How Sensitive Are Our Eyes to Text Difficulty?
: Application of Schema Fixation Curves to Japanese Text
著者 Horii Ken, Kotani Kentaro, Kitamura Yutaka, d'YDEWALLE Gery
journal or
publication title
関西大学工学研究報告 = Technology reports of the Kansai University
volume 48
page range 1‑12
year 2006‑03‑21
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10112/11831
Technology R e p o r t s o f K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y N o . 4 8 , 2006 ー
How S e n s i t i v e Are Our Eyes t o Text D i f f i c u l t y ? A p p l i c a t i o n o f Schema F i x a t i o n Curves t o J a p a n e s e Text
Ken H O R I I * , Kentaro KOTANI*, Yutaka KITAMURA**, Gery d'YDEWALLE***
( R e c e i v e d September 1 2 , 2 0 0 5 ) ( A c c e p t e d J a n u a r y 3 0 , 2 0 0 6 )
Abstract
T h i s p a p e r d i s c u s s e s t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f Schema F i x a t i o n C u r v e s t o t h e d e t e c t i o n o f c h a n g e s i n t h e b e h a v i o r o f e y e movements i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r e a d a b i l i t y o f t e x t . I f t h e e y e s a r e t o r e s p o n d t o t h e d e g r e e o f d i f f i c u l t y o f t h e g i v e n t a s k , we may s a y t h a t t h e e y e s a r e a n o u t p u t d e v i c e o f o u r c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . Our p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h l e d u s t o t h e n o t a t i o n o f Schema F i x a t i o n and Schema F i x a t i o n C u r v e s , a t e c h n i q u e w i t h which g r a p h i c a l l y a n a l y z e t h e c o g n i t i v e l o a d t h e s u b j e c t s b e a r when t h e y r e a d t e x t s . The r e s u l t s o f o u r e x p e r i m e n t s b a s e d on t h i s t e c h n i q u e show t h a t t h e e y e movement r e c o r d s a r e a g o o d c l u e t o t h e d e t e c t i o n o f t e x t d i f f i c u l t y o r r e a d a b i l i t y o f t e x t s .
C o n v e n t i o n a l l y , c o m p u t e r ‑ c a l c u l a t e d r e a d a b i l i t y i n d i c e s have been u s e d t o p r e d i c t t e x t r e a d a b i l i t y , b u t t h e p r e c i s i o n o f t h e p r e d i c t i o n may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e s o h i g h . T h i s i s b e c a u s e most o f t h e s e i n d i c e s u s e s y n t a c t i c e l e m e n t s o f t e x t s u c h a s a v e r a g e s e n t e n c e l e n g t h and word l e n g t h . D i f f i c u l t y o f t e x t s a r i s e s from a v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s , s u c h a s t h e r e a d e r ' s background knowledge o f t h e p a s s a g e , t h e r a n g e o f v o c a b u l a r y u s e d i n t h e t e x t . s y n t a c t i c and s e m a n t i c a m b i g u i t i e s , e t c . I n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , we u s e d t h e J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e i n o r d e r t o f o c u s o n s y n t a c t i c e f f e c t on r e a d a b i l i t y . J a p a n e s e a l l o w s much f r e e r s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e t h a n p r e s e n t ‑ d a y E n g l i s h . For e x a m p l e , t h e n a t u r a l , n o r m a l , and u n s t r e s s e d word o r d e r o f E n g l i s h ( f r o m amongst t h e s i x l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV, OVS) i s SVO w h i l e v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e b o t h p o s s i b l e and n a t u r a l i n J a p a n e s e . We changed t h e s y n t a c t i c o r d e r o f words i n s e n t e n c e s and p r e s e n t e d them t o t h e s u b j e c t s i n o r d e r t o examine t h e r e c o r d e d e y e movements, and found t h a t d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s p r o d u c e d d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f r e a d a b i l i t y .
