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(1)Title. Conceptions of politeness in Japanese and American English and di fficulties for the Japanese learner of English. Author(s). Butler, Chrystabel. Citation. 北海道教育大学紀要. 第一部. A, 人文科学編, 46(2): 51-67. Issue Date. 1996-02. URL. http://s-ir.sap.hokkyodai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/123456789/2041. Rights. Hokkaido University of Education.

(2) . 北海道教育大学紀要 (第1部A) 第46巻. 平 成 8 年 2月. 第2号. i l i i t onIA) Vo on(Sect Journalof Hokkaido Univers y ofEducat ‐46 ‐2 , No. Februal y ,1996. CONCEPTIONS OF POLITENESS工N JAPANESE AND AM[ E]則CAN ENGLISH AND DIFF工CULTIES FOR THE JAPANESE LEARNER OF ENGLISH. Chr IBUTLER tabe ys. OBJECT蓋VES To com pare the Concept ions of po五teness and the l ingui ic patterns used in japanese and st. A mer i i f f i i t can Engl shin order to analyze sources of di cul es observedin japanese learners of Eng五sh-. 1 I NTRODUCT.ON 工n thi l ll i ffer ing degrees of po th d l i teness in japanese a1 ook at requests made wi s paper ・d ,l sha Enghsh and suggest some reasons for po ints of di f f icu l i f ference presents forjapaneselearners t es the di i lfocus on a di i f ferencesin Culture and grammarthatCome to of Engl sh. M【 scuss on ofthe di y paper wn bear on thi i i i i tuat sl ngui st cl earning s on‐. ln the f i i l s paper in present br rst part ofthi ef lvi ew of the phenomenon of po錠teness y an ove ,lsh… f ferent research on thi t exists in japan drawing on some di ing the Concept of as i s theme scuss .ln di l i ided to l imi teness in Eng超sh i i t my di scuss on to Amer can Eng錠sh for a number of po , l have dec idabl tl am an A merican, thus l unavo reasons th my own cul l l tura ‐ one tha y teach wi ased use of y bi Eng互sh and concepts of po l i teness lming amount ofthe Engl i sh - Second,in japan presently, an overwhe informat i i i ines on they receive i i s from A mer ti ca : movi es c sf rom thi s Amer can ‐ So i , mus , TV, magaz “ i i mater althatthey form the r concepts of what Eng五sh” i s -. ln the second part of the paperl sha l l present examples of va l y i ng degrees of pohte requests in ingui i japanese and the general l though there exi c strategi st es at work‐ A1 st a number of 西ews of ” l i i l ingui teness in soc i i terature o st cl po , 1 have Chosen to use the Brown and Levinson face savIng. incei t seems to l l f most eas i tse l i ingui i endi paradigm,s scuss on ofthe l y to a di st c pohteness strategi es ofjapanese ‐. The thi t of the paper di i rd par i scusses some po互te express ons in Engl sh and the strategi es 1 y ing them-ln the .ast part of the paper l discuss some of the di under f ferences in Cu1ture and ,. shal tthe learner‐ grammarthatinhibi. 51.

