ConferenceRePort
SheべvhoHearstheCriesoftheぺvorld:
I:)1()ceedingsofthe2007AnnualLotusSutraSeminar
N/laxJohnson HowdidAvalokitesvara,themalebodhisattvaofSouthAsia,Southeast Asia・andTibetbecomein(2reasinglyidentifiedinmostofChinaasKuanyin (moreproPerlyKuan5;hitl yin・alsowrittenGuanyin,andinJapanese pronunciationKannonandKanzeon),thebelovedanddecidedlyfemale GoddessofMercy andbodhisattva Rcjg£1rderoftheCriesoftheW〔〕rld, famouslydepictedin(;haptertwentyfiveoftheLotusSutra?Whenexactly didthistransf;()rmationtakePlace?Underwhats;o(;ioculturalconditions? AndwhydidKuanyinbecomesopopularthatherinnuencespreadwell beyondthebordersofChinaandChineseBuddhismintoseemingly anachronisticspheressuchaswestemNeoPaganismandvariousNewAge movements? Theseque5stionshadlong厄riguedBuddhism5;cholarChiinFangYU (Columbiaun如・うrsity),whogrewuPinafamilywhereworshipofKuanyin wastakenforSII・£111ted,andinspiredhertogoonaquestolT5;ortsins;earchof answers.Theresultofmanyyearsofresearchincludingpilgrimagesto famoustemplesandarchaeologicalsitesalloverChinawasamaS; terial, nearlysixhundredPage脚agz7M琲θρ心entitled££IJ7y加.・7 ̄77ごC/z加どM? 77mμがゎr脚αz加/7げ/hノa/θだ 諮1ノara(NewYork:ColumbiauniversityPress, 2001).YU sbook,whichmanyscholarsconsidertheddinitiveworkonthe subject,servedasthethematic泊5;PirationforthisyearslntemationaILotus SutraSeminar,whichtookplaceJune49inChinaontheislandof Putuoshan.Theislandislocatedabout150milessouthofShanghai,across theHangzhouBay,andisfamousforitsnumerouspilgrimagesites,including caves,rockformations,monasteries,andlavishlydecorated,s;t2ttuemled temples,allofwhicharedevotedtothebodhisattvaKuanyin. I)articipatingscholarsfromNorthAmerica,JaPan,andChinawereaskedto readYUsbookandprepareessaysthatexpanded,renectedupon,responded to,orotherwiseengagedwiththetext.Ther6ultingpaperswereemailedto 237中 央 学 術 研 究 所 紀 要 第 3 6 号 allthepar血;iPantswellbeforethecol115eうrence池elf・makingitpossibleto focusnloreon(廿5;ctlssionthanonpresentation.Eachdayconsistedofa momings;6sion,duringwhichtwoofthePal尨cipant spaperswere (I弛(;ussed;afu11(;oursegrouplunch;agroupfieldtriptooneormoreofthe islandstemplesorothersa(2reds;ites;andas;ingletopiceへ/ening5;ession, whichtookplaceafterahearty,clc?1iciousandauthenticChinesedinner.Each scholarbeganbybrieny5summarizinghisorherl)al)er,andafteranol゛fTicial resPonsefromapreJe把rminedresP()ndent,thenoorwasopeneduPfor roundtabled臨cussion.Thedi5;cussionswerelively,andoccasionallyquite heated,butthegeneraltoneofthesessionswasalwaysresPectfulandgood natured.EachdaysproceedingsconcludedwithacasualrecePtioninoneof thehote1 subiquitouskaraokeroonls.Asittumedout,noneofthe participantswasseizedbyanoverwhelmingurgetostandinfrontof everyoneandbeltoutChinesepopsongs,butwine,cheese,andexotic Chinesefruitwasconsumedbya11. Thenrstday sproceedingsstartedo仔withabang,asDanielBoucher s (Come1IUniversity)Provocativeessay, lsThereanEaflyGandharanSource fortheAvalokitesvaraCult? wasdiscussed.Boucherwantedtoraisesome Potentiallycontentiousquestionsaboutthetraditionalassumptionsheldby