R h y th m ic altern ation an d th e n ou n −
V erb stress
di鮎rence in E nglish disyllabic w ords
A M A N O ,
Shuichi
1 .In tro d u ctio n
T h e a i m o f t h i s p a p e r i s t o u p d a t e t h e e v i d e n t i a l d ata f o r t h e n o u n − V e r b s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e i n E n g l i s h d isy lla b ic w o rd s a n d to in d ic ate a p o ssib le relatio n sh ip
b e tw e e n th e s t r o n g − W e a k ( h e n c e f o r t h S − W ) r h y t h m i c
a lt e r n a t io n and the noun−Verb stress di#erence.First,
I w ill e x p la in t h a t t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e h a s a S − W r h y th m ic a l t e r n a t i o n . E n g l i s h p r o s o d i c r u l e i s g r e a t l y a ffe c te d b y t h e a l t e r n a t i o n . N e x t , t h e u p d a t e d e v id en ce f o r t h e n o u n − V e r b s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e w i l l b e p res en te d t h r o u g h a n a n a l y s I S O f a m a c h i n e r e a d a b l e d ata b a se . F in ally ,th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e n o u n − V e r b s tre s s d i f f e r e n c e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S − W r h y t h m i c a ltern atio n is d i s c u s s e d .
2 .S tress−
tim ed rh y th m in E n g lish
E v er y la n g u a g e in t h e w o r l d h a s i t s o w n r h y t h m . ●
L in g u istic r h y t h m i s c r e a t e d b y c o m p o s l n g r h y t h m i c
u n its w i t h a c e r t a i n c o m p o n e n t i n s p e e c h s o u n d s a n d p ro d u c ln g t h e r h y t h m i c u n i t s r e p e a t e d l y a t a l m o s t
r egular interv als.D ep en din g on th e di鮎rences of th e
C O m p O n en tS m a k i n g r h y t h m i c u n i t s , 1 i n g u i s t i c r h y t h m
i s c la s s i丘 e d i n t o t h r e e categories:StreSS−timedrhythm,
S y llab le −tim e d r h y t h m a n d m o r a − t i m e d r h y t h m . I n a S tre SS −tim e d la n g u a g e lik e E n g l i s h , G e r m a n , a n d
R u ssian ,th e r e p e a t e d o c c u r r e n c e o f s t r e s s f o r m s t h e
r h y t h m ic units,and the durations ofinteトStreSS
i n te rv a ls a r e m a i n t a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t ( C a r r , 1 99 9 ;L ad efo g e d ,19 93 ;R oa ch ,19 9 1 ). T h is is c alle d th e
i s oc h ro n y o f in te r−Stre SS in te rv al.
T h e s t u d y o f t h e r h y t h m i c s t r u c t u r e o f E n g l i s h v er se g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S tu d y o f stre ss−tim e d rh y th m in m o re p ro saic E n g lish .
A lth o u g h s c r u p u l o u s a n a l y s e s s h o w m o r e p r o f o u n d
s tru c tu re s (se e e .g .K ip arsk y ,197 7 ;L e e ch ,19 6 9 ),th er e
i s a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e b u t r o b u s t r u l e d o m i n a t i n g t h e w h o le r h y t h m i c s t r u c t u r e o f E n g l i s h v e r s e . T h a t i s
t h e a ltern atio n o f stro n g a n d w ea k b ea ts (K u b o zo n o & M izo k o sh i,19 9 1;L e ec h ,19 6 9 ). S h ap iro & B e u m (19 6 5 ) a c tu ally note that over90%ofEnglish verse written
a fte r f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y i s i a m b i c . M a n y l i n g u i s t s
S u p p O S e t h a t t h e S − W r h y t h m i c a l t e r n a t i o n i s n o t a
p h e n o m e n o n o b s e r v e d o n l y l n E n g l i s h v e r s e b u t t h e
p rln C ip le is a f u n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e a l s o i n m o r e p ros aic u s ag e o f E n g lish .