1 . Introduction
R e a d a b i l i t y o f t e x t s w r i t t e n i n E n g l i s h has l o n g been s t u d i e d 1 ) and many f o r m u l a s have been d e v i s e d t o q u a n t i f y t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t e x t s . Today, with t h e advent o f microcomputers, t h e r e a r e many s o f t w a r e a p p l i c a t i o n s t o compute many o f t h e s e r e a d a b i l i t y f o r m u l a s 2 ) ‑ r n ) . I n Kitamura e t a l l l ) , we i n t r o d u c e d Schema F i x a t i o n C u r v e s , a methodology f o r g l o b a l a n a l y s i s o f eye movements i n r e a d i n g t e x t d i s p l a y e d on t h e computer monitor s c r e e n , t o e v a l u a t e computer‑generated r e a d a b i l i t y i n d i c e s . Our previous experiment r e s u l t s showed t h a t c o m p u t e r ‑ p r e d i c t e d r e a d a b i l i t y s c o r e s f o r E n g l i s h t e x t s were g e n e r a l l y i d e n t i c a l with t h e a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s obtained by using t h e schema f i x a t i o n curve technique provided the
* Department o f Systems Management E n g i n e e r i n g , K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y
* * I n s t i t u t e o f F o r e i g n Language E d u c a t i o n and R e s e a r c h K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y
* * * L a b o r a t o r y o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , K a t h o l i e k e U n i v e r s i t e i t L e u v e n , B e l g i u m
2 Ken H O R I I , K e n t a r o KOTANI, Y u t a k a KITAMURA, G e r y d'YDEWALLE
s u b j e c t s ' f i r s t l a n g u a g e was E n g l i s h , and s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e r e a d a b i l i t y i n d i c e s c a n b e a rough measure o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f E n g l i s h t e x t s . At t h e same t i m e , we l e a r n e d t h a t e y e movements a r e a good c l u e t o p r o b i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e i n t h e human b r a i n .
I t may s a f e l y be s a i d t h a t r e a d a b i l i t y o f E n g l i s h t e x t depends on a l o t o f i n t e r r e l a t e d f a c t o r s . For i n s t a n c e , s t y l i s t i c d i f f i c u l t y o f t e x t s , t h e r e a d e r ' s r e a d i n e s s f o r o r i n t e r e s t i n a p a r t i c u l a r t e x t e t c . S t y l i s t i c d i f f i c u l t y may a r i s e from b o t h s y n t a c t i c and s e m a n t i c r e a s o n s . I t i s u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e d t h a t c o n t e x t h a s much t o d o w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a s e n t e n c e . As f o r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t c o n t e x t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e s y n t a c t i c a n a l y s i s s t a g e , o p p o s i n g t h e o r i e s have been p r o p o s e d , i . e . t h e " g a r d e n p a t h " t h e o r y 1 2 l ・ 1 3 l and t h e " I n c r e m e n t a l I n t e r a c t i v e " t h e o r y 1 4 l ̲ A g r e a t v a r i e t y o f s e n t e n c e s have been a r t i f i c i a l l y composed a s t a s k s e n t e n c e s , and y e t i t i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o a v o i d t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t s on s y n t a c t i c e l e m e n t s , and v i c e v e r s a , i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s , because t h e E n g l i s h language i s h e a v i l y r e l i a n t on word o r d e r t o convey m e a n i n g . E n g l i s h i s r a t h e r r i g i d i n t e r m s o f word o r d e r , a l t h o u g h , a s David C r y s t a l 1 5 ) shows q u o t i n g t h e s p e e c h u s e d by t h e J e d i Master Yoda i n t h e f i l m , ・ R e t u r n o f t h e J e d i ' , t h e r e i s a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e SVC word s e q u e n c e .
1 ) S i c k I ' v e b e c o m e .
2 ) S t r o n g w i t h t h e F o r c e you a r e . 3 ) Your f a t h e r he i s .
4 ) When n i n e hundred y e a r s you r e a c h , l o o k a s good you w i l l n o t .
But C r y s t a l p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s s t r a n g e s p e e c h s t y l e i s a s c r i b e d t o t h e r a r i t y o f t h e word s e q u e n c e .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , J a p a n e s e i s a h i g h l y f l e x i b l e l a n g u a g e i n terms o f word o r d e r , b e c a u s e i t i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e d e c l e n s i o n o f nouns t o i n d i c a t e c a s e a t t r i b u t e s o f n o u n s . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , p o s s i b l e t o change s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s o f a s e n t e n c e , s u c h a s t h e s u b j e c t and t h e o b j e c t o f t h e s e n t e n c e , e m p l o y i n g e x a c t l y t h e same words w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e meaning o f t h e s e n t e n c e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , by u s i n g t h e J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e , i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o measure t h e e f f e c t s o f s y n t a c t i c i n f l u e n c e upon comprehension o f t e x t e l i m i n a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t s . T h i s i s a g r e a t a d v a n t a g e i n d e s i g n i n g e x p e r i m e n t s t o d e t e c t any change i n t h e amount o f c o g n i t i v e l o a d imposed o n t h e s u b j e c t i n r e a d i n g .
