「世界の日本語教育」
2 ,1 9 9 2
年3
月D e s i g
盟i n ga J a p a n e s e
圃f o r
醐S p e c i f i c
圃P u r p o s eC o u r s e : P
阻t t i n gT h e o r y i n t o P r a c t i c e
E l i z a b e t h A . M u l v i h i l l *
Key w o r d s : J a p a n e s e ‑ f o
トS p e c i f i c
副P u r p o s ec o u r s e , needs a n a l y s i s , communica‑
t i v e s y l l a b u s , a i r l i n e r e g i s t e r , l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n
W r i t i n g E n g l i s h ‑ f o r
聞S p e c i f i c ‑ P u r p o s eC o u r s e s i s commonplace i n E n g l i s h I a n
聞g u a g e t e a c h i n g t h e s e d a y s . You need o n l y l o o k a t t h e p l e t h o r a o f m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e i n any p u b l i s h e rs c a t a l o g u e . W r i t i n g J a p a n e s e ‑ f o r ‑ S p e c i f i c ‑ P u r p o s e C o u r s e s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t q u i t e a s commonplace.
T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s two J a p a n e s e ‑ f o
トS p e c i
五c ‑ P u r p o s e( J S P ) c o u r s e s com
闇m i s s i o n e d by Q a n t a s A i r w a y s L i m i t e d i n 1 9 8 8 f o r t h e i r ground s t a f f e m p l o y e e s : o n e f o r r e s e r v a t i o n s t a
妊(RSAsand PS A s ) , t h e o t h e r f o r a i r p o r t ground s t a f f ( P A s ) . These two c o u r s e s were d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e framework o f Language‑
f o
トS p e c i
五c
・P u r p o s e(LSP) t h e o r y and c o u r s e d e s i g n . They s e r v e a s one e x
四ample o f p u t t i n g t h e o r y i n t o p r a c t i c e .
Course Background The Qantas I n t e r n a t i o n a l Language S t r a t e g y
At Gri
伍thU n i v e r s i t ys 1987 g r a d u a t i o n ceremony, t h e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f Qantas Air
回ways, Mr. John Menadue, announced t h e companys i n t e n t i o n t o
五n a n c i a l l ysponsor and encourage t h e study o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Asian l a n g u a g e s , a t a l l l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a r e s o u r c e o f f u l l y t r a i n e d A u s t r a l i a n employees c a p a b l e o f d e a l i n g e f f e c t i v e l y i n b u s i n e s s with our Asian n e i g h b o r s .
The Qantas I n t e r n a t i o n a l Language S t r a t e g y , a s i t came t o be known, came i n t o being f o r p r i m a r i l y two r e a s o n s :
(1)t h e boom i n t h e tourism i n d u s t r y had moved t h e emphasis o f t h e A i r l i n es o p e r a t i o n s from a t r a d i t i o n a l European base t o one on Asia and t h e P a c i
五c 0 、 ! l e n a d u 1 9 8 7 : 6 ) and ( 2
)t h a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n e d u c a t i o n
system i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l i n h e l p i n g t o supply t h e l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
(Me‑
nadue, 1 9 8 7 : 6 ) t h a t t h e company r e
性u i r e d .
The language s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e d investment i n t r a i n i n g both w i t h i n t h e company
* ェリザベス
A.マノレグイヒノレ: L e c t u r e r , J a p a n e s e S e c t i o n , V i c t o r i a U n i v e r s i t y o f Wel
欄l i n g t o n , New Z e a l a n d .
[ 1 7 1 ]
(AUS $ 5 m i l l i o n o v e r t h e t h r e e y e a r s 1 9 8 8 ‑ 9 0 ) and i n t h e community (AUS $ 1 m i l l i o n o v e r t h e same p e r i o d ) . The company t r a i n i n g i n v o l v e d : ( 1 ) o f f e r i
時AUS$ 1 , 0 0 0 p e r e m p l o y e e t o go t o w a r d s t h e c o s t o f q u a l i f y i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n an Asian l a n g u a g e , f o r e x
田a m p l e , J a p a n e s e , Mandaru
i n g i n ‑ h o u s e i n t e n s i v e l a n g u a g e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s .
Q a n t a s began i t s i n ‑ h o u s e i n t e n s i v e l a n g u a g e t r a i n i n g w i t h t h r e e d i f f e r e n t J a p a n e s e
回f o
トS p e c i
五ひPurpose Co u r s e s , which began i n 1 9 8 8 . J a p a n e s e was c h o s e n b e c a u s e J a p a n i s Q a n t a ss f a s t e s t g r o w i n g m a r k e t , h a v i n g i n c r e a s e d from s i x f l i g h t s p e r week i n 1 9 8 3 t o t h i r t y f l i g h t s p e r week i n 1 9 8 8 (Menadue, 1 9 8 8 : 5 ) . The c o u r s e s were f o r d i r e c t c u s t o m e r c o n t a c t p e r s o n n e l on t h e ground and i n t h e a i r . Cabin crew were t o h a v e a
五v e
皿week
,五v e
」l O U f ・
十day( 1 2 5
同h o u r )p r o g r a m , and ground s t a f f , a t h r e e
明e e k , s i x ‑ h o u r ‑ a
皿day ( 9 0
四h o u r ) p r o g r a m . The c a b i n crew c o u r s e c o n t r a c t was awarded t o t h e I n s t i t u t e o f L a n g u a g e , New South Wales U n i v e r s i t y 1 and t h e ground s t a f f c o u r s e t o t h e I n s e a r c h Language C e n t r e , U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y , S y d n e y . I was commis‑
s i o n e d by I n s e a r c h Language C e n t r e t o w r i t e t h e ground s t a f f c o u r s e on i t s b e h a l f . Ground S t a f f Course Aim
The c o u r s e was t o be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e j o b r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e e m p l o y e e s c o n
回c e r n e d , t h e r e b y e n a b l i n g them t o c o p e c o
凶d e n t l
アw i t ht h e l a
時u a g e / c u l t u r a lr e q u i r e
皿ments o f s p e c i
五ct a s k s and f u n c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r j o b s . " 2 Course O b j e c t i v e s
To e n a b l e s t a f f t o communicate i n J a p a n e s e w h i l e f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r j o b d u t i e s .
To e n a b l e s t a f f t o u n d e r s t a n d and a c k n o w l e d g e J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e : i t s v a l u e s and d i ι f e r e n c e s from Western c u l t u r e i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e communication on t h e j o b .
To i n c r e a s e t h e number o f p e r s o n n e l a b l e t o s e r v i c e J a p a n e s e p a s s e n g e r s s u c c e s s f u l l y i n J a p a n e s e .
Summary o f Course D e s c r i p t i o n
A f t e r t h e p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h both management and s t a f f i t became e v i d e n t t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e ground s t a f f c o u r s e c o u l d o n l y be a c h i e v e d i f t h e c o u r s e was d e s i g n e d a l o n g t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s .
Q a n t a s needed a v e r y p r a c t i c a l , h i g h l y s p e c i
五cv o c a t i o n a l ( t r a i n i n g ) l a n g u a g e c o u r s e t h a t d e v e l o p e d communicative competence
:when t o s p e a k , when n o t , and a s t o what t o t a l k a b o u t with whom, when, w h e r e , i n what manner
(Hymes, 1 9 7 2 : 2 7 7 ) .
The c o u r s e needed t o b e :
A c o u r s e c o n c e n t r a t i n g on u s e , n o t k n o w l e d g e .
A c o u r s e b a s e d on a u t h e n t i c d i a l o g u e s from t h e s p e c i
五cj o b c o n t e x t s i n which J a p a n e s e i s t o be used‑in o t h e r w o r d s , s i t u a t i o n a l l y b a s e d .