In E n g l i s h , W h i c h i s a s t r e s s − t i m e d l a n g u a g e , e V e r y w o rd is n o t e q u ally stre sse d b u t som e g rou p s o f w o r d s
a re str esse d m o re fre q u en tly th an oth e rs (L a d eb g e d ,
1 9 93 ;R o ac h ,199 1). T h e m a i n f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d iffe re n c e is t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n t e n t a n d f u n ctio n w o r d s . I n p r l n C i p l e , C O n t e n t W O r d s , W h i c h C O n V e y m O r e S e m a n t i c i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n f u n c t i o n W O r d s , a r e S t r e S S e d , W h i l e f u 血 C t i o n w o r d s a r e o n l y S tre S Se d in p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s . T h e i n t e r − S t r e S S i n te rv a ls a r e a d j u s t e d n o t o n l y b y p r o m i n e n c e o f S tre SS e d s y l l a b l e s b u t a l s o b y s o u n d c h a n g e s u c h a s r e d u c tio n ,1in k in g ,a S S im ila tio n ,a n d o m i s s i o n o f
u n stress ed sy lla b les to form str ess−tim e d rh y th m . F o r
i n s t a n c e , 5 ゐβ 紺 β〝f わ 娩 β 柁 5 f α〟和 〝 ‖ ■β 5 ββ ゐβγ 弁 才β〝d . i s p ro no u nc ed as[/Ⅰ’wentt∂∂∂’restrpntt∂’sI:h∂−frend]. T h e f u n c t io n w o r d ぶゐ β i s h e r e p r o n o u n c e d in t h e w e a k f o r m [/ Ⅰ] n o t in t h e s t r o n g f o r m [ / i : ] . L i k e w i s e , れ 肋β, a n d ゐ βγ a r e p r O n O u n C e d i n t h e ir w e a k f o r m s . T h i s d istin c tion is th e b a s i s o f t h e S − W a l t e r n a t i o n . T h e n u m b e r o f s y l l a b l e s i n t h e i n t e r − S t r e S S i n t e r v a l ● i s n o t a l w a y s e q u a l a s i s s e e n i n a n e x a m p l e g l V e n b y P ik e (1 9 4 5 ). ( 1a ) E n g lish is ea sy . ( 1b ) E n g lish is v ery ea sy . L a n g u a g e s o f s t r e s s − t i m e d r h y t h m a r e t h e o r e t i c a l l y V ie w e d a s h a v l n g a l m o s t t h e s a m e d u r a t i o n i n t h e●
i n te r−Str eSS in te rv als. M ea su rin g t h e a c t u a l d u r a t i o n , h o w ev er ,th ere are co n sid e rab le v aria n c es (e .g .R o ach ,
( 1a ) an d (1b ),tO b e m o r e p r e c i s e , t h e d u r a t i o n f r o m t h e fir s t s y lla b le o f 丘吻 g才ざゐ to t h a t o f βα叩 O f ( 1 b ) is
l o n g er th an (1 a).In oth e r w o rd s th e iso ch ro n y of th e
i n te r −Str e S S in te r v a l is a p h y s I C a l l y q u e s t i o n a b l e c o n ce p t. N ev erth e le ss,aS K o h n o (20 0 1 )su g g e sts,th e
i so c h ro n y of th e in ter−Stre SS in te rv a l is re co g n lSe d as a p sy ch olog lC al co n ce p t・ B ec au se listen er s ca n p e rce iv e
7 ± 2 s y lla b le s h o l i s t i c a l l y a s l o n g a s t h e d u r a t i o n
b etw ee n s y l l a b l e s i s w i t h i n 3 3 0 m s , 1 i s t e n e r s p e r c e i v e t h e is oc h ro n y o f in te r−S tre SS in terv al e v e n if th e ac tu al
d u ra tio n v a r i e s t o s o m e e x t e n t ( s e e K o h n o , 2 0 0 1 f o r f u rth e r in fbrm atio n ). A n d th e p sy ch olo g ic al asp ec t of
t h e is o c h r o n y o f t h e i n t e r − S t r e S S m a k e s E n g l i s h a
S tre SS−tim e d lan g u ag e .
3 .E v iden ces b r stress−
tim e d rh y th m
in E n g lish
E v id e n ce f o r s t r e s s − t i m e d r h y t h m i s a b u n d a n t l y
b u n d in Englishitse比The wordordersofidiomatic
p h r a se s c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e S − W a l t e r n a t i o n ・ A m on g th e p h r ase s (2 a ) to (3 b ),(2 a )a n d (3 a )a re
m o re g e n e r a l t h a n ( 2 b ) a n d ( 3 b ) b e c a u s e t h e y a r e m o r e e u p h o n i c . A c t u a l l y , a C C O r d i n g t o t h e B r i t i s h N a tion al C o rp u s,(2 a )a p p e ar s 99 tim es p e r a m illio n
w or d s,W h ile (2b ) a p p e ars o n l y 2 3 t i m e s . L i k e w i s e , ( 3a )ap p e ars 27 2 tim es p e r a m illio n w o rd s,W h ile (3b )
a p p e a rs o n ly 29 tim e s. K u b oz o n o & M izo k o sh i (1 99 1 )
m e n tion s th at s u ch eu p h o n y d eriv e s from th e rh y th m ic
a lte r n a tio n . P h r as e s (2 a ) an d ( 3 a ) re ta in t h e S − W a lte rn a tio n b u t p h r a s e ( 2 b ) a n d ( 3 b ) d o n o t . T h i s m a k e s p h r a s e ( 2 a ) a n d ( 3 a ) r h y t h m i c a l l y m o r e p refe ra b le .
︶
︶
︶
︶
a
b
a
b
2
2
3
3
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T E A or C O F f e e [ S W S W ] C O F f e e or T E A [ S W W S] T I M E a n d M O N ey [ S W SW ] M O N ey a nd T I M E [ S W W S] P h ra se s in b r a c k e t s i n s e n t e n c e ( 4 a ) t o ( 5 b ) a r e e x am p les of a pair of binom ials.B olin ger(1962)asked1 7 n ativ e s p e a k e r s o f E n g l i s h t o p r o n o u n c e s o m e
s tim u lu s s e n t e n c e s i n t h e s a m e r h y t h m i c c o n t e x t s a s
t he e x a m p l e s a n d j u d g e w h i c h o n e s o u n d s s m o o t h e r
a n d b e t t e r . A s a r e s u l t , 0 V e r n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f p articip ants replied (4a)ty pe sentences are sm oother
t han (4b ).T h is is because ph rase(4a)m ain tain s the
S −W a l t e r n a t i o n b u t ( 4 b ) d o e s n o t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
f o llo w in g s y l l a b l e o f p h r a s e ( 4 a ) i s s t r e s s e d .