zごx皿α/scholarsandthoseheldbyaμ垣肩θΓ加心,inparticularconcemingthe lndian GandharanPrakrit artforms,andtheearlyMahayananteraryworks. TheproblemFmaddressing, Bouchersaid, Seemstobetheapparent discrepancybetweenthenteraryinterPretationsofAvalokitesvarainthe earliestChineseliteうrature,andrepresentationsofthebodhisattvaintheplastic media,inatimethatisthoughttoberoughlycontemporaneouswiththe transmissionofthetexts. Partoftheproblem,hepointedout,wasthe extremelackofevidenceofKuanyinandAvalokitesvaraintheearliest Chinesesources.AndthefewearlyMahayanatextsthatdidmention bodhisattvastaughtthatoneshouldstriveto/?Ecθ琲Eabodhisattva,notto wθ阿/zφthem.ForBoucher,then,thefundamentalquestionwas, lsitnot morelikelythatwhenwereadculticvisualizationd(35;criptionsof Avalokitesvarainthelitel4ature,thattheywereinsPiredbyalreadyPresent artworks,andnottheotherwayaround?Andifthat strue,thenitwould meanthat,consistentwithourntel゛aryevidenceabouttheearlyMahayana, thatthelvlahayanaseemstohavehadverylittlePublicPresenceinlndia, includingGandhara,initsnrstfewcerlturiesofexistence.Boucherbelieves thatearlycls()把ricplacticesdidnthaveaPublic,materialpresence,until 238
muchlater,aroundthe4thor5th(2enturyoftheCon!n!onEra. These(;olldplescntatiollwasbyKoichiShinohara(Yaleun沁e,rsity),based onhisessay, TheWonderw()rkingMonkRevealsHimselftobethe TwelveHeadedAvalokiteうwara:MiracleorEsotericRitua1? Shinoharaused writingsfromthecultofAvalokitesvaratoexplorearnoregeneralquestion ofhowancientmiraclestoriesmayhavebeeninnuencedbyvariousforms andtraditionsofe5sotericritua1.Hisessay170cusedontwolelatedbut somewhatd汀ferentstoriesfromanotable13th(;enturyhistoryofBuddhism, the77θこMr皿が,featuringthefamousmonkBaozhi,whoisbdievedtohave livedfronlabout425514.The17厄tstorywassetin482,duringthereignof EmperorGaooftheSouthemQidynasty;thesecondwassetin503,during theruleofEmperorM/uoftheLiangdynasty.Boths;toriesfeatureaclimatic momentinwhichthemasterpeelsawayhisfacetorevealhimselfasthe Twelve5facedAvalokitesvara. ShinoharasuggestedthattheEmPei170rsmarkedlydifferentzぞad心心tothe monksrevelationinthes;tories(disgustfromGaointhecaseofthefirst, wondermentfromべvuinthecaseofthesecond)itselfrevealedapossible shiftinpowerandstatusfromtheeうarliercultofBaozhi,whichtreasuredthe monksordinary,humanform,tothelatercultofAvalokitesvara,withits emphasisonthepossibilityofactuallybecomingadeity. Themomingsessionconcludedwithabriefs;eriesofrenectionsfrom authorChUnFangYUonboththesomewhatcontroversialnatureofher historicald(うtectivestory approach,andonherappleciationofherbook beingchosenasthecentralfocusforthisyearsconference. TheeveningsessionwasdevotedtoapaPerfromvi(うtorN/lair(University ofPennsylvania),called Form,Formulary,andFormationoftheEarliest TalesConcemingGuanyinMiracleTalelぶMairwasirltelestedinexploring whatwasbelievedtobetheeal 1iestknownlayeroftheKuanyinmiracle stories,asfoundinthreeancientmanuscriptcollectionsφΓeservedatthe 5;e・l^ireninTempleinKyoto).Thesecollectionsalltookthe150rmof GMa/尽裁砂加y加gyan丿( RecordsofProofsofGuanl;s;hiyin sResponses ), andtheywereessentiallyusedas prooftexts ofKuanyinsabilitytosave allthosewhosin(;erelycalleduponhel・.lvlairpointedoutthat,althoughthe earlySa打裁可ztextsofthetalesuggestavarietyofwaystodosuch calling, inmostoftheC/功?心どtextstheprimarywayofinvokingthedeitywasto 雨αz7her.Theproblem,accordingtoMair,isthat/7加打isanotoriously ambiguousword,meaninganythingfrom thinkof, to missj to,even。 239