A c o u r s e which would e x t r a c t grammar , ρ m c t i o n s , and v o c a b u l a r y from t h e s i t u a ‑ t i o n s , and t r a i n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o be c o m p e t e n t i n t h e s e components o f t h e l a n g u a g e .
1 F o r more d e t a i l r e f e r t o W a i t e s ( 1 9 9 1 ) .
2 Taken f r o m c o u r s e p r o f i l e p r o v i d e d by Q a n t a s p r i o r t o a w a r d i n g t h e c o n t r a c t .
Designing a J a p a n e s e
イ0トS p e c i f i c ‑ P u r p o s eC o u r s e : P u t t i n g Theory i n t o P r a c t i c e
I7 3
A c o u r s e which was t a s k b a s e d and l e a r n e r c e n t e r e d .
A c o u r s e which was e m p a t h e t i c t o v a r y i n g r a t e s and s t a g e s o f l e a r n i n g . A c o u r s e which would c o n c e n t r a t e e q u a l l y onφ e a k i n g and l i s t e n i n g s k i l l s .
A c o u r s e which was f l e x i b l e enough t o meet t h e n e e d s o f t h e d i f f e r i
時j o bdemands o f a i r p o r t ground s t a f f and r e s e r v a t i o n s p e r s o n n e l .
A c o u r s e which was i n t e r e s t i n g and e n j o y a b l e enough t o e n c o u r a g e f u r t h e r i n d e p e r
トd e n t l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p m e n t .
A c o u r s e which n o t o n l y p r e s e n t e d t h e l a n g u a g e , b u t p r e s e n t e d i t i n i t s c u l t u ,
官l and s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t .
A c o u r s e which t a u g h t c u l t u r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e s e r v i c e b e h m . J i o r a s w e l l a s l a n g u a g e . P a r t i c i p a n t S e l e c t i o n
The S e l e c t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
As t h e ground s t a f f c o u r s e was a p i l o t i n i t i a t i v e , i t was i m p e r a t i v e f o r Q a n t a s t h a t i t be s u c c e s s f u l i n o r d e r t o j u s t i f y a c o n t i n u e d i n v e s t m e n t i n t h i s k i n d o f t r a i n i n g . P a r
四t i c i p a n t s e l e c t i o n was p e r c e i v e d a s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t , and t h e company o p t e d f o r a l a n g u a g e a p t i t u d e t e s t a s t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r s e l e c t i o n . Managements i n t e n t i o n o f d e
圃v e l o p i n g a l a n g u a g e a p t i t u d e t e s t r a i s e d many q u e s t i o n s a b o u t l e a r n e r p s y c h o l o g y and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between n a t i v e l a n g u a g e and s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a p t i t u d e . I n t e l
間l i g e n c e t e s t s a r e i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s p o o r p r e d i c t o r s o f s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a p t i t u d e
( S t e r n , 1 9 8 4 : 3 6 8 ) . This was l a t e r r e p l a c e d by a s e l e c t i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e , which was s e e n a s t h e l e s s c o n t e n t i o u s s e l e c t i o n t o o l (Appendix A ) . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was aimed a t i d e n t i f y i n g l e a r n e r p r o
五l e st h a t would a s s i s t i n l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g b a s e d o n :
一
−
m o t 1 v a t 1 0 n ,
‑proven s u c c e s s f u l s e c o n d l a n g u a g e ( L 2 ) l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e ,
‑ e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a l a n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m ,
‑ p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , e . g
,・r i s k t a k e r , d e t e r m i n e d and p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s , e t c . ,
一一−
and( t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e ) h o b b i e s and i n t e r e s t s .
Of 900 i n t e r e s t e d s t a f f , 200 c o m p l e t e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o r t h e ground s t a f f c o u r s e o f which 7 5 were c h o s e n t o a t t e n d t h e
五vep i l o t c o u r s e s . The 2 0 0 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f e l l i n t o f o u r n e a t g r o u p s .
Group A h a d : a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e ( L 2 ) a l r e a d y t h a t t h e y r a t e d a s e i t h e r f h
悶1 to r b i l i n g u a l ;
s t u d i e d L2 f o r a l o n g p e r i o d r e c e n t l y .
Group B+ h a d : a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a l r e a d y which was n o t a s good a s Group A;
s t u d i e d L2 f o r a s h o r t e r p e r i o d t h a n Group A and n o t s o r e c e n t l y . Group B h a d : an L2 l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n h i g h s c h o o l o r u n i v e r s i t y b u t was
n o t a b l e t o u s e i t ;
s u b s t a n t i a l m u s i c a l e d u c a t i o n and i n t e r e s t which c o u l d a s s i s t them i n t h e l a n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m .
Group Chad: no L2 e x p e r i e n c e and had n o t h i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r t o recommend t h e m .
A l l o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were e x t r e m e l y m o t i v a t e d , and t h i s a p p e a r e d t o be t h e d r i v i n g
1 7 4
f o r c e b e h i n d p a r t i c i p a n t s u c c e s s . I n t h e e n d , t h e i n i t i a l A, B+, and B g r o u p i n g d i d n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e any s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g on t h e r e s u l t s .
P r o f i l e o f T a r g e t L e a r n e r s
The f o l l o w i n g p r o f i l e o f t a r g e t l e a r n e r s was drawn up from t h e s e l e c t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s . Age: 1 9 ‑ 4 5
S t a g e : B e g i n n e r s and q u a s i b e g i n n e r s .
P u r p o s e : J a p a n e s e f o r S p e c i a l P u r p o s e s r e l a t e d t o Q a n t a s A i r l i n e o p e r a t i o n s on t h e g r o u n d :
1 . A i r p o r t s 2 . R e s e r v a t i o n s 3 . T r a v e l C e n t r e s
O c c u p a t i o n : 1 . P a s s e n g e r A g e n t s ( P As ) ‑ A i r p o r t s
2 . R e s e r v a t i o n S a l e s A g e n t s ( R S A s ) ‑ R e s e r v a t i o n s 3 . P a s s e n g e r S a l e s Agents (PSAs )‑Travel C e n t r e s L e v e l o f E d u c a t i o n : L e a r n e r s a l l had s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t e d s e c o n d a r y e d u c a ‑
t i o n . Some had t e r t i a r y e d u c a t i o n , and a l l were f u l l y t r a i n e d Q a n t a s p e r s o n n e l .
Ll L i t e r a c y : E x c e l l e n t ( f l u e n t ) . Many l e a r n e r s were n a t i
羽 田born A u s t r a l i a n s w h i l e o t h e r s were m i g r a n t s .
C u l t u r e and E t h n i c i t y : L e a r n e r s were m i d d l e ‑ c l a s s A u s t r a l i a n s and permanent r e s i d e n t s from A s i a and E u r o p e .
P r e v i o u s L2 E x p e r i e n c e : M a j o r i t y o f l e a r n e r s had a p r o v e n s u c c e s s f u l L2 l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e . Some l e a r n e r s were a l r e a d y m u l t i l i n g u a l . A t t i t u d e s : A l l had e x t r e m e l y h i g h m o t i v a t i o n and a monetary i n c e n
田t i v e t o a c h i e v e . S u c c e s s f u l p a r t i c i p a n t s r e c e i v e d a Lan
幽g u a g e Badge which e n t i t l e d them t o a h i g h e r w e e k l y IQ:
A p t i t u d e : S e x :
Study Time:
w a g e .
Appeared t o be a v e r a g e t o h i g h . E x p e c t e d t o be h i g h .
A p p r o x . 6 5 p e r c e n t f e m a l e and 3 5 p e r c e n t m a l e . S i x h o u r s ' c l a s s r o o m t i m e p e r d a y .