A ccordin gly,(4a)keeps the S−W altern ation also after
t h e b i n o m i a l . T h i s m a k e s t h e s e n t e n c e q u i t e
p re fe rab le in t e r m s o f t h e r h y t h m i c s t r u c t u r e ・ L ik e w ise ,O u t O f(5 a)an d (5 b ),0 V e r e ig h ty p e rce n t o f
p articip an ts c h o s e ( 5 a ) , W h i c h m a i n t a i n s t h e S − W a lte rn a tio n w i t h i n t h e p h r a s e . S i n c e t h e f o l l o w i n g s y lla b le o f p h r a s e ( 5 a ) i s u n s t r e s s e d , t h e r h y t h m i c s tructure o f ( 5 a ) a f t e r t h e b i n o m i a l v a r i e s f r o m t h e S −W a l t e r n a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e p r o p o r t i o n
d ecre ase d s l i g h t l y b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n p e r c e n t
c om pared to(4a).( 4a) T h e ch airm an m ade a< SH O R T and SIM ple>
S T A T E m en t . [ S W S W ]
( 4b) T he chairm an m ade a< SIM ple an d S H O R T >
S T A T E m en t. [ S W W S ]
( 5a) T h e ch airm an m ade a< SH O R T an d SIM ple>
ex p l aN A ti o n. [ SW S W ]
( 5b) T he chairm an m ade a< SIM ple an d S H O R T >
e xp l aN A t i on . [ S W W S ]
S o m e irre g u la r w o r d o r d e r s c a n a l s o b e e x p l a i n e d b y th e rh y th m ic a lter n atio n . B o lin g e r (196 5 )p re se n ts
i n t e n s iv e a d v e r b s 甘 〟 宮 古 β a n d ざ 〟 C ゐ a s e x a m p l e s . T h e r e g u la r w o r d o r d e r o f a r t i c le a n d a d v e r b is < a r t ic le + a d v e r b + a d j e c t iv e + n o u n > a s s e e n i n (6 a ). O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e w o r d o r d e r o f (6 b ) < a d v e r b + a r t ic le +a d j e c t i v e + n o u n > is n o t g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e . A m o n o s y lla b ic a d v e r b 甘〟如 ,h o w e v e r ,a C C e p tS b o th w o r d
o r d ers as rep re sen te d b y (7a ) an d (7b ). B ec a u se ,in
c a s e o f (7 a ),a S −S s e q u e n c e is in d u c e d b e tw e e n 甘〟如
a n d わ曙 ,(7 b ) is accepted to avoidthe S−S sequence
a n d t o m a i n t a i n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f S − W a l t e r n a t i o n . L ik e w ise ,a d v e rb s u c h t a k e s i r r e g u l a r w o r d o r d e r .
R hythm ic alternation and the noun−
Verb stress di鮎rence in E nglish disyllabic w ords
t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f S − W a l t e r n a t i o n . A s a s o lu tio n f o r t h e v i o l a t i o n , t h e o r d e r o f a r t i c l e a n d a d v e rb is a l t e r n a t e d . ( 6a ) a V E R y L O N G re po rt [ W SW S W S ] ( 6b ) * V E R y a L O N G rep ort [ S W W S W S ] ( 7 a) a Q U I T E L O N G re po rt [ W SS W S] ( 7b ) O U I T E a L O N G rep ort [ S W SW S ] ( 8 a) a V E R y P R E T t y gi rl [ W SW S W S ] ( 8b ) * a S U C H P R E T t y gi rl [ W SS W S ] ( 8c) S U C H a P R E T ty g i rl [ S W S W S ] T h ere is o t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r s t r e s s − t i m e d r h y t h m i n E n g lish s u c h a s s t r e s s p a t t e r n o f p h r a s a l v e r b s ( W a ta n ab e,19 9 2 ),th e in s er tion o f r e d u n d a n t w o r d s , c o n tr ac tio n o f w o r d s ( B o l i n g e r , 1 9 6 5 ) , S p e e C h e r r o r s ( C u tle r , 19 8 0 ), a n d in s e r tio n o r o m i s s i o n o f t h e c o m p le m e n tiz e r 肋 αf (L e e & G ib b o n s ,2 0 0 7 ). A ll th is e v id e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t E n g l i s h i s a s t r e s s − t i m e d l a n g u a g e .4 .A dju stm ent to stress−
tim ed rh y thm
T h e S − W r h y t h m i c a l t e r n a t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n E n g lish stress−tim in g n o t sim p ly b e ca u se it is p refe rre d
b y n a t i v e s p e a k e r s b u t b e c a u s e i t g o v e r n s s p e e c h p ro d u ctio n a n d p e r c e p t i o n b y n a t i v e s p e a k e r s . W h a t
i s im p o rta n t h e r e i s t h a t l i n g u i s t i c r h y t h m i s , a S I
●
m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r , b o t h a p h y s I C a l a n d p s y c h o l o g l C a l p h en om e n o n . A lle n (19 7 5 )e x p lain s th e p sy ch o lo g ica l
m e c h a n is m u n d e r l y i n g l i n g u i s t i c r h y t h m . H e n o t e s
t h a t w h e n p a r t l C l p a n t S l i s t e n t o a s e r i e s o f s t i m u l u s w ith t h e p h y s I C a l l y s a m e q u a l i t y s u c h a s b e e p s , t h e y●
d o n ot sim p ly p e rce iv e th e m a s a se rie s o f m o n o to n o u s s tim u lu s. T h e y d iv id e d th e m in to g ro u p s co n sistin g of t w o t o s i x s t i m u l i , a n d p e r c e i v e t h e f i r s t s t i m u l u s w i th in a g rou p a s ‘ 10 u d e r a n d m o re p ro m in en t’ . M artin (1 97 0 ) re p o rts a c o m p a r a b l e p h e n o m e n o n i n E n g l i s h s tre ss−tim ln g . E v e n if th e r h y t h m i c a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e n o t p h y s i c a l l y o b s e r v e d i n t h e p r e s e n t e d s p e e c h s tim u li,1isten ers rep ort th at th ey d o p e rce iv e it.