(3) . Chr IBUTLER tabe ys. PART I : THE PHENOMENON OF POLr「ENESS IN JAPAN l di fferences between 1n recent years much research has been conducted into the area of cul tura i l l attempt a the US and Japan ce to thi s topic,、however l sha s paper can not dojust . The scope ofthi f ferences thatinf ing and pertinent di luencethelanguage l i ar sca ed down synops s of solme ofthe more gl l learneri ivesin Engl i l l l tura rect e way shin a cu si n making di n hi s attempt to acquire sk” y acceptabl .. i i i ibed as a ”ver Simpl t ten descr car soc ety ca i s seen as a s of y put , where A mer , Japan i “h 銘 tl “ igns every individua l to a ined system that ass l l ear sts a c or on a one y def ‐ ln Japan there exi lm of the par i l i t l l t be the i i thin the rea t cu ar organi zat on on of rank y by age pos , whether i , wi , usua i i l i i i l lthe lub. The pos fami t t l on in re at on to a on one occupies determines the pos y ,company or hobby c i t nes the l anguage that one uses toward each of the others in the par cul ar group , and thus determi meロ ー 1bers ‐. l l ln add i /soto i i i t t nenon ca ed uchi ety s the phenor cal aspect of Japanese soc on to the ver , there i “ 4 ) (Barnlund l97 ,27‐96 , or the in‐group. versus the. “ out‐group. ion o l i ips f hurnan re organi zat at onsh ‐. ヒ 1g cocentr ld around him in a series of outwardl idua l perceives the wor The Japanese indiv lc y expanda dy and then the extended famay and then ing that offa広 i l ー e c rc es ‐ Forexampl ,the mostinner group be i i thin i l i i the company and then assoc ented soc ety and wi s a group or ated compal es and etc ‐ Japan i “ hi i d F ldren l ig旭y sens hi t迄ed to hi hl t earn how to be h uc ” cooperation i s . g y s resse . rom a young age c i i l ings and concerns ofthose around them.ln same rank groups dec the fee s ons are made by consensus i l wants and goals for those of the group‐ As a i f i l ce individua and the individua sa re expected to sacr ’ f i i l i i t sh and res di rect s seen as sel 1on, to express ones op・n・ons or des resul y i , n a group stuat. l ly 1 ways 1vesin extreme1y vague and noncommi t ta 1 unacceptab1e‐ Peop e tend to express themse , gradua i i l fee ing out thes tuat on ofthe others‐. in the respective uchi ight l th Rul ;however anguage use, are t or es of behavi y governed wi , ,and thusl l t s into 1on fal as the others pos・ ” l teness poi. iateness or appropr. more and. l di ings from the center more di stant r , ru es regar ng. ” b k down or no l ongerappl rea y ‐ ,. i f i i Ref ing thi l cs in Japanese s the system of honor on in Japan i zat s concept of human organi ect ful or exa l ing igo (po丘te forms t ine i ) respect chotomy ofte r go ( ca韮ed kei go go consists ofthe t ,sonkei ‐ Kei ing forms forms ) ated and ) ‐ How these forms are used in addressee‐rel , and kenjogo (modest or humbl igure be l 92 i lin the f l ) ow (Coulmas l9 : c mode sshown in the bas ated expressions i referent‐re ,313. 一. l ddr t ed : e a es see‐r ノ. te・nelgo. . Honor i f i l ons c ex ress p. \ l f…謄r 廠d < e r e 52. ;.