One‑two h o u r s ' homework p e r d a y .
Needs Analysis
The c o u r s e o b j e c t i v e s p r e s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e t o be s e l e c t e d f o r t h e c o u r s e would need t o be a i r l i n e s p e c i
五c o rmore p r e c i s e l y
,a i r l i n e s p e c i
五cf o r ground s t a f f .
This p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h u s assumed a d e t a i l e d n e e d s a n a l ! . s i s . W i l k i n s ( 1 9 7 6 : 1 9 ) d e
醐 五neda n e e d s a n a l y s i s a s f o l l o w s
:The p r o c e s s o f d e c i d i n g what t o t e a c h i s b a s e d on
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f what t h e l e a r n e r s s h o u l d most u s e f u l l y be a b l e t o communicate i n t h e f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . When t h i s i s e s t a b l i s h e d , we c a n d e c i d e what a r e t h e most a p p r o
回p r i a t e f o r m s f o r e a c h t y p e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
Designing a J a p a n e s e
イ0トS p e c i f i c ‑ P u r p o s eC o u r s e : P u t t i n g Theory i n t o P r a c t i c e
I7 5 The Needs A n a l y s i s s u r v e y i n v o l v e d s i x m a j o r s t e p s :
1 . T a l k i n g w i t h management.
2 . T a l k i n g w i t h c u s t o m e r c o n t a c t s t a f f .
3 . T a l k i n g w i t h J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s w i t h i n c u s t o m e r
幽c o n t a c ta r e a s .
4 . Tour o f Sydney A i r p o r t , R e s e r v a t i o n s ( N o r t h S y d n e y ) and T r a v e l C e n t r e ( Q a n t a s I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e ) .
5 . C o l l e c t i n g o
伍c i a lj o b d e s c r i p t i o n s f o r : P a s s e n g e r Agents ( P A s )
R e s e r v a t i o n S a l e s Agents (RSAs) P a s s e n g e r S a l e s Agents ( P S A s )
6 . I s o l a t i n g j o b f u n c t i o n s t h a t c o u l d be e x e c u t e d i n J a p a n e s e and t h e n s e l e c t i n g o n e s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y t o go i n t o t h e c o u r s e .
T a l k i n g t o Manage
融e n t
I n i t i a l l y , management needed t o be r e a s s u r e d t h a t s t a f f would b e n e f i t from a Language
圃f o r
醐S p e c i
五c ‑ P u r p o s e s(LSP) t r a i n i n g c o u r s e . I t was t h e n i m p o r t a n t t o
五ndo u t what management hoped t h e i r s t a f f would be a b l e t o d o . Many were c o n c e r n e d t h a t s t a f f would n o t be c o m p e t e n t enough t o h a n d l e a f a c e
鳳t o ‑ f a c ee n c o u n t e r s u c c e s s f u l l y i n J a p a n e s e , t h e r e b y u p h o l d i n g t h e h i g h s e r v i c e s t a n d a r d s i n Q a n t a s . B a s i c a l l y t h e y f e l t i f s t a f f were t o s t a r t u s i n g J a p a n e s e t h e y had b e t t e r do i t v e r y w e l l o r e l s e n o t a t a l l . T a l k i n g t o Customer C o n t a c t S t a f f
I t was n e c e s s a r y t o
五ndo u t i n what s i t u a t i o n s s t a f f e n c o u n t e r e d J a p a n e s e and
五ndo u t how s t a f f r e a c t e d and r e l a t e d t o t h e p a s s e n g e r . I t became c l e a r t h a t e n c o u n t e r s w i t h J a p a n e s e p a s s e n g e r s were p r e d i c t a b l e i n t h e t h r e e o p e r a t i o n a l a r e a s on t h e g r o u n d , t h a t i s , a t t h e a i r p o r t , a t t e l e p h o n e r e s e r v a t i o n s , and t r a v e l c e n t r e s . F o r e x a m p l e , J a p a n e s e were more l i k e l y t o r i n g r e s e r v a t i o n s t o r e c o n
五rma
丑i g h tr a t h e r t h a n t o g e t a f a r e q u o t e , and J a p a n e s e were more l i k e l y t o c h e c k i n i n d i v i d u a l l y i n b u s i n e s s and
命s tc l a s s t h a n i n economy c l a s s , where t h e y were l i k e l y t o be a member o f a g r o u p .
T a l k i n g t o J a p a n e s e N a t i o n a l s Employed by Qantas
J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s employed by Q a n t a s i n c u s t o m e r c o n t a c t ‑ a r e a s a r e t h e r e t o c a t e r t o J a p a n e s e p a s s e n g e r s n e e d s . They were t h e r e f o r e f u l l o f i n f o r m a t i o n on p a s s e n g e r c o m p l a i n t s and p r o v i d e d s u g g e s t i o n s on how t o improve s e r v i c e . They c o u l d a l s o s u g g e s t j o b f u n c t i o n s t h a t a PA w i t h minimal J a p a n e s e c o u l d do s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h e a s e . I t became c l e a r a PA w i t h minimal J a p a n e s e c o u l d do many j o b f u n c t i o n s i n J a p a n e s e , s u c h a s b o a r d i n g p a s s c h e c k s a t t h e b o a r d i n g g a t e , w h i l e n o t e n c r o a c h i n g on t h e j o b r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s . In f a c t , i f t h i s were t o become a r e a l i t y , t h e J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s c o u l d be f r e e d up t o d e a l w i t h more i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s , such a s a s s i s t i n g an i n v a l i d p a s s e n g e r o r h a n d l i n g a c o m p l a i n t , e t c .
Ja~anese l a n g u a g e u s e d by J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r work both a t
t h e a i r p o r t and i n r e s e r v a t i o n s was c o l l e c t e d on t a p e .
1 7 6
T a b l e 1 S e r v i c e A r e a s A v a i l a b l e on C a s s e t t e s i n E n g l i s h a n d / o r J a p a n e s e A i r p o r t s
( l i s t o f a r e a s ) Check
帽i n B o a r d i n g G a t e T r a n s f e r Desk B a g g a g e C l a i m B a g g a g e S e r v i c e s F i r s t C l a s s Lounge ( a i r s i d e & l a n d s i d e ) * S t a n d b y Desk E n q u i r i e s Desk R e s e r v a t i o n s & S a l e s S e r v i c e Desk
R e s e r v a t i o n s ( t e l e p h o n e ) ( l i s t o f s e r v i c e s ) F l i g h t N o t i
五c a t i o n ( D e l a y e d / E a r l y )
Recon
五r m a t i o n C o m p l a i n t s B o o k i n g
T r a v e l C e n t r e ( f a c e t o f a c e )
F l i g h t I n f o r m a t i o n O p e n ‑ d a t e d B o o k i n g
R e v a l i d a t i o n E n d o r s e m e n t T i c k e t S a l e T i c k e t i n g R e i s s u i n g R e f u n d s Damaged B a g s
* A i r s i d e r e f e r s t o a i r p o r t f a c i l i t i e s p r i o r t o f o r m a l l y e n t e r i n g o r l e a v i n g a c o u n t r y t h r o u g h i m m i g
四回t i o n . L a n d s i d e i s t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e t o a i r s i d e .
N o t e : The s e r v i c e s s h a r e d b y R e s e r v a t i o n s a n d T r a v e l C e n t r e s a r e l i s t e d u n d e r b o t h c o l u m n s . W i t h i n t h e a i r p o r t , t h e o n l y s e r v i c e f u n c t i o n t h a t r e l a t e d t o o p e r a t i o n s o f R e s e r v a t i o n s a n d t h e T r a v e l C e n t r e w e r e t h e s e r v i c e s a t t h e R e s e r v a t i o n s a n d S a l e s S e r v i c e D e s k .