2 . Short I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Modern Japanese Language
Nouns and p r o n o u n s i n t h e modern J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e d o n o t have g e n d e r s , n o r a r e m o d i f i e d e i t h e r by d e f i n i t e o r d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e s . Nouns d o n o t have s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l f o r m s . There i s n o redundancy i n t e r m s o f numbers i n J a p a n e s e , w h i l e E n g l i s h i s h i g h l y r e d u n d a n t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e a s f o l l o w s .
5 ) There i s a f o r e s t n e a r t h e t o w n .
6 ) There a r e many f o r e s t s n e a r t h e t o w n .
How S e n s i t i v e Are Our E y e s t o T e x t D i f f i c u l t y ? 3
P l u r a l i t y i n 6 ) i s e x p r e s s e d by t h r e e e l e m e n t s i n t h e s e n t e n c e : i t ) h e p l u r a l form'are";
i i ) t h e a d j e c t i v e "many" ; and i i i ) t h e p l u r a l s ‑ e n d i n g . I n J a p a n e s e , t h e p l u r a l i t y a t i s s u e i s marked o n l y by e m p l o y i n g a word t h a t e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a "many" ( i n J a p a n e s e t h e word i s u s e d a d v e r b i a l l y n o t a s a n a d j e c t i v e a s i n E n g l i s h ) , and no o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e n t e n c e a r e a f f e c t e d .
As m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , c a s e s a r e s i g n i f i e d by t h e d e c l e n s i o n o f n o u n s . To b e more p r e c i s e , a n a u x i l i a r y p a r t i c l e i s added t o t h e end o f a noun t o d e c l i n e . Although J a p a n e s e b a s i c a l l y t a k e s t h e (S)OV word o r d e r compared t o t h e E n g l i s h SVO word o r d e r , a l l t h e o t h e r c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e and n a t u r a l . For i n s t a n c e , i n E n g l i s h , y o u r l o v e f o r t h e p e r s o n you a r e t a l k i n g t o c a n b e c o n f e s s e d by a s e n t e n c e whose word o r d e r c a n n o t be c h a n g e d :
7 ) I l o v e y o u .
I n J a p a n e s e , t h e f o l l o w i n g word o r d e r s a r e p o s s i b l e t o c o n f e s s y o u r l o v e a l m o s t t o t h e same e f f e c t .
8 ) ( I ) l o v e y o u . 9 ) ( I ) you l o v e . 1 0 ) You ( I ) l o v e . 1 1 ) You l o v e ( I ) , 1 2 ) Love ( I ) y o u . 1 3 ) Love you ( I ) .
Of c o u r s e t h e r e a r e p r e f e r r e d and u s u a l word o r d e r s among t h e s e , b u t t h e c h o i c e o f any p a r t i c u l a r word o r d e r i s a matter o f i n d i v i d 叫 t a s t e .As t h e E n g l i s h n o m i n a t i v e and a c c u s a t i v e f o r m s o f t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r ( a n d a l s o p l u r a l ) a r e i d e n t i c a l i n t h e i r f o r m s and p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s 9 ) t h r o u g h 1 3 ) c r e a t e g r e a t c o n f u s i o n o r s i m p l y f a i l t o convey what i s meant by t h e speaker o r w r i t e r . Among many o t h e r f e a t u r e s o f t h e J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e , i t i s worthy o f n o t e t h a t a s t a t e m e n t c a n be c o n v e r t e d i n t o a q u e s t i o n by a d d i n g a n a u x i l i a r y p a r t i c l e a t t h e end o f t h e s t a t e m e n t , and t h a t n e g a t i o n o c c u r s a l s o a t t h e end o f a s e n t e n c e , which g i v e s t h e s p e a k e r o r w r i t e r a g r e a t freedom t o change h i s o r h e r i n i t i a l i n t e n t o f u t t e r a n c e i n t h e m i d s t o f d i s c o u r s e s o t h a t u n n e c e s s a r y m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r u n f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t o f u t t e r a n c e can be a v o i d e d . This f l e x i b i l i t y i n syntax i s a most o u t s t a n d i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s l a n g u a g e , and i t i s t h i s p r o p e r t y t h a t we w i l l make u s e o f i n d e s i g n i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a t i s s u e .
