production

80%

60%, ^—.

- ::

,,.4"

,if,"

words with "r" and I'll'

ift loan words

d',1"

leiew• cc\e0<\c'e6 ix61

others

i

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Judging from Figure 4, in production, loan words, which the learners are supposed to be familiar with, do not influence their performance. In other words, there is no correlation between familiarity and production. The words with both Ir/ and /1/ do not make a big difference, either.

Figure 5

CORRELATION OF MOTIVATION TO PROFICIENCY LEVELS

MOTIVATION- Producfion

100%E 80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

.,00 ,0

• et.

d.,•(,

e- e''''

,e,

\k,

Pb

Ell English it II Culture

MOTIVATION -Perception-

'diw illi,

40% +/I

20% ..u....w.

0% +--- 4 ---

:04ta

e` e~,~e p..64#1*

~`

^^ ^^'

^

- ' ---

0 English El Culture

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An Interlangauge Analysis on the English Ir/ and /1/ 61

The bar graphs of Figure 5 show the correlation of motivation to proficiency levels. In production, there is some correlation of motivation to proficiency levels; however , in perception, there is no correlation of motivation to proficiency levels . It is supposed that performance in production can be enhanced by motivation but the performance in perception might be determined by physi- ological factors.

Discussion

Regarding the hierarchy of difficulty and the assumption that the consonant cluster would be the most difficult phonological environment, the results were partially different from my pre- diction as well as some researchers' results (Lively , 1993; MacKain, 1981). There is also an interesting difference between production and perception. In terms of types of errors, the hypothesis established is greatly refuted. The beginning level has the least types of errors though the number of errors is the highest . ES is labeled to be an interlingual if the phones substituted are trans- ferred from the learners' mother language . EE is also labeled to be interlingual as the Japanese phonological system without the consonant cluster may well make the learners do so. Most of the ED errors are thought to be intralingual or developmental . Con- sidering these results, transfer from the Japanese phonotactics plays a more important role than the developmental factors as interference particularly in the case of adult learners . This clearly refutes Dulay and Burt's Hypothesis. Familiarity may influence perception not production. On the other hand, motivation and production are related to each other and there is a clear positive correlation (Coefficiency score > 0.9). However , motivation and perception do not form any relations. More specifically, in production, motivation can play a positive role. Perception, on the other hand, may be more or less innate.

The term fossilization is reevaluated by Selinker himself. Here in this study, in the process of acquiring /r/ and /1/, the learners

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seem to stop improving in perception. At ATR Institute in Kyoto, a special training method is developed in addition to the scien- tific research on Irl and /1/I. The researchers there say the learners can be trained. Some researchers have investigated the effect of training both production and perception with a positive result.

As Selinker points out, fossilization is not an appropriate term if there is even a little possibility for the learners to get out of the abyss. The new term stabilization might be more appropriate and favorable for the language learners. Additionally, the critical period hypothesis might need to be considered in discussing this issue. Long points out it is impossible to master or acquire the second language (L2) phonology over five years of age. Scovel postulates that it is impossible for the learners who start to learn L2 after puberty, to acquire the phonology fully. If so, again, the notion of fossilization must be valid. In neuroscience, it has been found that we human beings start to memorize the sound waves that we need for our native language in our brains. After memo-

rizing the necessary sound waves, inputting a new pattern of sound wave is reported to be difficult. Additionally, our nerves and muscle have lost flexibility. To acquire the new muscle move- ment needed gets harder as we age. Taking these facts into consideration, we can explore the best pedagogy.

Future Study

The elicitation test in both production and perception will be given to the university students (N>500) to analyze the whole developmental process of learning and acquiring English /rl and Ill. In addition, examining the findings of neighboring fields may enable the details of the interfering factors to be clarified;

consequently, the optimal pedagogical suggestions may be provided.

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* This is a revised and expanded version of the paper presented at World Congress of Applied Linguistics, Tokyo , 1999.

12th

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