(4) . CONCEPTIONS OF POLITENESSIN JAPANESE AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. Addressee-related expressions do not r l ter refer e ate to the subject mat red to , but are used to. i l i l of forma l i l iar i i ty or fami th the ty des r inter ocutor establ sh the l eve s red wi s cor responds to the ‐ Thi inct i T/V di st on between the second. l use in some languages such as French‐ ingul arand pl ura person s. Referent-re l l l igo l f l ) ated expressions a ow the speaker to e sonke evate the agent ( e himse , and humbl. ken ( j ) ogo ; or, in the. f case o. ” ” hi l evate the out-group al uc /soto , to e ld humbl e hi s in-group‐ The. l ingui i f i l l be di i a L i din the fo l l i st c aspects of the honor c system sha scussed in more det owing sect on of thi s paper‐. ln add i i i l i i f ference between fem′ t l l on s a fa r c d a e and ma e speech in terms of y dramat , there i l i l l i t l of for l i exi ty con, verb dec c e use ens on and par eve rna ‐ VVomen are expected to use a higher l , i l l i tuat a ons of mixed sexes‐ especi yin s. “ Thus l i i i l ingui i ass c soc on of Wrho says what st c quest o , in terms of the c , how, under what ci rcumstances to who rn ,the use oflanguage i n Japanesei s determined by three parameters:. i i l ive status super ) ・or vs‐i nfer or( e at ‐ . ,re i t-group ( lnーgroup vs‐ ou p) ‐eり group membershi l l ) ma e、 vs e(gender ‐fema. ln any s ingl i l e da ththe proper ed to come up wi y utterance an three ofthese factors must bejuggl i ba l teness‐ Ano i ther aspect ofJapanese culture that bears onl ingui ance of pol c style,is a phenomenon st. l l l i / soto‐ ln soc i i l i i idered a ”high context” society c ose ated to uch c terms o- ngu st s cons y re , Japan i ingl i idered a “ l i where, cont l ca i rast s cons ow context“ soc ety. Thi s concept was deve y oped to , A mer descr ibe the di f ference between a society where there i 1 of com mon1 s a high 1 eve y shared va1ues and informat i i i i l of common on, and those soc l es where there i et s not cauy where there i s a high l eve ‐ Bas y i i shared values, such as in Japan, there i t or di sl ess need for expl c rect l anguage ‐ ln high context tures one needs but a f cul l ings i ew words to convey an entire set of fee i th th stent wi s - Cons ,ideas etc. i i IJapanese at i t tudes toward talkativeness, directness and “over-exp互c t s the tradi i ona tness“, whi ch can be cons idered s igns of stupidi i l f i ty ty i i tuat shness on (Han l966 , pompos , and se , depending upon the s ,. 7‐11 ). ln Japan l l idered to be a natural s not cons y, autonomousl y evolving phenomenon; overthe , anguagei. f i i l statements as to how the l igo should be used e have been of years ther c a anguage of ke , and there ion are a number of experts who assi st the educat. mlnl stry for the purpose of maintaining and. improving the l despread insecur i anguage ty about cor sts wi rect knowl edge about the ‐ There exi l i lsurveys repeatedly report f indings that show thatthe ma anguage ona i ty of Japanese fee lthat jor . Nat i the rcommand ofthe language i i l l i l ight way and a sinadequate te s mostdef ‐ln other words, there i y ar. 1 wrong way to use thel anguage ) ‐(Coulmas 30. 53.

(5) . Chり IBUTLER tabe s ′. 1C STRATEG■ES 。F PouTENESSーN JAPANESE PART == L■NGUーST1 “ “ “ ”f ’ ace 1978 Brown and Levinson s based on the concePt of face, s( ew of Po丘teness i , 62一70) vi. 1 i i be “pos i ive face” as the des ing fundament t i “ emot ldes i i ong re to be reptesent res ona ,to be ‐ They descr “ ”「 t i ive re to l 通【e other ve face , on the other hand, i s the des egai s s and to be 鼠【ed by other - N inson suggest that there are thus i i th f on ce and act uni reedom of cho l 幻 ー peded and wi ‐ Brown and~Lev i ive face of the addressee and one thati t S i two 鮫 rected to the Pos or s di nds of po巨te behavi ,one thati ive Po互tenessrespect ive l l i i teness and negat di i y‐Brown ve face rected to the negat gnated Posltlve Po , des lrank and Power are stressed, negative