N ot on ly liste n e rs b u t also sp e ak ers are g o v e rn ed b y
t h e r h y t h m i c a l t e r n a t i o n . T h e y t r y t o a d j u s t t h e i r
S p e e C h p r o s o d y i n o r d e r t o a b i d e b y t h e S − W ●
a lte rn a tio n if it v a r i e s f r o m t h e p r l n C i p l e . A n o t a b l e
l
e x a m p le is stres s sh ift (A lle n ,19 7 5;L ib er m an & P r ice ,
1 9 7 7 ;S c h an e ,19 7 9 ). L e t’s t a k e a l o o k a t ( 9 ) . T h e w o r d 肋 如 ββ〝 in is o la tio n h a s th e s e c o n d s y lla b le s tr e s s . W h e n a m o n o s y l l a b i c w o r d 〝 才 β 乃 b l l o w s i t , h o w e v e r , t h e p r lm a r y S t r e S S O f 伽 γfββ乃 S h 批 s to t h e 丘r s t s y lla b le t o avoid a S−S sequence. ( 9 ) t h ir T E E N [J O 5 :’t i:n ] 一 T H I R t e e n M E N T h is p h en o m e n o n is also o b se rv e d b y so m e ty p e s o f
d er iv a tio n a l affix atio n (S c h a n e ,19 7 9 ). F o r in stan ce ,
t h e w o r d ざ O J 才 d i n i s o l a t i o n h a s f i r s t s y l l a b l e s t r e s s .
W hen the suffix一物is added,however,the prlmary
S t r e S S Ofぶ∂J才d妙is placed on the second syllable toa void a W −W sequence. ( 1 0 ) s o l id [−s G lI d ] 一 S O l id i t y [s 引 Id ∂t i ] 5 . T h e n o u n 一 V e r b s t r e s s d i 任 e r e n c e
in E n g lis h
A s is w e l l − k n o w n , 1 e x i c a l s t r e s s p a t t e r n s i n E n g l i s h , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e o f d i s y l l a b l e w o r d s , a r e C l o s e l y a ss o cia te d w i t h g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r y s u c h a s n o u na n d v e rb .T h e m ajor ity of d isy llab le n o u n s h av e s tre ss
O n t h e 丘 r s t s y l la b l e ,W h i le disyllableverbshavestress
O n th e se co n d sy llab le . T h is is c alle d stre ss ty p lCa lity .●
F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e n o u n g β 〝 d β γ , W h i c h h a s t r o c h a i c
s t r e s s ,is atyplCally stressed noun,andgα触れWhich
● h a s ia m b ic s t r e s s i s a n a t y p l C a l l y s t r e s s e d n o u n . L i k e w i s e , t h e v e r b ♪ γ β 〃 β 乃 才 , W h i c h h a s i a m b i c s t r e s s p a t t e r n ,i s a t y p ic a ll y s t r e s s e d v e r b ,a n d ♪ 〟∂J ね ゐ,W h ic h ● h a s t r o c h a i c s t r e s s p a t t e r n , i s a n a t y p l C a l l y s t r e s s e d v erb . A c l e a r e x a m p l e o f t h i s i s n o u n 一 V e r b h o m o g r a p h s (e .g .柁 C O 招 ,♪βγ∽ 言方, ざ〟γ〃印 e t C ; S h e r m a n , 1 9 7 5 ). T h e s e h o m o g r ap h s f u n c t i o n a s n o u n s i f t h e y h a v e t r o c h a i c s tr ess ,W h e re a s t h e s e f u n c t i o n a s v e r b s i f t h e y h a v e i a m b ic s tr e s s . I n s e n te n c e (1 1 ),b r e x a m p le ,柁 C β畑 is
a nou n and is p ronou nced as[’ rek〇 :d] ,Whil ein
s e n te n c e ( 1 2 ),柁 C ∂招 is a v e r b a n d is p r o n o u n c e d a s [r
I −k〇 :d] .
( 1 1 )
( 1 2 )
I b ou ght a record at the store. I r ec or d ed th e c o n c e r t .