中 央 学 術 研 究 所 紀 要 第 3 6 号 readaloud. MuchofMair spaper,whichhewasinthel)1 ocessof expandingintoalargerwork,was(:levotedtoinvestigatingthisandsimilar linguisticmylstelies.lnaddition,heshowedhowthephilosophicalbasisfor theearlylndianBuddhi・;t・;tories(theparticularlyChinesenotionofJiむz/痢昭, or stimulusresponse ),andthe triggeringmechanismof雨aμ(aterm which,MairexPlained, embodiesabasiclndianBuddhistdoctrineina peculiarlyChinesefashion )geatlyfacilitatedKuanyinsacceptanceasan authenticC/7加心どBuddhistbodhisattva. Thesecondday sl)I ()ceedingsbeganwithapaperfromMariaHabito (MuseunlofWorldR(・㈲ions),titled AIjentaiPIopagationoftheGrどと7「 Cθ1男7a 吋θ/?£」/zと7rと7雨inSungChina:Chih1i sCθ珊珊ど几反7ry加訥どGrごar Cθ肌/7α 加几μどpa7だ7ηcど7?jm❹. lnherPaperfortheconferenceHabito sPokenotofthej/?am❹itse凪butofthegreatChinesemasterChih1i s commentaryonit,whichwaspartofhisinnuential RepentanceRitual (the C/7加/7 θayどμた7?d/75加c/zθM/M加gや,or RitualProcedurefor Perfo汀ningtheGreatCompassionateHeart£)/zam❹oftheThousandHands andEyes ). ReflectingonasimilarchapterinYii sbook,sheagreedwithYfs suggestionthatChihliswritingsg14eatlycontributedtothedomesticationof the6otericj/7αΓと7❹ byfacilitatingthe£1cceptanceofthethousandarmed KuanyinasanintegraIPartofChineseBuddhism.Shewondered,however, ifChihli,inexPlicitlyplacinghiscommentarywithintheframeworkof 7 泌ηイ❹Buddhistthought,didn thaveanadditionalagenda;namely,to defendhisbeliefinthenondualrelationshipbetweenphenomenaandmind. HabitospresentationwasfollowedbyapaperbyJinhuaChen(University ofBritishColumbiaλ JiangZhiqiandtheMiaoshanL(,gend. Chensl3aPer tumedthesPotlightontothelittleexploredtopicofthelifeandtimesofthe Chinesescholar,palacecensor,c豆麿訟or,financier,andskilledmilitarysoldier JiangZhiqi(10311104),whoisbdevedtohavebeen柚strumentalinthe creationanddisseminationofthelegendofthebelovedprincessλ/liaoshan. Accordingtotradition,Miaoshan,asaresultofherextraordinaryl;21(こrifices (irldudingthe donation ofbothofhereyesandhands!)wasbdievedto havebeenareincamationofAvalokitesvara,andwaseventuallyrebomasthe thousandhandedandeyedKuanyin.TheadoPtionofthelegendbySong andPostSongPeoPleintum,isthoughttobecentraltothe feminizing and the sinicizing ofAvalokjtesvara,helPingtosetthestagefor his Chinese transformationintotheGoddessofMercy.ChenPresentedthegroupwitha 240