Tours
Qantas a i r p o r t , r e s e r v a t i o n s , and T r a v e l C e n t r e o p e r a t i o n s were o b s e r v e d i n d e t a i l . A l l t h e s i t u a t i o n s were r e c o r d e d on t a p e , and r e l e v a n t t r a i n i n g v i d e o s were c o l l e c t e d and v i e w e d . The d a t a was c o l l e c t e d on c a s s e t t e t a p e i n E n g l i s h a n d / o r J a p a n e s e from t h e s e r v i c e a r e a s , a s shown i n Table 1 .
Job D e s c r i p t i o n s
0伍
c i a lj o b d e s c r i p t i o n s p r o v i d e d an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e s c o p e o f t h e employees r e s p o n
圃s i b i l i t i e s and a c t e d a s a c r o s s
四checkt o t h e p r e v i o u s l y o u t l i n e d o b s e r v a t i o n s .
Taping a u t h e n t i c m a t e r i a l i n A u s t r a l i a was d i
伍c u l ta s t h e law r e q u i r e s a l l p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d t o g i v e p e r m i s s i o n . T h i s , t h e n , e f f e c t i v e l y d i s c o u n t e d t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e a u t h e n t i c " m a t e r i a l , a s most exchanges were u n n a t u r a l due t o t h e t a p e r e c o r d e rs p r e s e n c e . However, owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n p r i v a c y l a w s i n J a p a n , Qantas r e s e r v a ‑ t i o n s i n Tokyo were a b l e t o t a p e a u t h e n t i c m a t e r i a l which a l t h o u g h s l i g h t l y d i
妊e r e n t from Sydney s i t u a t i o n s was a d a p t a b l e and formed t h e c o r e o f t h e r e s e r v a t i o n s c o u r s e .
P r i o r i t i z a t i o n of Job F u n c t i o n s
I t was c l e a r a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e j o b f u n c t i o n s o f p a s s e n g e r a g e n t s and r e s e r v a t i o n
s a l e s a g e n t s p a s s e n g e r s a l e s a g e n t s were t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t and t h a t combining them i n t o
one c o u r s e would be d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o p a r t i c i p a n t s , s i n c e a t l e a s t h a l f o f t h e c o u r s e
D e s i g n i n g a J a p a n e s e ‑ f a
トS p e c i f i c ‑ P u r p o s eC o u r s e : P u t t i n g T h e o r y i n t o P r a c t i c e 1 7 7 would be i r r e l e v a n t t o a l l o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . This r e
丑e c t e dt h e d e l i c a c y i n a i r l i n e r e g i s t e r 3 between f a c e t o f a c e and t e l e p h o n e e n c o u n t e r s a s w e l l a s a r e a
田s p e c i
五cl e x i s .
A f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n with Qantas management, t h e c o u r s e was s p l i t i n t o t w o . One c o u r s e ( 9 0 h o u r s ) f o r a i r p o r t p a s s e n g e r a g e n t s ( h e r e a
白e rc a l l e d t h e PA c o u r s e ) and one ( 9 0 h o u r s ) f o r r e s e r v a t i o n and p a s s e n g e r s a l e s a g e n t s ( h e r e a f t e r c a l l e d t h e RSA/PSA c o u r s e ) .
The j o b f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e PA c o u r s e were a s f o l l o w s : L o c a t i o n
At A r r i v a l P o i n t At B a g g a g e Claim At Check
」n
At B o a r d i n g G a t e
P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s *
F u n c t i o n s
m e e t i n g d i s e m b a r k i n g p a s s e n g e r s ( p a x ) . meetmg t r a n s i t p a x .
d i r e c t i n g p a x t h r o u g h c u s t o m s p r o c e d u r e s . d i r e c t i n g pax t o a i r p o r t f a c i l i t i e s .
c h e c k i n g i n
五r s tc l a s s and economy p a x . c h e c k i n g i n s t a n d b y p a x .
h a n d l i n g s e a t r e q u e s t s .
n e g o t i a t i n g e x c e s s b a g g a g e c h a r g e s . f a r e w e l l i n g e m b a r k i n g p a x . f a r e w e l l i n g t r a n s i t p a x . r e m o v i n g o v e r s i z e d c a b i n b a g s .
l i m i t i n g p a x t o o n e p i e c e o f c a b i n b a g g a g e . t a k i n g a n d p o s i n g f o r p h o t o g r a p h s . making i n t r o d u c t i o n s .
取
P u b l i cr e l a t i o n s f u n c t i o n s o c c u r r e d a n y w h e r e i n t h e a i r p o r t a n d w e r e n o t i s o l a t e d t o a n y o n e p a r
同t i c u l a r a r e a .
The j o b f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e RSA/PSA c o u r s e were a s f o l l o w s : L o c a t i o n F u n c t i o n R e s e r v a t i o n s o n l y n o t i
五c a t i o no f s c h e d u l e c h a n g e s . T r a v e l C e n t r e o n l y s e l l i n g t i c k e t s .
e n d o r s i n g t i c k e t s .
R e s e r v a t i o n s and T r a v e l C e n t r e r e c o n
五r m i n ga f l i g h t f o r an i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p . r e v a l i d a t i n g a t i c k e t ( c h a n g i n g an e x i s t i n g b o o k i n g ) . g i v i n g o u t f l i g h t a r r i v a l and d e p a r t u r e t i m e i n f o r m a t i o n . Having i s o l a t e d s p e c i
五cj o b f u n c t i o n s and o r d e r e d t h e s e a c c o r d i n g t o f r e q u e n c y and importance a s r e g a r d s t h e j o b d e s c r i p t i o n s , t h e n e x t s t a g e was t o l o o k a t t h e l a n g u a g e used t o perform t h e s e f u n c t i o n s and b e g i n c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t .
a F o r an e x p l a n a t i o n o f r e g i s t e r s e e H a l l i d a y e t a l . , 1 9 6 4 : 9 0 ‑ 9 4 .
Course Development Tape T r a n s c r i p t i o n
The
五r s ts t e p i n c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t was t o t r a n s c r i b e f o r e a c h f u n c t i o n t h e a p p r o
掴p r i a t e d i a l o g u e s t h a t were c o l l e c t e d e i t h e r d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t h e J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s o r d u r i n g t h e t o u r s . The t a p e d d i a l o g u e s c o l l e c t e d by Q a n t a s r e s e r v a t i o n s i n Tokyo were c u l l e d , and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d i a l o g u e s were t r a n s c r i b e d .