T a b le l.S tr e ss t y p i c a l i t y o f d i s y l l a b l e n o u n
an d v erb in E ng lish
A s shownin tablel,Sereno(1986)and Kelly&
B o c k ( 198 8 ) p r es en t s ta tistica l ev id en c e fb r th e stre ss t y p ic a lity fr o m the di任erenttypesofcorpora.These
d a ta s h o w s t h a t t h e s t r e s s t y p l C a l i t y d o e s e x i s t . H o w e v e r,th e d ata siz e is ra th er s m all,Sin ce th es e d ata
w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m l i m i t e d d a t a b a s e s . T h e s e t h e r e fo r e r e q u i r e d u p d a t i n g u s i n g a l a r g e r − S i z e d d atab ase . T h e u p d a t e d a n a l y s I S W a S C O n d u c t e d t h r o u g h t h e● M R C p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c d a t a b a s e ( C o l t h e a r t , 1 9 8 1 ; W ilso n ,198 8 ). T h e p r o c e d u r e o f t h e i r a n a l y s i s i s t h e
f o llo w in g . F ir st,a ll d is y llab ic w o r d s w e r e c o l l e c t e d f ro m th e d atab as e re g ar d le ss o f g ra m m atic al c ate g ory .
S ec on d ,th e c olle cte d d ata w as im p o rted to sp re a d sh e et
s o ftw a re . T h ir d ,Sin c e t h e M R C d a t a b a s e s e t s u p r e sp ec tiv e item s in c a s e t h e w o r d s b e l o n g t o m o r e
t h a n o n e c a t e g o r y ,t h e it e m s w e r e u n i丘 e d b a s e d o n t h e
b llow ln g th re e crite rio n s:●
1 . if b o t h s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l w e r e d i s y l l a b i c ,
p lu rals w e r e e l i m i n a t e d ( e . g . c h u r c h m a n /
churchm en,1inesm an /1inesm en).
2 . if t w o t y p e s o f s p e l l i n g w e r e l i s t e d , B r i t i s h
sp e llin g s w er e e l i m i n a t e d ( e . g . a p p r i z e / a p p r i s e , ce n ter / c en tre ).
3 .c on tr ac tio n s a n d ab b r e v i at i o n ( e. g . h a dn ’ t , h ap ’
orth ,in co g .) w e re elim in a te d .
2
F o u rth ,th e n u m b e r o f p u r e n o u n s a n d p u r e v e r b s
w as c o u n t e d . F i f t h , t h e n u m b e r o f t y p i c a l l y s t r e s s e d
p u re n o u n s a n d p u r e v e r b s w a s c o u n t e d . T h e
d i鮎ren ce betw een b ase w ords and d erived w ord s(e.
g.
g re e n h o u s e,m a n k in d )w a s n o t c o n sid er ed . T h e r e s u l t i s l a r g e l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s r e se ar ch . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f t h e e x t r a c t e d w o r d s i s l O 8 9 4 . T a b le 2 s h o w s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e x trac te d w or d s b a s e d o n g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r y . I f a w o rd b e l o n g s t o m o r e t h a n o n e c a t e g o r y , t h e w o r d w a s c o u n t e d r e d u n d a n t l y i n e a c h c a t e g o r y . T h e
p rop ortio n o f p u re n o u n s a n d v e rb s in th e to tal n o u n s
a n d v e r b s i s s h o w n i n t a b l e 3 . O u t o f t o t a l o f l O 8 9 4 w or d s,58 18 are p u r e n o u n s a n d 1 3 2 2 a r e p u r e v e r b s .
A m o n g th e n ou n s an d v erb s,5 35 8 n o u n s (92 .09 % ) an d 8 6 0 (6 5 .0 5 % ) v e rb s are typically stressed,and408 n ou n s an d 3 2 4 v e rb s a re a ty p ic ally str esse d (s ee ta b le
4 ). E lim in atin g ‘oth e rs ’fro m c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o a d j u s t t h e crite ria o f th e p rev io u s d ata,9 2 .9 2 p e rce n t of n ou n s
a n d 7 2.6 4 p e rce n t of v e rb s are ty p ica lly stre sse d .T h is
r es u lt r e a f f i r m s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f d i s y l l a b i c n o u n s p os sess tro ch aic s tre ss a n d v e rb s iam b ic tre ss.
T a b le 2 .T h e c l a s s i丘c a t io n o f t h e extractedwords b a se d o n g r am m a tica l c a te g o ry r e s e a r c h e r C a t e g O r y r e s u l t S e r e n o n O u n o u t o f 1 4 2 5 n o u n s , 9 3 % a r e t r o c h a i c (1 ‘9 8 6 ) v e r b O u t O f 5 2 3 v e r b s , 7 6 % a r e ia m b i c K e ll y & n O u n o u t o f 3 0 0 2 n o u n s , 9 4 % a r e t r o c h a i c B o c k (1 9 8 8 ) v e r b O u t O f l O 2 1 v e r b s , 6 9 % a r e ia m b i c n O u n 7 3 2 6 v e r b 2 5 0 1 a d je c t iv e 2 4 2 0 a d v e r b 2 9 1 p r e p o s itio n 6 8 C O n J u n C tio n 2 1 p r O n O u n 1 5 in t e r Je C t io n● 3 7 p a s t p a r t ic ip le 5 7 o th e r s 1 0 8
R hythm ic altern ation and the noun−Verb stress di鮎 rence in E nglish disyllabic w ords
T able 3.T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f p u r e n o u n s a n d v e r b s
in th e totaln ou ns and v erbs
T able 4.Stress pattern of pure n ou n and v erb
*Sh ad ed col u m n s i n d i ca t e s t y pi c al stress pa t tern .