3 . Experiment and Method 3 . 1 Apparatus
Two d i f f e r e n t eye‑movement r e c o r d e r s , NAC's Eye Movement Recorder Model V
( h e r e a f t e r a b b r e v i a t e d a s EMR V ) and NAC's Eye Movement R e c o r d e r Model VI ( h e r e a f t e r
a b b r e v i a t e d EMR V I ) were employed t o r e c o r d e y e movements w h i l e s u b j e c t s were r e a d i n g
J a p a n e s e t e x t s d i s p l a y e d on t h e CRT, which was p l a c e d a t a d i s t a n c e o f 30 cm from t h e
4 Ken H O R I I , K e n t a r o KOTANI, Y u t a k a KITAMURA, G e r y d'YDEWALLE
v i e w i n g p o s i t i o n . The r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l s were d i s p l a y e d on t h e CRT w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n o f 6 4 0 p i x e l s x 4 0 0 p i x e l s . At t h a t d i s t a n c e , o n e J a p a n e s e c h a r a c t e r r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e t y p e s o f c h a r a c t e r s whether kana s y l l a b l e s o r k a n j i i d e o g r a m s s u b t e n d e d o n e d e g r e e o f v i s 叫 a n g l e . The eye‑movement d a t a were r e c o r d e d e v e r y 3 3 ms by EMR V , whose programs f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s were d e v e l o p e d a t o u r l a b o r a t o r y .
3 . 2 M a t e r i a l s
Three p a i r s o f s h o r t J a p a n e s e p a s s a g e s ( T e x t s A ‑ 1 , A ‑ 2 ; Texts B l ‑ 1 , B l ‑ 2 ; Texts C ‑ 1 , C ‑ 2 ) , c o n s i s t i n g o f f o u r l i n e s when d i s p l a y e d on t h e CRT, were p r e p a r e d f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t . Each p a i r c o m p r i s e d two v e r s i o n s o f a p a s s a g e t h a t were e x a c t l y t h e s a m e , b o t h i n c o n t e n t and i n t h e number o f c h a r a c t e r s and d i f f e r i n g o n l y i n word o r d e r , t h u s c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t i n g s e m a n t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e . The t e x t s , l a b e l e d Text * ‑ 1 , have a r a t h e r e n t a n g l e d word o r d e r , w h i l e t h o s e l a b e l e d Text * ‑ 2 a r e supposed t o be normal i n t h e i r word o r d e r . The p a s s a g e s a r e shown i n Appendix A .
3 . 3 S u b j e c t s
Ten K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s w i t h normal v i s i o n were p a i d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t , i n which EMR V was u s e d . Authors had i n i t i a l l y r e c r u i t e d more t h a n 3 0 s t u d e n t s from whom t h e y s e l e c t e d f i v e s u b j e c t s f o r o u r e x p e r i m e n t u s i n g EMR V I , b u t we had t o g i v e up on most o f t h e a p p l i c a n t s s i m p l y b e c a u s e EMR VI was e x t r e m e l y s e l e c t i v e o f s u b j e c t s . T h i s was b e c a u s e EMR VI a d o p t e d t h e r e f l e c t e d ‑ l i g h t method f o r a m p l i f y i n g t h e eye movements, which n o t o n l y r e s u l t e d i n imposing a f i n e l y ‑ t u n e d c a l i b r a t i o n on t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s ' s i d e , b u t a l s o i n r e q u i r i n g a c e r t a i n smooth c u r v a t u r e o f t h e e y e b a l l on t h e s u b j e c t s ' s i d e . An u n e x p e c t e d l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t s were i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r EMR V I . T h e r e f o r e , we mainly used t h e former model EMR V , which a l l o w s e a s i e r c a l i b r a t i o n , s o t h a t we c o u l d g a t h e r eye‑movement d a t a e x t e n s i v e l y from more s u b j e c t s . 3 . 4 Procedure
The s u b j e c t s were f i r s t a s k e d t o r e a d s e v e r a l sample t e x t s d i s p l a y e d on t h e CRT on d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s s o t h a t t h e y c o u l d g e t accustomed t o t h e equipment and t h e e x p e r i m e n t p r o c e d u r e . T h i s p h a s e o f t r a i n i n g was a l s o n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e o p e r a t o r s o f t h e e y e movement r e c o r d e r s , f o r they had t o spend some c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e b e f o r e they c o u l d l e a r n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f curvature o f i n d i v i d u a l subjects'eyes t o ensure b e t t e r c a l i b r a t i o n . The s u b j e c t s were a s k e d t o v i s i t o u r l a b some d a y s l a t e r s o t h a t any e y e s t r a i n from t h e t r a i n i n g p h a s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t was c o m p l e t e l y h e a l e d . For t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e head c o o r d i n a n c e , a c h i n and f o r e h e a d r e s t was a d o p t e d . The o n s e t o f t h e d i s p l a y o f t h e a s s i g n m e n t t e x t was c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s u b j e c t , who p r e s s e s a b u t t o n p l a c e d on t h e d e s k r i g h t i n f r o n t when he/ s h e i s ready t o s t a r t t h e d i s p l a y .