To t h e e x t e n t t h a t was p o s s i b l e t h e c o u r s e was d e s i g n e d a r o u n d r e a l s i t u a t i o n s and r e a l l a n g u a g e , t h e r e b y e n s u r i n g t h a t w h a t e v e r was p r e s e n t e d i n c l a s s a d e q u a t e l y r e
回目
e c t e dt h e s i t u a t i o n a t w o r k . D i a l o g u e s
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t a l l t h e j o b f u n c t i o n s had s a m p l e d i a l o g u e s on t a p e , t h u s many d i a ‑ l o g u e s were w r i t t e n and t h e n l a t e r c h e c k e d by J a p a n e s e n a t i o n a l s t o e n s u r e c o r r e c t n e s s and n a t u r a l n e s s . Some o f t h e a u t h e n t i c m a t e r i a l from Tokyo had t o be a d a p t e d t o be r e l e v a n t t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n S y d n e y . Once t h e d i a l o g u e s were c o m p i l e d , s y l l a b u s d ←
s i g n was p o s s i b l e . Course Emphasis
The e m p h a s i s o f t h e two c o u r s e s was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e . The p a r t i c i p a n t s were t o l e a r n t o s p e a k and u n d e r s t a n d J a p a n e s e r e l e v a n t t o t h e i r j o b f u n c t i o n s . However, from t h e n e e d s a n a l y s i s , i t was o b v i o u s t h e P As needed t o be a b l e t o c o n t r o l e a c h I a n ‑ g u a g e s i t u a t i o n ; t h e y were u s u a l l y t h e q u e s t i o n a s k e r s and e x p l a i n e r s o f r u l e s and r e g u
醐l a t i o n s . F u r t h e r , t h e y needed t o know and u s e t h e a i r l i n e r e g i s t e r i n J a p a n e s e , u s i n g h o n o r i
五c ,h u m b l e , and f o r m a l f o r m s i n a s o p h i s t i c a t e d m a n n e r . They needed t o be t r a i n e d i n i n f o r m a t i o n ‑ l i s t e n i n g s t r a t e g i e s more t h a n i n g i s t
圃l i s t e n i n g ,s i n c e p a s
圃s e n g e r s were a l w a y s p r e d i c t a b l e i n t h e i r n e e d s due t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . Thus a t c h e c k
回i na p a s s e n g e rs n e e d s a r e t h o s e o f c h e c k i n g i n . I t i s u n n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d o u t what t h e y want b u t mandatory t o be a b l e t o a s k and u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n s w e r s t o i n f o r m a t i o n q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g s u c h t h i n g s a s name, d e s t i n a t i o n , number o f p a s
醐s e n g e r s , s e a t p r e f e r e n c e s , e t c . S i m i l a r l y i t wasnt a q u e s t i o n o f l e a r n i n g j u s t i n f o r m a ‑ t i o n q u e s t i o n s b u t o f l e a r n i n g p o l i t e , i n d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n q u e s t i o n f o r m s t o meet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e r e g i s t e r . For example PAs needed t o be a b l e t o s a y , Nannin d e g o r y o k
δd e s u h α
,r a t h e r t h a n , Nannin d e s u k a . And s i m i l a r l y , K o c h i r a ga t
ゆk e nd e g o z a i m a s u , i n s t e a d o f , Kore ga t o j o k e n d e s u . The PA c o u r s e t h u s t e n d e d t o be prod
醐u c t o r i e n t e d ; i t
...t e n d e d t o f o c u s on t h e t h i n g s t h a t l e a r n e r s s h o u l d know o r be a b l e t o do a s a r e s u l t o f i n s t r u c t i o n
(Nunan, 1 9 8 8 : 1 1 ) .
U n l i k e t h e PA c o u r s e t h e RSA/PSA e x c h a n g e was n o t c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e s i t u a t i o n . A p a s s e n g e r e n t e r i n g a t r a v e l c e n t e r o r r i n g i n g up may r e q u e s t any number o f s e r v i c e s . T h e r e f o r e t h e RSA/PSA needed a r a n g e o f l i s t e n i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o c o p e w i t h t h e un
酬p r e d i c t a b l e n e e d s o f a c u s t o m e r . This was p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t o v e r t h e p h o n e , s i n c e one c a n n o t r e s o r t t o g e s t u r e s , p i c t u r e s , e t c . RSA/PSAs had t o be a b l e t o
五ndo u t what t h e c u s t o m e r n e e d e d . Thus, l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s s u c h a s l i s t e n i n g f o r g i s t , c h e c k
圃i n g and c o n f i r m i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , e t c . , needed t o be a d d r e s s e d . I n t h i s way t h e RSA/
Designing a J a p a n e s e
イ0トS p e c i f i c ‑ P u r p o s eC o u r s e : P u t t i n g Theory i n t o P r a c t i c e
I7 9 PSA c o u r s e was more p r o c e s s o r i e n t e d t h a n t h e PA c o u r s e . By t h i s i s m e a n t , t h e s y l l a b u s c o n t e n t was s p e c i f i e d i n t e r m s o f l e a r n i n g t a s k s and a c t i v i t i e s ( N u n a n , 1 9 8 8 : 1 1 ) . However, b o t h c o u r s e s were a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r o d u c t and p r o c e s s o r i e n t a t i o n s .
The RSA/PSA c o u r s e had t o f u r t h e r a d d r e s s two modes o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n : ( 1 ) f a c e ‑ t o
欄f a c ec o n v e r s a t i o n and ( 2 ) t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n . There was t h u s a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o a p p r o p r i a t e J a p a n e s e t e l e p h o n e manners and e t i q u e t t e .
F i n a l l y , a s i n d i c a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e j o b f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d by R e s e r v a t i o n s and T r a v e l C e n t r e s t a f f were f e w e r t h a n p a s s e n g e r a g e n t s a t t h e a i r p o r t , b u t l e n g t h i e r and more c o m p l e x , t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r i n g more t e a c h i n g t i m e . Thus, t h e PA c o u r s e had many mo
民j o bf u n c t i o n s i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o u r s e t h a n t h e RSA/PSA c o u r s e .
S y l l a b u s Design
The s y l l a b u s desi~n, t h a t i s , t h e g r a d i n g and s e q u e n c i n g o f t h e d i a l o g u e s and t h e i r c o n t e n t was o r g a n i z e d around t h e most i m p o r t a n t j o b t a s k s o r s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d by t h e c u s t o m e r c o n t a c t s t a f f . Every s e r v i c e was a i r l i n e s p e c i
五cand h i g h l y d e f i n e d .
PA c o u r s e : m a j o r j o b t a s k s
1 . D i r e c t i n g p a s s e n g e r s t o a i r p o r t f a c i l i t i e s . 2 . Checking i n p a s s e n g e r s .
3 . Meeting p a s s e n g e r s . 4 . F a r e w e l l i n g p a s s e n g e r s .
Two more t o p i c s were added t o t h e a b o v e l i s t :
1 . Can you s p e a k J a p a n e s e ? " ( l a n g u a g e s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y t o i n i t i a t e s e r v i c e and i f n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s t o b a c k o u t o f s i t u a t i o n s which a r e beyond t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c c a p a c i t y ) .
2 . P u b l i c r e l a t i o n s ( l a n g u a g e s k i l l s needed t o p r o v i d e t h e p e r s o n a l t o u c h
,'s u c h a s i n t r o d u c t i o n s , p h o t o t a k i n g , e t c . )
RSA c o u r s e : m a j o r s e r v i c e s 1 . Recon
五r m a t i o n .
2 . R e v a l i d a t i o n ( c h a n g i n g e x i s t i n g Qa
批a sf l i g h t /OF] b o o k i
時s ) . 3 . T i c k e t Endorsement ( a l t e r i n g a n o t h e r c a r r i e rs t i c k e t ) . 4 . T i c k e t S a l e s .
5 . F l i g h t I n f o r m a t i o n .
Again t h e t o p i c Can you s p e a k J a p a n e s e was added f o r t h e r e a s o n s o u t l i n e d a b o v e , and F l i g h t I n f o r m a t i o n was s p l i t i n t o : ( 1 ) a r r i v a l and d e p a r t u r e t i m e s and ( 2 ) f l i g h t n o t i
五c a t i o n :d e l a y e d and e a r l y ( t h i s s e r v i c e i s i n i t i a t e d by t h e company, n o t by t h e p a s s e n g e r , w h e r e a s a l l o t h e r s e r v i c e s a r e i n i t i a t e d by t h e p a s s e n g e r ) .
Sequencing
The s e q u e n c i n g o f t h e j o b t a s k s / s e r v i c e s was d e t e r m i n e d by two c r i t e r i a : 1 . l e n g t h o f t h e s e r v i c e .