6.R h y th m ic a l t e r n a t i o n a n d t h e
noun−
Verb stress di鮎rence
T h e p rln Cip le o f rh y th m ic a ltern atio n m ig h t ex p la in
t he noun−
Verb stress di鮎rence(K elly,1988 an d K elly
&B oc k ,19 88 ). K elly & B o ck (19 88 ) h y p o th e sise th a t
n o u n s o c c u r m o r e f r e q u e n t l y l n a C O n t e X t i n w h i c h t h ey ar e lik ely to b e stre sse d tro c h a ic ally ,a n d v e rb s in
a c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o b e s t r e s s e d i a m b ica lly . L et’s ta k e ( 13 ) an d (14 ) as ex am p le s. T h e
b la n k in se n ten ce (13 )is p re su m ed to b e a n o u n sin ce
i t is p r e c e d e d b y t h e article肋β,andfollowedbythe
V e r b 々ぬ βd・ I f th e b la n k is 丘 11e d w ith a d is y lla b ic n o u n ,
t h e n o u n a p p ea rs to b e stre sse d tro ch a ic a lly sin c e it is
p r e c e d e d b y u n s t r e s s e d 才 ゐ β , a n d f o l l o w e d b y
t r o c h a ic a lly stressed紘ぶβd.If thisis the case,the
n o u n f o l l o w s t h e o p t i m a l r h y t h m i c a l t e r n a t i o n . A b la n k in s e n t e n c e ( 1 4 ) i s p r e s u m e d t o b e t h e v e r b S in ce it is p re ce d e d b y th e noun∂叩,and丘)110Wedby
a n article娩β・Ifthe blankisfilledwith a disyllabic
V e rb ,th e v er b ap p e ars to b e stre sse d ia m b ica lly sin ce
i t is p r e c e d e d b y a m o n o s y lla b ic n o u n ∂叩 ,a n d 丘)110 W e d
b y unstressed 伽.If this is the case,
the verb fbllow s
t h e o p tim a l rh y th m ic alte rn atio n .
( 13) T h e ( 14) T h e
T he boy
k isse d th e g irl. t h e g irl. T h e re is s u p p o rtin g ev id e n c e fo r th is a s s u m p t i o n . N a tiv e s p e a k e r s o f E n g l i s h a n d h i g h l y − p r O f i c i e n t l e a r n e r s o f E n g l i s h s h o w a s l g n i f i c a n t t e n d e n c y t o● a s slg n S t r e S S O n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f a p s e u d o w o r d ♪β乃 5 βC f i n t h e t r o c h a ic c o n t e x t s u c h a s ( 1 5 ) c o m p a r e dt o theiambic context such as(16)(Kelly&Bock, 1 98 8 ;A m a n o ,20 0 7 ).
( 15 ) S lic e th e p o n se c t slow ly .
( 16) T he birds p onsect concern .
K elly & B oc k (19 88 ) a n aly se d w ritte n a n d sp o k e n
C O r p O r a m a n u a l l y ( B a r t l e t t , 1 9 3 7 a n d G o l d , 1 9 7 4 r e sp e c tiv e ly ) to v a l i d a t e t h e i r h y p o t h e s i s . T h e y e x a m in ed th e rh y th m ic co n te x t s u rro u n d in g d is y llab ic
n o u n s a n d v e r b s i n t h e c o r p o r a . A s a r e s u l t , n O u n S a ctu ally o c c u r m o r e f r e q u e n t l y l n t r O C h a i c c o n t e x t s●
th an v erb s・ L ik ew is e,V e rb s o cc u r m o re fre q u en tly in
i a m b ic c o n t e x t t h a n n o u n s . S p e c i丘c a lly ,in t h e w r it t e n
C O rp u S,th e p r o p o r t i o n o f n o u n s p r e c e d e d b y s t r e s s e d
S y lla b le s is s ig n i丘c a n tly lo w e r t h a n th a t o f v e r b s (1 4 % a n d 3 1 % r e s p e c tiv e ly ;g = 1 0 .4 3 ,♪ < .0 0 1 ), a n d the
p r op o rtio n o f n o u n s f o l l o w e d b y s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i s
S ig n i丘c a n tly higher than thatofverbs(42%and20%
r e s p e c t iv e ly ;g = 1 1 .7 7 ,♪ < .0 0 1 ). In th e s p o k e n c o r p u s ,
th e p ro p o rtion of n o u n s p re c ed ed b y str ess ed sy lla b les
i s s ig n i丘c a n tly lo w e r th a n th a t o f v e r b s ( 1 5 % a n d 1 8 % r e s p e c t iv e ly ;g = 2 .9 4 ,♪ < .0 1 ), a n d th e p r o p o r t io n o f n o u n s f o l l o w e d b y s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e i s s l g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h er th a n th at of v er b s (24 % an d 17 % re sp e c tiv ely ;g =5 .8 0 ,♪ < .0 1 ). T h e s e r e s u lt s a r e c o n s is t e n t w ith th e d o m in a n ce o f t r o c h a i c s t r e s s a m o n g d i s y l l a b i c n o u n s a n d iam b ic str ess am o n g d isy llab ic v e rb s.