F i r s t , one o f t h e t e x t v e r s i o n s * ‑ 1 and t h e n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g * ‑ 2 v e r s i o n were g i v e n .
The s u b j e c t s were i n s t r u c t e d t o r e a d t h e t e x t s f o r m e a n i n g , and were a s k e d n o t t o employ
How S e n s i t i v e Are Our E y e s t o T e x t D i f f i c u l t y ? 5
any s p e c i a l s p e e d r e a d i n g t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h a s r e a d i n g a t e x t from b e g i n n i n g t o end by o n l y skimming t h e k a n j i c h a r a c t e r s .
3 . 5 Japanese R e a d a b i l i t y Index
Reading Grade Value ( h e r e a f t e r abbreviated a s RGV), a formula t o p r e d i c t t h e r e a d a b i l i t y o f J a p a n e s e t e x t s was d e v e l o p e d by Y . Asano and K . O g a w a 1 6 ) . The f o r m u l a was g i v e n a s f o l l o w s :
RGV = ‑ 0 . 1 7 p h ‑0 . 2 8 p k ‑3 . 4 9 p c + 2 7 . 6 2 w h e r e :
RGV = a s s i g n e d g r a d e l e v e l
ph = p e r c e n t a g e o f h i r a g a n a c h a r a c t e r s pk = p e r c e n t a g e o f katakana c h a r a c t e r s pc = p e r c e n t a g e o f end p u n c t u a t i o n marks
I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e t h r e e RGV v a r i a b l e s a r e a l l t y p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s o f Japanese t e x t . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t RGV i s n o t i n t h e l e a s t s e n s i t i v e t o any change i n r e a d a b i l i t y o r d i f f i c u l t y due t o t h e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e word o r d e r o f t h e a s s i g n m e n t s e n t e n c e s i n J a p a n e s e , f o r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e t h r e e v a r i a b l e s r e m a i n e x a c t l y t h e same and
皿 a l t e r e d .We u s e d t h i s i n d e x a s a rough measure o f t h e s t y l i s t i c d i f f i c u l t y o f t e x t s we u s e d i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t .
3 . 6 Schema F i x a t i o n Curves and Reading Schematic Load
Kitamura e t a l . 1 1 ) i n t r o d u c e d t h e Schema F i x a t i o n C u r v e , a t e c h n i q u e f o r g l o b a l a n a l y s i s o f eye‑movement r e c o r d , and showed t h a t t h e s t y l i s t i c d i f f i c u l t y o f E n g l i s h t e x t s a f f e c t e d t h e e y e movements w h i l e r e a d i n g . T h i s g l o b a l a n a l y s i s t e c h n i q u e t r e a t s t h e b o u n d a r y ‑ t i m e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f i x a t i o n a s a v a r i a b l e r a t h e r t h a n a c o n s t a n t . I n s t e a d o f choosing a s p e c i f i c d u r a t i o n o f time a s t h e b o u n d a r y ‑ t i m e , which i s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d by measuring t h e a v e r a g e d u r a t i o n o f f i x a t i o n s f o r a l l p o s s i b l e d u r a t i o n s , i . e . n t i m e s t h e minimum r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s a m p l i n g t i m e o f t h e eye‑movement r e c o r d e r ‑ c l u s t e r o c c u r r e n c e s a r e c o u n t e d , which s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s whereby a f i x a t i o n s h o u l d form a c l u s t e r o f r e c o r d e d eye p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n one degree o f a r c d e r i v i n g from t h e f i x a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g , and t h a t a s e r i e s o f s u c h p o s i t i o n s s h o u l d l a s t beyond t h e b o u n d a r y ‑ t i m e . By p l o t t i n g b o u n d a r y ‑ t i m e s w i t h a n i n c r e m e n t o f t h e minimum r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e e y e ‑ movement r e c o r d e r on t h e x ‑ a x i s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o c c u r r e n c e s o f f i x a t i o n s on t h e y ‑ a x i s , we o b t a i n e d a schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e .
The t e c h n i q u e proved t o b e h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e change i n t h e amount o f c o g n i t i v e
l o a d when t h e s u b j e c t i s r e a d i n g a p a s s a g e d i s p l a y e d on t h e CRT. S i n c e t h e schema f i x a t i o n
curves employed g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o show t h e a n a l y s i s r e s u l t , q u a n t i t a t i v e
c o m p a r i s o n s were n o t p o s s i b l e . Kitamura and H o r i i 1 7 l q u a n t i f i e d t h e schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e s
6 Ken H O R I I , K e n t a r o KOTANI, Yutaka KITAMURA, Gery d'YDEWALLE
t o o b t a i n an index c a l l e d Reading Schematic Load ( a b b r e v i a t e d h e r e a f t e r a s R S L ) , s o t h a t one may d i r e c t l y compare t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t e x t s i n terms o f t h e c o g n i t i v e l o a d t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e eye movements w h i l e t h e s u b j e c t was r e a d i n g t e x t . The index v a l u e i n c r e a s e s a s t h e r e a d a b i l i t y o f t e x t d e c r e a s e s .