2 . l i n g u i s t i c c o m p l e x i t y .
I f a s e r v i c e i n v o l v e d a s h o r t l i n g u i s t i c e x c h a n g e t h e n i t was p l a c e d e i t h e r a t t h e b
かg i n n i n g o r end o f t h e c o u r s e , b e c a u s e t h e s t u d e n t s needed t o be e a s e d i n and o u t o f
t h e c o u r s e a s p a i n l e s s l y a s p o s s i b l e . F u r t h e r , l e n g t h y s e r v i c e s t e n d e d t o i n v o l v e l i n
圃g u i s t i c c o m p l e x i t y , e . g
・9c h e c k i n g ‑ i n o r t i c k e t r e v a l i d a t i o n , t h u s t h e s e were d e a l t w i t h a s t h e c o r e o f t h e c o u r s e and o c c u r r e d m i d c o u r s e . These l o n g e r s e r v i c e s i n i t i a l l y p o s e d a problem i n t e r m s o f how t o b r e a k them down i n t o manageable l e s s o n s i z e s . However, e a c h s e r v i c e n e a t l y b r o k e down i n t o g e n e r i c s t a g e s which n e a t l y f i t i n t o a t h r e e
圃hourc l a s s .
For e x a m p l e , a t i c k e t r e v a l i d a t i o n o v e r t h e t e l e p h o n e b r o k e down i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f i v e g e n e r i c s t a g e s and t h u s l e s s o n s :
Lesson 1 1 . P a s s e n g e r Name R e g i s t r a t i o n Lesson 1 2 . Con
五rmingBooking Change Lesson 1 3 . Changing t h e B o o k i n g Lesson 1 4 . New B o o k i n g D e t a i l s
Lesson 1 5 . D i r e c t i n g P a s s e n g e r t o T r a v e l C e n t r e
Lesson 1 6 . R e v i e w : Combining t h e g e n e r i c s t a g e s t o form a r e a l i s t i c e x c h a n g e The s e q u e n c i n g o f t h e s e r v i c e s / j o b t a s k s was c o n s e q u e n t l y n o t b a s e d on any gram
圃m a t i c a l c r i t e r i a , t h e r e b y f a l l i n g i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f a n a l y t i c s y l l a b u s t y p e s : a n a l y t i c meaning
...o r g a n i z e d i n t e r m s o f t h e p u r p o s e s f o r which p e o p l e a r e l e a r n i n g I a n
帽g u a g e and t h e k i n d s o f l a n g u a g e p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y t o meet t h o s e p u r
回p o s e s
(W i l k i n s , 1 9 7 6 : 1 3 ) . Thus an a n a l y t i c s y l l a b u s i s
...b a s e d on n o n ‑ l i n
皿g u i s t i c u n i t s s u c h a s t o p i c s , t h e m e s , s e t t i n g s and s i t u a t i o n s . L e a r n e r s a r e e x p o s e d t o h o l i s t i c chunks o f l a n g u a g e and a r e r e q u i r e d t o e x t r a c t p a t t e r n s and r e g u l a r i t i e s from t h e s e
(Nunan, 1 9 8 8 : 1 5 8 ) .
Grading
Once t h e s e q u e n c i n g o f t h e s e r v i c e s / j o b t a s k s was d e t e r m i n e d , t h e d i a l o g u e s r e l a t i n g t o e a c h were s c r u t i n i z e d f o r f u n c t i o n s , f o r n
叫s t r u c t u r e s ,n o t i o n s and u s e f u l e x p r e s s i o n s . These l i s t s i l k
凶r a t e dtwo k i n d s o f l a n g u a g e
:(1 ) l a n g u a g e t h a t o p e r a t e d a c r o s s s e r v i c e s and ( 2 ) l a n g u a g e t h a t was s e r v i c e
ゆec i f i c .
A c r o s s S e r v i c e Types :
F u n c t i o n s : A p o l o g i z i n g , t h a n k i n g , c o n
五r m i n g ,i n f o r m i n g , e t c . Forms: Verb t o be
(d e s u ) ; t h e m a t i c p a r t i c l e
w仏U s e f u l E x p r e s s i o n s : P l e a s e w a i t a moment ( S h o s h
δo m a c h i k u d a s a i ) .
S o r r y t o h a v e k e p t you w a i t i n g ( O m a t a s e z ' t a s h i m a s h i t a ) . S e r v i c e S p e c i f i c Types :
F u n c t i o n s : E x p l a i n i n g f a c i l i t y l o c a t i o n s .
Forms: L o c a t i o n v e r b s and p a r t i c l e s ( n i a r i m a s u / g o z a i m a s u ) . N o t i o n s : L e f t and r i g h t ( h i d a r i / m i g i ) ; b e s i d e ( t o n a r i ) ; above ( u e ) ;
below ( s h i t a ) .
U s e f u l E x p r e s s i o n s : Do
アouh a v e a n y t h i n g t o d e c l a r e ? ( S h i n k o k u s u r u mono ga g o z a i m a s u k a . )
The a c r o s s s e r v i c e t y p e f u n c t i o n s , f o r m s , n o t i o n s , and e x p r e s s i o n s were d e a l t
w i t h
五r s tand c o n t i n u a l l y r e c y c l e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e . The s e r v i c e s p e c i
五c
t y p e s were d e a l t w i t h i n e a c h r e l e v a n t s e r v i c e / j o b t a s k i n o r d e r o f a p p e a r a n c e . The
a d v a n t a g e o f g r a d i n g i n t h i s manner meant s t u d e n t s q u i c k l y b u i l t up a s t o r e o f
f a m i l i a r and known l a n g u a g e components which b u i l t c o n
五d e n c eand l e s s e n e d t h e
Designing a J a p a n e s e
四f o r
岨・S p e c i f i c
回PurposeC o u r s e : P u t t i n g Theory i n t o P r a c t i c e
I8
It r a u m a o f b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y e x p o s e d t o new m a t e r i a l . Every l e s s o n c o n s i s t e n t l y con
圃t a i n e d l e s s and l e s s new m a t e r i a l . Course Weight
The
五r s ttwo weeks o f e a c h c o u r s e were demanding both i n t e r m s o f c o u r s e c o n t e n t and p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r e s s u r e , b u t i n t h e t h i r d week t h e amount o f c o n t e n t and p r e s s u r e was r e l a x e d . This was d e l i b e r a t e l y p l a n n e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f s t u d e n t m o t i v a t i o n and commitment e a r l y on i n o r d e r t o g e t t h r o u g h t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e t i m e a l l o t t e d . I t a l s o a v o i d e d t h e b u r n ‑ o u t s y n d r o m e . S t u d e n t s f e l t h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l a t t h e com
圃p l e t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e t h e t h i r d week was c o n s o l i d a t i o n . Course Methodology
The j o b t a s k s o f t h e Q a n t a s e m p l o y e e s though v e r y c l e a r l y d e
五nedwere a l s o h i g h l y d y n a m i c , t h a t i s , v a r i a t i o n o c c u r s w i t h i n e a c h d e f i n e d s i t u a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , a p a s
皿s e n g e r c h e c k i n g i n may h a v e a s p e c i a l s e a t i n g r e q u e s t , may h a v e e x c e s s b a g g a g e , and may r e q u e s t s o m e t h i n g u s i n g a n o r
トs t a n d a r df o r m . In o r d e r t o p r e p a r e t h e e m p l o y e e s f o r t h i s e x p e r i e n c e and t o be s u c c e s s f u l i n s u c h an e n c o u n t e r , a c o m m u n i c a t i v e , t a s k
阻b a s e d a p p r o a c h t o t e a c h i n g was u s e d i n t h e c l a s s r o o m a s opposed t o a f o r m a l i s t a p
圃p r o a c h l o o k i n g a t g r a m m a t i c a l a c c u r a c y , e t c .