K elly(1988)points out that in鮎ctions can also be a
f ac to r to a sslg n trO C h aic stress to d is y lla b ic n ou n s an d
C a te g O r y a c t u a l n u m b e r p e r c e n t a g e p u r e n o u n s / n o u n s 5 8 1 8 / 7 3 2 6 7 9 .4 2 % p u r e v e r b s / v e r b s 1 3 2 2 / 2 5 0 1 5 2 .8 6 %
i a m b ic s t r e s s t o d i s y l l a b i c v e r b s ・ I n c a s e o f n o u n s , g e n i t iv e o r p l u r a l i n f l e c t i o n −β ざ a d d s a s y l l a b l e t o a n o u n b u t − 5 d o e s n o t . I n c a s e o f v e r b s , i n 且 e c t i o n − β 5 , 一物 a n d −β乃 a d d s a s y lla b le t o a v e r b ,a n d −βd a ls o a d d s i f t h e w o r d 丘 n a l c o n s o n a n t i s / t / o r / d / , b u t − 5 d o e s n 。t. T h e s e a d d i t i o n a l s y l l a b l e s a r e a l l u n s t r e s s e d ・ E n g lish d isy llab ic w o rd s m ig h t b e lik e ly to b e stre sse d
o n th e s e c o n d s y l l a b l e t o k e e p W − S − W a l t e r n a t i o n i f
t hese addition al unstressed in鮎ctions occu r freq uen tly・
K e lly h y p o th e sis e s th a t v e r b s a r e l i k e l y t o i n f l e c t ad d ition al sy lla b les m o re fre q u e n tly th a n n ou n s・ If th is
is t h e c a s e , t h o s e i n f l e c t i o n s m a y c a u s e v e r b s t o
re ce iv e iam b ic s tre ss.
K e lly (19 88 ) an aly se d th e sam e co rp ora a s K elly &
B o c k ( 1 9 8 8 ) m a n u a lly . T h e y c a l c u l a t e d t h e
p r o p o rtio n s o f d i s y l l a b i c n o u n s a n d v e r b s w i t h a
syllable in鮎 ction・ T he p roportion s of verb s w ith a
s y lla b le in 且e c t io n (w r it t e n 1 6 % a n d s p o k e n 1 9 % ) a r e
sig n ific a n tly h ig h e r th an n o u n s (w r itte n O・5 % a n d
s p o k e n l %;W r itt e n Z = 1 4 別 ,♪< ・0 0 1 a n d s p o k e n Z =
16 .06 ,♪< .00 1). In fac t,n O u n S ra rely p osse ss an a d d e d
sy llab le b y in fle c tio n ,W h ich d o n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e d o m in an c e of tro ch a ic stre ss a m on g tw o sy lla b ic n o u n s・
T h e co rp o r a a n a ly ses b y K elly & B o ck (19 88 ) a n d K e lly (1 98 8 ) d id su p p o rt th e ir h y p oth e se s・ It sh ou ld n ot,h ow ev er ,b e c on sid e re d a s th e c on clu siv e e v id e n ce ・
It is q u ite d i f f i c u l t t o j u d g e w h e t h e r t h e p r e s e n t e d d a ta d e cisiv ely e x p la in s th e re aso n fo r th e n o u n 一V erb
stress di鮎ren ce or not.In p articular,the spok en data
p re se n te d b y K elly & B o c k (19 8 8 ),th o u g h it in d ica te d statistic ally sig n i丘c an t d i鮎 r en ce s,Sh o w e d o n ly slig h t d 肥e re n ce s.