The f o l l o w i n g i s t h e formula f o r RSL:
RSL=L n y ( s i ) + y ( s i + l )
i = l 2 * ( s i + I ‑s;)
where y ( s i ) i s t h e frequency o f o c c u r r e n c e s o f f i x a t i o n s determined a t a boundary time o f s i ms. The index v a l u e i n c r e a s e s with d e c r e a s e i n t h e r e a d a b i l i t y o f t h e t e x t .
4 . Results
We f i r s t p r o c e s s e d t h e eye‑movement d a t a o b t a i n e d by EMR‑V i n t h e c o n v e n t i o 叫 way i n o r d e r t o determine t h e f i x a t i o n s and s a c c a d i c d i s t a n c e s . A f i x a t i o n was determined a s a c l u s t e r o f recorded eye p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n one degree o f a r c d e r i v i n g from t h e f i x a t i o n immediately preceding and t a k i n g p l a c e beyond t h e boundary minimum t i m e o f 99ms. The c e n t e r o f mathematical g r a v i t y i n such a c l u s t e r was t r e a t e d a s a f i x a t i o n p o i n t . Tables 1 ‑ 1 and 1 ‑ 2 show t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s e s f o r t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from 1 0 s u b j e c t s f o r two v e r s i o n s o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t e x t s .
Table 1 ‑ 1 . Average s p a n o f p r o g r e s s i v e s a c c a d e s ( u n i t : d e g r e e s ) . Ten s u b j e c t s r e a d t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t e x t s ( A , B , C ) , e a c h w i t h two v e r s i o n s ( * ‑ 1 , * ‑ 2 ) , whose r e s p e c t i v e R e a d i n g Grade V a l u e s a r e l i s t e d i n t h e c o l u m n ' r g v ' .
r g v s 1 s 2 s 3 s 4 s 5 s 6 s 7 s 8 s 9 s 1 0 a v r A ‑ 1 1 3 2 . 9 3 . 7 3 . 8 2 . 6 3 . 5 2 . 7 3 . 6 3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 5 3 . 3 A ‑ 2 1 3 2 . 5 3 . 6 2 . 6 1 . 9 4 . 4 2 . 6 4 . 7 2 . 7 5 . 3 3 . 1 3 . 2 B ‑ 1 1 0 3 4 . 1 3 . 2 2 . 6 4 . 7 2 . 5 5 . 1 2 . 8 3 . 3 3 3 . 3 B ‑ 2 1 0 2 . 8 5 2 . 4 2 3 2 . 4 6 . 4 2 . 8 4 3 . 2 3 . 3 C ‑ 1 , 2 . 2 3 . 7 4 . 9 2 . 7 3 . 3 3 . 9 4 . 4 3 . 2 3 . 3 3 . 8 3 . 4 C ‑ 2 , 2 . 5 5 . 4 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 5 3 . 5 5 . 2 3 . 1 4 . 7 3 . 8 3 . 5
Table 1 ‑ 2 . Average s p a n o f r e g r e s s i v e s a c c a d e s ( u n i t : d e g r e e s ) .