This c o m m u n i c a t i v e a p p r o a c h i n v o l v e d c l a s s r o o m work aimed a t t h e s i t u a t i o n a l and c o n t e x t u a l i z e d u s e o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e : t h i s l a n g u a g e [ w a s ] s p e c i
五edi n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g components o f e v e n t s : WHO [ s p e a k i n g ] a b o u t WHAT w i t h what PURPOSE i n which t y p e s and s t a g e s o f DISCOURSE t o what g e n e r a l AIM
'( P i e p h o , 1 9 8 3 : 2 0 ) .
A l l t h e c l a s s r o o m a c t i v i t i e s were s i t u a t i o n a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e , n e g o t i a t e d m e a n i n g , and p r o v i d e d c h e c k s t o a c c o u n t f o r s u c c e s s f u l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . These a c t i v i t i e s o r t a s k s were an a c t i v i t y o r a c t i o n which [ w a s ] c a r r i e d o u t a s t h e r e s u l t o f p r o c e s s i n g o r un
四d e r s t a n d i
時l a n g u a g e" ( R i c h a r d s e t a l . , 1 9 8 5 : 2 8 9 ) .
F u r t h e r , t h e c l a s s r o o m was t o o c o n t r i v e d an e n v i r o n m e n t t o g a u g e t h e f u t u r e s u c
固c e s s o f t h e i r communication on t h e j o b , s o n o n ‑ E n g l i s h
同s p e a k i n gJ a p a n e s e s t u d e n t s were i n v i t e d t o a t t e n d c l a s s a s Q a n t a s p a s s e n g e r s and p r a c t i c e w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . This r e s e m b l e d t h e o n ‑ t h e ‑ j o b s i t u a t i o n more c l o s e l y and a s s i s t e d i n d e
町r s t i f y i n t h e J a p a n e s e t r a v e l e r a s w e l l .
The c o u r s e u s e d a i r l i n e r e a l i a whenever p o s s i b l e , s u c h a s : a i r l i n e t i c k e t s , b o a r d i n g p a s s e s , b a g g a g e c l a i m t a g s , p a s s p o r t s , computer t i m e t a b l e s , e t c . , a s w e l l a s t h e more s t a n d a r d c l a s s r o o m t e a c h i n g a i d s l i k e f l a s h c a r d s , c l o c k s , maps, and i l l u s t r a t i o n s , e t c .
Each s t u d e n t was g i v e n a s e t o f t a p e s which c o n t a i n e d a l l t h e d i a l o g u e s used i n t h e c o u r s e and was e n c o u r a g e d t o l i s t e n a h e a d and t r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g i s t o f e a c h l e s
醐s o n b e f o r e i t was p r e s e n t e d . R e c e p t i v e / p a s s i v e s k i l l s ( d e v e l o p i n g ways and means t o u n d e r s t a n d ) and p r o d u c t i v e s k i l l s ( d e v e l o p i n g ways and means o f s a y i n g ) were g i v e n e q u a l a t t e n t i o n . S t u d e n t s were e x p e c t e d o n l y t o p r o d u c e l a n g u a g e a t t h e l e v e l o f a i r l i n e r e g i s t e r b u t t o u n d e r s t a n d o t h e r l e v e l s o f p o l i t e n e s s a n d / o r p l a i n n e s s t h a t a p a s
同s e n g e r might u s e . F u r t h e r , t h e p r o d u c t i v e l e x i s was f a r more r e s t r i c t e d t h a n t h e p a s
圃s i v e l e x i s . The p a s s i v e s k i l l s t e n d e d t o be i n t h e l i s t e n i n g a c t i v i t i e s and t h e p r o d u c t i v e s k i l l s i n t h e s p e a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s .
D i a l o g u e t r a n s c r i p t s , t r a n s l a t i o n s , and grammar n o t e s were o n l y g i v e n o u t a t t h e end o f e a c h l e s s o n t o f u r t h e r d e v e l o p a u r a l s k i l l s and r e d u c e o v e r
帽r e l i a n c eon t h e w r i t t e n w o r d . The grammar n o t e s were v e r y c o n c i s e and o n l y a d d r e s s e d u s a g e w i t h i n t h e a i r l i n e r e g i s t e r .
Lesson Format
Each l e s s o n was p r e s e n t e d i n a P r e s e n t a t i o n , P r a c t i c e , and P r o d u c t i o n " ( P P P ) f o r m a t . The p r e s e n t a t i o n s t a g e e i t h e r i n t r o d u c e d new m a t e r i a l i n a v e r y f o c u s e d m a n n e r , f o r e x a m p l e , t e a c h i n g wh q u e s t i o n s t h r o u g h s t r u c t u r e , o r e l s e i n an u n f o c u s e d o r g l o b a l manner by a p p r o a c h i n g t h e d i a l o g u e i n i t s e n t i r e t y and w o r k i n g down t o t h e s p e c i
五c i t e m t h a t was n e w . This o f t e n n e a t l y i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e r e v i s i o n c o m p o n e n t .
Every l e s s o n was a p p r o x 1 m a t e l y t h r e e h o u r s l o n g w i t h a r e v i e w s e c t i o n a t t h e b e g i n
圃n i n g f o l l o w e d by a v o c a b u l a r y / u s e f
叫e x p r e s s i o nt e s t b a s e d on t h e p r e v i o u s l e s s o n s . New j o b t a s k s o r f u n c t i o n s were i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e morning s e s s i o n s when s t u d e n t s were t h e f r e s h e s t , and t h e a f t e r n o o n c l a s s e s were u s e d a s c o n s o l i d a t i o n and e x t e n s i o n o f t h e morning m a t e r i a l .
F r i d a y s were used a s a p a r t i a l r e s t d a y . The morning s e s s i o n was a r e v i e w o f t h e week
Swork and r o l e
幽p l a y i n gw i t h t h e J a p a n e s e s t u d e n t s w h i l e t h e a f t e r n o o n was t a k e n up w i t h a c u l t u r e l e c t u r e , d i s c u s s i o n , and v i d e o .
The s t a n d a r d l e s s o n f o r m a t i n t h e t e x t was a s f o l l o w s :
Core D i a l o g u e ( s ) : These were e i t h e r s i m u l a t e d a u t h e n t i c , a d a p t e d , o r when u n a ‑ v o i d a b l e , composed d i a l o g u e s ;
D i a l o g u e T r a n s l a t i o n ( s ) ; L i s t e n i n g A c t i v i t i e s ; S p e a k i n g A c t i v i t i e s ; U s e f u l E x p r e s s i o n s L i s t ; V o c a b u l a r y L i s t s ;
Grammar E x p l a n a t i o n s and E x a m p l e s . A c t i v i t y Types
A l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s were d e s i g n e d e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e c o u r s e . They a l l i n v o l v e d t h e s t u
圃d e n t s i n meaning n e g o t i a t i o n and c o n s t i t u t e d a c o m m u n i c a t i v e t a s k . Comprehension c h e c k s a p p e a r e d i n e v e r y a c t i v i t y e i t h e r i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y . A l l l e s s o n s c o n t a i n e d a c t i v i t i e s t h a t p r o g r e s s e d from h i g h l y c o n t r o l l e d t o l o o s e l y g u i d e d .