inct i i t thatin cultures where di a st ons of soci and Levinson Pos i ive Po丘teness st i l i t tar es are l i i rategi tures whi ani sm, Pos ress ega teness i ch st s emphas zed and in cul Po h idered to be a l s cons ent more Preva . Any act thatin some way endangers the face wants of anot er i ” ”f l l be refer th ew i s t sha red to hencefor ace threatening act , or FTA, as i ‐ Brown and Levinsods vi. l i l i l l that Po五teness i orate or temper the threatening asPect or deve oped to ame s bas ca y a human behavi ofthese acts‐. ives in both Japanese and Eng韮sh to see how the The Purpose of thi rect s PaPer i s to di scuss di ins i ive i t di f ferences may bear on the JaPanese learner of Eng員sh cany a FTA in that i rect s intr - A di i in unimpeded ive face wants of the addressee rect lve threatens the negat s des re to rema ; a di , hi ’ necessar辻y impose s ones. wm. , l ther on the o ous y some FT A s are more threatening than others. ・ obvi. i iness ofthe FTA: ing the we Brown and Levinson( 1978 ) Present a formula for Predict ght ,76. Wx =D (S,H) 十 P (S,H) 十 where. Wx represents the. Rx. i鑓 di i iness of the FTA; D (S, H) the soc stance between the we ght. l S l i d Rx i tura at ve cul s the re addressee speaker , H; P (S, H) the Power of H over ; an , S, and the、 i i l nature ofthe soc t impos ety and the t ca ・ ・on acco rded to thi stype of FTA‐lndeedin Japanese ,the ver 1in determInIng i s i/ soto, re, a concept of uch Presented by the p ( , become cruc , 日) and the D (s, 日) f ferent FTAs for i t of thi s Paper l w追 Present two di the form for any kind of di ve s Par rect ‐ .ln thi. S i )in l mturaUy cons idered smau and medium s ( ze Rx values and then vary the P、 c ,H , H)and the D (S i i lstructures that would be apPropr fy the di f ferent gram mat ate ca order to exemp丘 ‐1 have given both a i f ferent grammar structures wi thin the cho ltranslation, to show the di ces i di ca rect , and an , ungrammat fferences i lfor the di i i n iva l ve a fee czm Engl sh,in order to gi appro×imate equ entin more naturaI A mer f i l l be denoted i i l i cs sha l i forma ty‐ The re r gender at onships between S and H,the , and the use of honor as such:. \. 54. i副 rank s of highersoc speakeri. ÷→. speakeri s ofsame rank. ノ. owerrank speakeri s ofl.

(6) . CONCEPTIONS OF POLrrENESSINJAPANESE AND A AERコCAN ENGLISH. s ln‐grouP addressee l. thin an group speaker and addressee are close wi. addressee i s out‐group. 1 i f i 1 ing the addressee t :exa ated honor referentre c. i ] 丘cs ta. (). lated honor i i f c : humb互ng the speaker referent-re. the ld bo was not. 〕 隆義 , o. i f i addressee‐related hono c ・. put ln. CAPS. i ing mot i verbind cat on from down to up. =. SMALL FTA: ”OPEN THE 執ぜINDO斬ず’ - i お Z APか中こ” t 粥α e れgZ S力 Eq”れα彰7 z. ノα力似彫se ′. (would口t ask). - - - - -う 、 ・ 、 コ. ‘. Sumimasen kedo mado o ,. Excuse me could you open the ,. akete KUREM ASENKA?. window for me?. ( ) sor ry but , window opening give not?. Chot to mado o akete women:〉. \. KURENAP. Can you oPen the wi l t ndow a 互t e. for me?. u l t t ) ( e window opening give not. l l ld口t request・t (usua y wou. ノ早. f necessaぴ woul d choose ori l l th ofthe fo ) one 。r bo owing:. ) suはm masen a. kedo, atsuku. Excuse me do you f 1hot at a… ee ,. arimーasenka?. (Sor ) ry , but , hotthere?. ) Sumimasen kedo, mado o b i ? tadakemasenka ) akete(. Excuse me You wou lddt be abl e ,. to open the window for me ld you? , wou. ( sorび but , window opening ive not? ) rece c) Sumimasen kedo , mado o akete 廓メヱQSの 侃α彫れ是α? ( ) sor ry but , window opening give not? 55.