r g v s 1 s 2 s 3 s 4 s 5 s 6 s 7 s 8 s 9 s 1 0 a v r A ‑ 1 1 3 1 . 8 3 2 . 3 2 . 4 1 . 8 1 . 7 2 3 . 2 2 . 9 2 2 . 4 A ‑ 2 1 3 1 . 7 2 . 7 2 . 3 1 . 8 2 . 7 2 . 1 2 . 9 2 2 . 2 1 . 6 2 . 3 B ‑ 1 1 0 1 . 5 2 . 3 2 . 4 1 . 9 1 . 7 1 . 5 2 . 4 2 . 3 2 . 5 2 . 6 2 . 3 B ‑ 2 1 0 1 . 2 2 . 1 1 . 9 2 . 2 3 1 . 5 2 . 2 1 . 9 1 2 . 5 2 . 2 C ‑ 1 , 1 . 8 2 . 9 3 . 3 3 . 3 1 . 3 2 . 3 3 . 6 3 . 2 3 . 1 3 . 5 2 . 5 C ‑ 2 , 1 . 4 3 . 7 1 . 9 2 . 4 2 . 4 2 . 2 3 . 5 2 . 7 2 . 4 1 . 7 2 . 5
The a u t h o r s used t o adhere t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e e a s i e r t h e t e x t i s , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l
become t h e span o f p r o g r e s s i v e s a c c a d e s . Table 1 ‑ 1 , however, does n o t i n d i c a t e any such
remarkable t e n d e n c y , nor can we d e r i v e any t r e n d from t h e average r e g r e s s i v e s a c c a d i c
d i s t a n c e o f each t e x t , a s shown i n Table 1 ‑ 2 . S u b j e c t i v e i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t s were
unanimous t h a t t h e two v e r s i o n s o f t h e t h r e e t e x t s were d e f i n i t e l y d i f f e r e n t i n terms o f
How S e n s i t i v e Are Our E y e s t o T e x t D i f f i c u l t y ? 7
r e a d a b i l i t y . The r e s u l t s o f t ‑ t e s t s show t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t p = 0 . 0 5 , o r even a t p = O . l , i n t h e a v e r a g e o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e s a c c a d e s p a n s between v e r s i o n s A ‑ 1 and A ‑ 2 ; B ‑ 1 and B ‑ 2 ; and C ‑ 1 and C ‑ 2 .
But when we compare t h e schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e s , i t c a n be e a s i l y s e e n t h a t t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two v e r s i o n s o f e a c h J a p a n e s e p a s s a g e . S e e F i g . 1 f o r an e x a m p l e . I t r e p r e s e n t s a t y p i c a l example o f g l o b a l a n a l y s i s o f eye‑movement r e c o r d s u s i n g a L o g ‑ n o r m a l Schema F i x a t i o n C u r v e . I n t h e g r a p h s A , B , and C , two c u r v e s a r e p l o t t e d , o n e w i t h s m a l l c i r c l e s and t h e o t h e r w i t h s m a l l b o x e s w i t h a d o t i n s i d e . The c u r v e s r e p r e s e n t e d by s m a l l c i r c l e s a r e t h e Schema F i x a t i o n Curves f o r
Texts * ‑ 1 and t h o s e r e p r e s e n t e d by s m a l l s q u a r e s w i t h a d o t i n s i d e a r e f o r Texts * ‑ 2 . Our data from past experiments c o n v i n c e d u s t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e p o s i t i o n o f a Schema F i x a t i o n Curve, t h e more d i f f i c u l t t h e t e x t i s t o comprehend. I n g r a p h s A , B , and C i n F i g . 1 , t h e schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e s f o r Texts * ‑ 1 , t h a t i s , t h o s e t e x t s w i t h h i g h e r s y n t a c t i c d i f f i c u l t y , come above t h e schema f i x a t i o n curves f o r Texts * ‑ 2 , which have normal s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e . The graphs i n F i g . 1 a r e t h e a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s o f t h e eye‑movement r e c o r d s o f s u b j e c t N o . 6 .
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F i g . I Schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e o f S u b j e c t 6 r e a d i n g t h e a s s i g n m e n t t e x t s .
8 Ken H O R I I , K e n t a r o KOTANI, Y u t a k a KITAMURA, G e r y d'YDEWALLE
The RSL v a l u e s f o r t h e a s s i g n m e n t t e x t s o f t h i s s u b j e c t a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2 , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h o s e o f t h e o t h e r s u b j e c t s . S i n c e t h e s e v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d by q u a n t i f y i n g t h e schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e s , t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f RSL v a l u e s o f t h e s e s u b j e c t s w i l l o f c o u r s e show t h e same r e s u l t .
The t ‑ t e s t r e s u l t s f o r t h e RSL v a l u e s i n T a b l e 2 showed t h a t two p a i r s A ‑ 1 , A ‑ 2 and B ‑ 1 , B ‑ 2 b e l o n g e d t o t h e same g r o u p , b u t t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between C ‑ 1 and C ‑ 2 a t p = 0 . 0 5 . But a t p = 0 . 1 , a l l t h r e e p a i r s ( A ‑ 1 , A ‑ 2 ; B ‑ 1 , B ‑ 2 ; and C ‑ 1 , C ‑ 2 ) were shown t o b e l o n g t o t h e same g r o u p . Note t h a t t h e s a c c a d i c d i s t a n c e f a i l e d t o d e t e c t t h e change o f t e x t d i f f i c u l t y even a t p = O . l . Here we have a n i n t e r e s t i n g p r o b l e m : Text C a l o n e i s an a r i t h m e t i c problem w h i l e t h e o t h e r two a r e o r d i n a r y p r o s e p a s s a g e s . The s i m p l e c o m p a r i s o n o f RSL a v e r a g e s f o r C ‑ 1 and C ‑ 2 c o n v i n c e s u s t h a t t h e two a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t . Does t h e p r o b l e m ‑ s o l v i n g a c t i v i t y d u r i n g r e a d i n g a f f e c t t h e e y e movement? At p r e s e n t , t h e a u t h o r s do n o t have an answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n , b u t t h e s t a t i s t i c a l o u t p u t s u g g e s t s i t may.