Both c o u r s e s c o n t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g a c t i v i t y t y p e s : I . L i s t e n i n g A c t i v i t i e s 。 o rr e c e p t i v e s k i l l s )
A. Gap F i l l L i s t e n i n g ;
(1)
f o r u s e f u l e x p r e s s i o n s ;
( 2 ) f o r c o n t e n t words and p h r a s e s ( e . g . , t i m e , d a t e s , names
,自i g h tn u m b e r s , money, e t c . ;
( 3 ) f o r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f
(1) and (2 ) .
B . L i s t e n i n g f o r G i s t ;
D e s i g n i n g a J a p a n e s e
欄f o
トS p e c i f i c ‑ P u r p o s eC o u r s e : P u t t i n g Theory i n t o P r a c t i c e
I8 3
C . L i s t e n i n g f o r F o r m / E x p r e s s i o n V a r i a t i o n s ; D. L i s t e n i n g C o m p r e h e n s i o n ;
E . J i g s a w L i s t e n i n g (Geddes e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ) ;
F . Feedback Response L i s t e n i n g ; t h e a c t i v i t y d e a l s w i t h J a p a n e s e f e e d b a c k and how t o g i v e i t a p p r o p r i a t e l y . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , more o f an a c t i v i t y r e l a t i n g t o d i s c o u r s e s t r a t e g i e s ;
G. L i s t e n i n g f o r R e g i s t e r V a r i a b l e s ; H. F i l l
」n
圃t h e
回P i c t u r eL i s t e n i n g .
I I . S p e a k i n g A c t i v i t i e s ( f o r p r o d u c t i v e s k i l l s ) A . P a i r w o r k : L e v e l P r a c t i c e w i t h
( 1 ) V e r b s ; ( 2 ) Nouns;
B.
P a i r w o r k : I n f o r m a t i o n S u b s t i t u t i o n u s i n g c u e c a r d s ; C . P a i r w o r k : L o c a t i o n and D i r e c t i o n s ;
D. P a i r w o r k : Time;
E . P a i r w o r k : F i n i s h i n g S e n t e n c e s and D i a l o g u e s ; F . P a i r w o r k : B u i l d i n g Nominal S t r i n g s ;
G. Gap F i l l ;
H.
明T r i t eYour Own D i a l o g u e ;
I . R o l e
帽p l a y i
略u s i n ga u t h e n t i c a i d s ( a i r l i n e t i c k e t s , b o a r d i n g p a s s e s , b a g g a g e c l a i m t a g s , e t c
ふCONCLUSION
The e x p e r i e n c e o f r e s e a r c h i n g and w r i t i n g a JSP c o u r s e , o b s e r v i n g i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , and t h e n e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e s e r v i c e p r o v i d e d by t h e s e newly t r a i n e d Q a n t a s e m p l o y e e s c o n
五rmedf o r me t h e need f o r and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f JSP c o u r s e s . The common o p i n i o n i s t h a t g e n e r a l J a p a n e s e n e e d s t o be t a u g h t b e f o r e any JSP m a t e r i a l i n o r d e r t o e s t a b
由l i s h a五 rmg r o u n d i n g i n t h e l a n g u a g e . T h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r y . What i s n e c e s s a r y i s t h o r o u g h r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e l a n g u a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f d i f f e r e n t l e a r n e r s o f J a p a n e s e . P r o v i d e d t h e l a n g u a g e c o v e r e d i n t h e c l a s s r o o m m a t c h e s t h e l a n g u a g e e n c o u n t e r e d on t h e j o b , t h e n t h e n o t i o n o f a
五rmg r o u n d i n g l o s e s i t s r e l e v a n c e .
The c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f t h e s e c o u r s e s by Q a n t a s was a m i l e s t o n e i n c o r p o r a t e Aus
四t r a l i a . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , A u s t r a l i a n c o m p a n i e s h a v e n o t t a k e n on t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s t a f f t r a i n i n g t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i s commonplace i n J a p a n . R a t h e r , c o m p a n i e s e x p e c t t h e i r new r e c r u i t s t o a r r i v e r e a d y ‑ t r a i n e d . Q a n t a s , h o w e v e r , d e c i d e d t o i n v e s t i n i t s s t a f f i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n and i m p r o v e i t s e d g e i n an incr~asingly c o m p e t i t i v e i n t e r n a ‑ t i o n a l m a r k e t . At t h e t i m e t h a t Q a n t a s mounted t h e s e c o u r s e s , t h e A u s t r a l i a n g o v e r n
聞ment began l o o k i n g f o r ways t o i m p r o v e t h e n a t i o n ' s p r o d u c t i v i t y and c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s . T h i s c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e T r a i n i n g G u a r a n t e e Act 1 9 9 0 , a l a w r e q u i r i n g s m a l l and l a r g e b u s i n e s s e s a l i k e t o d e v o t e a minimum o f 1 . 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r n a t i o n a l p a y r o l l t o i n
圃h o u s e s t a f f t r a i n i n g . The p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t s o f t h i s Act a r e t o i n c r e a s e and i m p r o v e
t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e employment r e l a t e d s k i l l s o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n w o r k f o r c e s o t h a t i t works
more p r o d u c t i v e l y , f l e x i b l y and s a f e l y t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e e
伍c i e n c yand i n t e r n a ‑
t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f A u s t r a l i a n i n d u s t r y .
川The f a c t t h a t Qantas i n s t i g a t e d s p e c i a l i z e d i n
皿houset r a i n i n g b e f o r e t h e T r a i n i n g Guarantee Act h i g h l i g h t s t h e i n n o v a t i o n and f o r e t h o u g h t o f t h e companys s e n i o r management, without whom t h e s e c o u r s e s would n o t have happened.
Appendix A The S e l e c t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
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一&a・一a一C一u一AU一E一 Vd
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JAPANESE LANGUAGE SKILLS
1 . Which o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b e s t d e s c r i b e s y o u r c u r r e n t c o m p e t e n c e i n ψ e a k i n g J a p a n e s e ? ( P l e a s e c i r c l e t h e a p p r o p r i
ばel e t t e r b e l o w . )
a . c a nt s p e a k a word b . j u s t a few words c . j u s t a few p h r a s e s
d . c a n h a n d l e s i m p l e c o n v e r s a t i o n s e . r e a s o n a b l y f l u e n t
2 . Have you e v e r u n d e r t a k e n any f o r m a l s t u d y / t r a i n i n g i n t h e J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e ?
YES NO
If YES, was t
h i s :
a . a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l YES NO b . a f t e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l YES NO
p l e a s e s p e c i f y
c . How l o n g d i d you s t u d y J a p a n e s e ?
y e a r s ̲ months d . y o u r l a s t y e a r o f s t u d y was 1 9 ̲
3 . Has y o u r p r o f i c i e n c y i n s p e a k i n g J a p a n e s e e v e r b e e n a s s e s s e d by any p e r s o n o r o r g a n i z a
幽t i o n , w h e t h e r f o r m a l l y o r i n f o r m a l l y ? YES NO
If YES p
l e a s e i n d i c a t e :
a . y e a r when a s s e s s e d 1 9 ̲ b . by whom/which o r g a n i z a t i o n ? ・
c . r e s u l t o f y o u r p r o f i c i e n c y a s s e s s m e n t
4 . Have you p r e v i o u s l y a p p l i e d t o l e a r n J a p a n e s e u n d e r t h e Q a n t a s l a n g u a g e t r a i n i n g a s
圃s i s t a n c e s c h e m e ? YES NO
If YES, was yo u r a p p l i c a t i o n :
a . a p p r o v e d b . n o t a p p r o v e d
5 .
If you an s w e r e d NO t o Q 4 , p l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h e r e a s o n s why you h a v e n o t s o f a r a p p l i e d t o l e a r n J a p a n e s e u n d e r t h e Q a n t a s t r a i n i n g a s s i s t a n c e s c h e m e .
4