(letailedbiograPhyofZhiqisnurnerousacademicandpolitica1ぶ;hievements, andintheendarguedthatZhiqisinvolvementintheNliaoshanlegend was anaturalexPressionofhislongstandingintaestinBuddhismingeneral,and inParticular,hispassionforthe(Songdynasty1)ased]5;(うngqie/Guanyincult, thelatterofwhichseemstohavebeenrootedinthecontemPorarypolitical anddiplomaticsituation. Next,Pr(汀essorMiriamLevering(UniversityofTenrle・ssee)gavea PresentationonGuanyin/AvalokitesvarainEncounterDialogues:Creatinga PlaceforGuanyininChineseChanBuddhism, which,atlscうventyfivepages, hadthedistinctionofbeingthelengthiestpaPeroftheconfRerence,apoint humolouslym(mtionedby5;everalofthosescholarswhohadlu容姿dful1sized PrintedcoPiesoftheconfleうrencepaperstoChinawiththem!Leveringwas pal4ticularly吊terestedintherelationshipbetweenKuanyin sriseto prominenceasafigureofvenerationintheChantradition,andthetraditions generalaccePtanceofwomenas worthy V皿皿lsofenlightenment.She arguedthatbothoftheseeventsoccurredrelativelylate.Kuanyinisnot reallymentionedatallinearlyChanstories,andtherewasalongstanding view,stillpresentinmanyBuddhistmonasticcommunities,thatawomans besthoPeforenlightenmentwastoberebomasanlan!Muchofanun s training,Leveringpointedout,fromtheshavingofherhair,tobeingtaught tolowerthetimbreofhervoice,tokamingtowalkwithoutswayingher hips,wasa11Partofane汀ortto masculinize herinprc5parationforftlture l・ebirth.Asmanyoftheattendingscholarswerewornen,needlesstosay, Levering spapersParkedmuchd包cussiononthePatriarchalnatureof religioninlgc5nera1,andofmanyformsofBuddhisminpalticular! AfteranotherheartydinnerofvariousChinesedelicacies,theevening sessioncommencedwithaPaperfromArthistorianDortothyM/ong (Universityofv卜ginia), EarlyTransmissionofEsotericlmagesfromChina toJapanintheSeventhandEighthCentuljes丿Asthetitleindicates,ぺVong arguedthatthecommonlyaccePtedviewthateうK)teric(tantric)BuddhistArt wasfirstintroducedintoJapanfromChinaduringtheninthcenturywas incorrect.lnfact,asshedemonstratedwithnumerousphotographs,early formsofe5s;otericimageshadreachedJapanseveraldecadesbdore,during thes;eventhandeighth(;cう11turies.Theseindudedseverale5;otericfo皿sof Kuanyin,suchasthefamous Elevenheaded form. Thethirddaysl,IJ(:)(zeedingsbeganwithMarkMullins(Sophiaun沁ersity, Japan)andhisessay TheManyFormsandFunctionsofKannoninJapanese 241
中 央 学 術 研 究 所 紀 要 第 3 6 号 ReligionandCulture. Anexpertonnewsectsandnewreligiousmovements inJaPan,Mullinswasparticularly泊telestedinthewaysinwhichthesalvific imageofKuanyin(尺ど7zmθ月)asthe Goddessof`Nlercy inthisworldand thenexthadbecome,inhiswords, atransdenominationa1Buddhist phenomenon.Hisstudiesrevealedthat,despitetheirdoctrinalandritualistic di汀erences,Kuanyindevotionalismwasl)resentinJapaneseBuddhist traditionsasdiverseasTendai,Shingon,SotoShuandRinzaiShu. Furthermore,MullinsfoundthatmanyJapanesehadlongagoseparated KuanyinfromherBuddhistmoorings,andsimplythoughtofheras one moredivinebeinginthelargerPantheonofbenevolentdeitieswhocanbe calledintoserviceintimesofneed. Mullinsdiscoveredthatthiswastrue evenanl()ngstthejlar)aneseChristiancommunity,withtheirad()ptionofthe MariaKannon figure,acamounagedformofthevirginMary. T h e s e c o n d P a p e r o f t h e m o m i n g w a s K a n n o n s C o m P a s s i o n : t h e ThinkingofNikkyoNiwano, Ply・うsentedbyMichioShinozaki(RisshoKosei kaiGakurinSeminary).5;111nozakigaveaconcisebutdetailedoverviewof theRjsshoKoseikaisfoundersmeticulousanalysisofthemuchrecited