K elly (19 88 )su g g e sts a b o u t th is th at w h e n w e ta k e
a lo n g h i s t o r y o f t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e i n t o
consideration,eVen SuCh sligh t di鮎ren ces m ight a鮎ct
the noun−
Verb stress di鮎rence gradually but steadily・
In fac t,h is e x p lan atio n is c on sisten t w ith th e h isto ry o f th e n o u n −V e r b s tr e s s d i任e r e n c e . T h e n o u n −V e r b s tr e s s
d iffe r e n c e is n o t a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t h a p p e n s i n c o n c e rt w ith a p a rtic u la r h is to ric al fac t su ch a s th e
N o r m a n C o n q u e s t b u t i s o r i g i n a t e d b y t h e ac cu m u la tion o f so u n d ch an g e w h ich p ro g re sses q u ite
s lo w ly . S h e rm a n (1 97 5 )in d ic ates th at th e c h an g e of n o u n −V erb s t r e s s p a t t e r n p r o g r e s s a t t h e r a t e o f o n e W O rd p e r tw o y e ars . T h is k i n d o f s o u n d c h a n g e i s s t i l l o b s e r v e d . K e l l y ( 1 9 8 8 ) t a k e s タ℃ C α JJ a s a n e x a m p le . H e s a y s d i c t i o n a r ie s s h o w γg C α Jg a s h a v i n g s e c o n d s y l la b l e s t r e s s , b u t i t h a s
b ee n o b v io u s esp ec ia lly fo r p eo p le in th e A m eric an ca r
c o m p a n ie s th a t n o m in a l 柁 C αJJ h a s d is c a r d e d it s ia m b ic s tr es s p a tte rn . c o n su ltin g p ro n o u n c in g d ictio n a rie s, K en y o n & K n o tt (19 53 )s h ow b o th tro ch a ic an d ia m b ic
s t r e s s fo r nominalγβC城whileJones(2006)shows
on ly tro ch aic fo r n om in a l a s A m e ric an p ro n u n ciatio n ・
7 .Im p lic a tio n s fo r fu tu re r e se a r c h
T h is p ap e r h a s u p d a te d th e e v id e n tial d ata for th e
n o u n _V e r b s tr e s s d i庁 e r e n c e in E n g lis h d is y lla b ic w o r d s
a n d a rg u e d fo r a p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r h y th m ic a l t e r n a t i o n a n d t h e n o u n − V e r b s t r e s s d iffe re n c e . T h e u p d a t e d e v i d e n c e h a s s u c c e e d e d i n
r e c o n firm in g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e n o u n − V e r b s t r e s s
d i鮎rence.O n the other hand,th ou gh th e discussions
o f p r ev io u s re s e ar c h h a v e p a r tly d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e r elatio n sh ip b e tw e en th e rh y th m ic alte rn a tio n an d th e
n o u n _V e r b s tr e s s d i荘e r e n c e , it h a s n o t b e e n c o n c lu s iv e
en o u g h . In fu tu re re se a rc h ,u p d a tin g th e e v id e n tia l
d a ta f o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d b e e f f i c i e n t , b u t a p p ro ac h es fro m alte rn a tiv e p e rsp ec tiv es m ig h t a lso
b e n e e d e d to sh ow m o re p e rsu asiv e ev id e n c e .
N o te s
l . A lt h o u g h s t r e s s s h i f t i s r e c o g n i s e d a s a p h o n olog lC al p h en om en on ,it is still c o n tro v e rsial as a
p h o n e tic p h e n o m e n o n ・ A n a l y s l n g a C O u S t i c a l p rop e rties ,it is d i伍c u lt to as su re th a t th e stre ss in
q u e stio n lite r ally ‘sh ifts,・ A s fo r p i t c h , W h i c h i s
c lo se ly t i e d t o l e x i c a l s t r e s s i n E n g l i s h , t h e p i t c h c o n to u r b e tw e en sy lla b les is n o t co m p le tely r ep la ce d ・
R a th e r,St re S S S h i f t s e e m s t o b e p e r c e i v e d o r p ro d u c e d b y n a r r o w i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f p i t c h c o n to u r between syllables(Beckman,deJong,&
R hythm ic alternation and the noun一Verb stress di鮎rence in E nglish disyllabic w ords
2 . A p u r e n o u n i s d e 丘 n e d a s a n o u n w h i c h d o e s n o t
b e lo n g t o o t h e r s y n t a c t i c c a t e g o r i e s ・ L i k e w i s e , a
p u r e v e r b i s d e 丘 n e d a s a v e r b w h i c h d o e s n o t b e l o n g
to oth e r sy n ta ctic ca te g o rie s.
R e fe re n c e s A lle n ,G .D .( 19 7 5 ).S p e ec h r h y t h m : I t s r e l a t i o n t o p e rfo r m a n c e u n i v e r s a l s a n d a r t i c u l a t o r y t i m i n g ・ ♪ 〝 γ〝αJ 〆 用 0 〝β方言α ,3 , 7 5 −8 6 . A m an o ,S .(2 0 0 7 ).N ih o n jin e i g o g a k u s h u s h a n o g o k y o se i n i k a n su ru c h i s h i k i t o c h o k a i r y o k u t o n o k a n k ei n i tsu ite [R elatio n sh ip b e tw e en k n ow led g e
o f lex ic a l str es s a n d L 2 1 i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n a m o n g J a p a n e s e le a r n e rs o f E n g l i s h ] . P a p e r P re se n te d a t t h e 7 0 t h M e e t i n g o f t h e J a p a n A s s o c ia tio n f o r L a n g u a g e E d u c a t i o n a n d T e c h n o lo g y ,C h u b u C h a p t e r , a t I c h i n o m i y a W om e n ’s J u n ior C olle g e . B a r t le tt ,J .(1 9 3 7 ).凡 ∽ 才J才αγ ¢ 〝O fα如 〝SごA C o JJβC 如 〝 〆 P α 5 ざα g β5 , f 鳩 γα ざβぶ α 〝 d P γ ∂〃 β γ∂5 , r γα C βd わ 乃 β 才γ 5 β〝 Ⅳ βぶ 才〝 A 〝 C 才β〝f α〝d 肋 d βγ〝 エ 如 γα ね〆柁 . E Jβ〃β〝肋 E d 言方わ 吼 B o s t o n : L i t t le ,B r o w n . B e c k m a n ,M .,d e J o n g ,K .,& E d w a r d s ,J .(1 9 8 8 ).
In ton atio n an d rh y th m ic c o rrela te s o f stre ss c la sh .
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