T a b l e 2 . RSL v a l u e s o f t h e t e n s u b j e c t s when t h e y r e a d t e x t s A ‑ 1 , A ‑ 2 ; B ‑ 1 , B ‑ 2 ; C ‑1 a n d C ‑ 2 .
rgv s 1 s 2 s 3 s 4 s 5 s 6 s 7 s 8 s 9 s10 a v r A‑1 1 3 2795 5819 2512 4233 3196 3284 2494 2685 1 6 4 1 2440 3 1 0 9 . 9 A‑2 1 3 2494 1 7 9 7 2132 3387 1 9 7 5 2787 2849 2759 1 7 5 6 8 5 1 2 2 7 8 . 7 B‑1 1 0 2774 4293 2350 2336 2568 3126 3284 2755 2007 2415 2 7 9 0 . 8 B‑2 1 0 2616 1 8 5 2 2327 3984 1564 2413 2490 1 7 6 7 1 1 6 2 2338 2 2 5 1 , 3 C‑1 , 4258 4203 4929 4279 1 8 7 7 5120 5830 7480 2734 6613 4 7 3 2 . 3 C‑2 , 2 9 1 1 1 5 7 6 2170 3336 2205 3760 4839 2977 1 2 5 6 4310 2934
We were eq 叫 l yi n t e r e s t e d t o f i n d t h a t t h e o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f two d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s o f a s s i g n m e n t t e x t s h a s much t o do w i t h t h e c o g n i t i v e l o a d a t t h e t i m e o f r e a d i n g . When e a s i e r v e r s i o n s a r e shown p r i o r t o t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i f f i c u l t v e r s i o n s , t h e d i f f i c u l t v e r s i o n s can be read w i t h f a r l e s s d i f f i c u l t y . Once what i s w r i t t e n i s u n d e r s t o o d , t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e x t seems t o r e d u c e t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d e c o d i n g s y n t a c t i c i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e t e x t . T h i s phenomenon i s w e l l ‑ i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2 .
Compare F i g s . 2 and 1 . I t c a n be s e e n t h a t n o t o n l y t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f Texts * ‑ 1 d e c r e a s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e e a s y v e r s i o n s f i r s t r e a d , b u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y a l s o dropped t o such an e x t e n t t h a t t h e schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e s f o r t h e d i f f i c u l t v e r s i o n s came below t h o s e o f d i f f i c u l t v e r s i o n s i n g r a p h s A and B . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t s e c o n d r e a d i n g i s , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , much e a s i e r t h a n f i r s t r e a d i n g even when t h e s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t e x t s f o r s e c o n d r e a d i n g a r e changed t o i n c r e a s e d i f f i c u l t y .
H e r e , we c a n n o t deny t h a t t h e r e i s a c h a n c e f o r t h e s u b j e c t t o become a l i t t l e n e g l i g e n t
i n r e a d i n g t h e t e x t which h a s t h e same c o n t e n t w i t h a d i f f e r e n t s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e , and
s i m p l y run t h e e y e o v e r l i n e s o f a d i s p l a y e d p a s s a g e w i t h o u t f u l l y t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d i t .
K i t a m u r a , H o r i i and d'Y d e w a l l e 1 8 l d e v e l o p e d t h e D e l t a ‑ S c h e m a F i x a t i o n Curve t e c h n i q u e t o
d e t e c t t h e s k a t i n g o f t h e e y e a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f t e x t , a s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . I t s h 叫 da l s o b e
n o t e d t h a t i n graph C o f F i g u r e 2 , t h e schema f i x a t i o n c u r v e f o r t h e s e c o n d r e a d i n g s t a n d s
h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r t h e f i r s t r e a d i n g . From t h i s , we c a n deduce t h a t t h e r e a s o n i n g t h a t
t a k e s p l a c e a t t h e t i m e o f r e a d i n g h a s a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e r e a d e r ' s r e a d i n g p a t t e r n .
How S e n s i t i v e Are Our Eyes t o Text D i f f i c u l t y ? ︐
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