Kuanyin ChaPteroftheThreefoldLotusSutra(Chapter25).Accordingto Shinozaki,Rev.Niwanobelievedthataco汀ectunderstandingoftheconcept andfunctionofbodhisattvaswasessentialto弛aminghowtoproperly interpretthegreats;(;171pture.Niwanowasparticularlycriticalofthecommon l)1721cticeofpetitioningKuanyinforselfそ;ervingpurPoses.Heinsisted insteadthatKuanyin scompassionate embrace oftheworld ssu汀ering wasmeanttoinspireustobecomemorelikeher.M/eshouldallstriveto becomebodhisattvas,notsimPlyrelyonthem. Shinozaki spaperwasfollowedbyabriefpresentationonPutuoshan monasticlifefromoneoftheisland sresidentmonks,theven.Huixian, headoftheZhoushanBuddhistAssociation. lnthePlaceofaneveningpapersession,thescholarsweretreatedtoan informativepresentationonthepasthistory,presentPrqjects,andfuturegoals oftheRisshoKoseikaiorganization,fromthehardworkingRKK sta罵 includingKatsumasalmai,N.Kobayashi,NobuyukiAinoya,andKoichi Kawamoto. ThelastdayofplJeserltationsbeganwithnewscholarjrelTWilson(Univ.of ぺVaterloo)andaprovocativeessaycalled DeeplyFemaleandunivelsally Human:TheRiseofKuanyinM/orshipinAmerica. ぺvilsonisasociologist ofreligionwhosefocusisonnewreligiousmovementsinAmerica,andon 242
theintcうrsectionofreligionandpopular(Jtllture.Hisessayhighlightedthe amazingpopularityofKuanyinintheU.S。notonlyinBuddhist(jrdes,but alsoamongvariousNewAge,NeoPagan,andunitarianUniv(うrsalistgrouPs. Healsopointedoutsomesubtlebuts址nificantdi汀erencesbetweenmany Mそstem Buddhists,mostofwhomare converts, andtheirEastem counterparts,mostofwhom廿e homegrown :ぺvestc5merstendto Psychologize bodhisattvaslikeKuanyin,focusingontheirsymbolicvalue asarchetypes,whileintheEastoneismorelikelytofindbodhisattvas petitionedandveneratedasactual,sPiritualbein匹。べvilsonalsorevealedthe factthatKuanyinimageshavegracedabewilderingarrayofM弛stem magazinecoversoflate,andwasthetopicofalargenumberof poPular Buddhistnonfictionbooks。 ThefinalofficialpaperoftheconferencewasPresentedbyPhilipClart (UniversityoflvlissouriColumbia), TheotherLotusSutra:TheRevelation ofaNewGuanyinScriptureinTaiwan. ClartsinterestinChinesePOPular religionsledtothediscoveryofa newlyrevealed Kuanyins;(う171Pture, Gaanμが 乙θΓ心S町几7げ治∼A右7rFdθ心£)αθ.Thes;cl゛ipturewaswritten between1998and2000byaspiritwritingcultinTaichung,acityincentral Taiwan. Spiritwriting isatyPeoftran(2eうstatePIactice,notunlikethe channeled writingsfoundinmanyNewAgecirdes.Clartgavea fascinatingoverviewofhowsuchtextsare selfpublished anddistributed, aswellasexploringthestyleandcontentofthesutraitself.Amongother things,ClartPointedouttheimportantroleofDaoistPriestsinthe (1isseminationofBuddhistlit(・1ature,aswellasthe(・う・;sentiallypolitica1)use ofKuanyinasamouthPieceforse(;tariandoctrine. TheconferenceProperconcludedthatmomingwithsomeinsightful dosingreflectionsfromtheθ治どrwonlanofthehour,thegraciousscholar andauthor,ChiinfangYU.TherestofthedaywassPentnapPing,sight seeing,packing,andstockinguponlastminutesouvenirs.Thefollowing momingthescholarswavedgoodbyetothegiant,m4jesticstatueofKuanyin BodhisattvaandboardedtheferrybacktoShanghai. 243