(7) . Chr IBUTLER t abe ys. man. Atsui na, mado o akete KURENAn くA?. 一. . ’ hot Can ou o en the window? l t s y p ,. ? ho ) ti ( ve not s , window opening gi. open the window a 五t l t e ‐. Chotto mado akete ‐. i l d Ch. l i l t t ( e window open). Chot to mado o akete KUREMASENKA?. →. Could you open the wi l t e? ndow a 互t. 丘 l t t ( e window opening give not?). 1 1.MED1UM FTA: HELP ME (WITH MY WORK) A: Sun・ imasen kedo to ,Chot ikan ga ar imasuka? o‐j. Excuse me but do you have some ,. ime r ight now? t. l imei t ( ) sor ry but et s there? , 互t B: Nan desu ka?. ? t whati si. ikoto A: Chot ta to onegai shi. Wアeu ,actuany there was a favor. ’’ ga aru n desu ga‐“. l wanted to ask of you‐. l i l ( t t e request wantto asking thing therei s s…) ,reaUyi ? B: Nani. ? Wrhat. A: (Mo i ) wakenarddesu ga, sh. rm rea l l y sor1y to bother you,. tsudai onega・ chotto o‐te. ingi butl was wonder fyou woulddt. dekimasen deshooka?. lp me a l i l be abl t t e? e to he. ing excuse not, ( saying th i l l l l t t e he rea s p yi ,l lddt be ? request Cou ). oR i (Mo ) wakenarddesu ga, sh i i tadaki ta ) koto o‐tetsudai( te… ・nashi ga gozai ( saying thing excuse not, lp want to l l s rea yi , he ing. iving thing be rece “. A: Sunlimasen kedo ,ima o‐i sogashi desロka?. Excuse me are you busy now? ,. ( ) sorぴ but, now bus y?. B. →. l idesu yo‐. No ,rm o‐K‐. ) ( se s goodi ,of Cour i A: Chot to o‐negai shi ta. l t パ ア l lthere’s a 錠tt e favor. wanted to ask‐ e. koto ga aru’n’desu ga. . ‐. l i l t t ( e request to asking thing therei s s…) ,reaUyi ? B: Nani 56. Wr ha ? t.

(8) . CONCEPTIONS OF POLITENESS … JAPANESE AND AME則 [ CA1 ENGLISH. te A: Chot to o-tetsudai shi. l was wonder ingi l f you would heIP me a 五tt e -. ’’desu a i i ta ) tadaki ( n g‐ - - l i l lp doing want t t ( e he to leceive, reany i s but…) .. to warurn’dakedo, chot tetsudate. \. KUREN 和?. ’ Li ther you 1 l sorly to bo sten,11 but lp me? , could you he. l i l ( t t e bad reany but , lping give not? he ). 汀. (Would not make a request ). ,d k d t t d t Chot to warurn aeo ・ , e su a e. 望 \. Sor lp me ry to bother you, please he ‐. l lp me l i l ) t t ( e bad real y but , he Chotto ,tetsudate‐. Help me for a second.. ld ( l i l l t t chi ) e he p. ” “ ln thei 1978 i i i r book t that in soc es where et , Po五teness , Brown and Levinson ( , 245) pos di inct i i teness strategies would be more prev司 l st ons of rank are stressed, the use of negative pol ent . ” They s i ing a culture whi te Japan as be f i ch can appear to be “standof sh f rom the perspective of other ’ l i tures peopl ive-po i teness st cul e i rategi es l sted by Brown and Le前 nson ‐ lndeed , many of the negat. 1978 ( ) are , 131. i i l structure of Japanese c grammat ca part of the bas ‐ one of the negative‐po五teness. ” imper l i i iding indi strategies termed “ ing pronouns l fi sona zat on s that of avo tse cat s a , i ‐ Japanese i t verbs whi i pronoun-drop language, so tha chindi cate the di rect on of action, from a higher person to a lower or vice versa are used to f i 耳 in the informat ion for the pronouns- 0veruse of pronouns i s ,. l l idered too di i l t srespectful rect genera y cons es are used instead to give deference , thus di , so that t , ” ( such as teacher) l s refer ; or,the addressee i red to by name rd person sty e ,in thi , as though he were i i i i ing to the tem por須, personal not present tch (de ct i c pl ace swi ls i i ct c refer r tuat ocat ona on of , a de , or l terance the ut ) -. ofthe verbsindi ing direct1on mot ion cat l l as the i r ,there are standard forms, such as kureru, as we l i f i corresponding r l l f ferentforsome verbs‐ ln terms of eferent-re ated honor c forms ch are l e×i ca y di , whi the addressee‐related honor i f i cs in f s more po=te than the pl a rom; ,the masu‐ending form of any verbi tated before i as s idered ana l s can be cons ogous to the , th. T/V. d i inct i st on usage in other languages.. Furthermore the negat ive of any form of the verb i s always an increase in po丘teness, which i s , ive pol th the negat i cons・ stent wi teness redress strateき弾 termed. “b imi ic“ by e pess st. Brown and. Levinson‐ Genera l l tached to the verb indi ing the di i i s at y the negative form i cat rect on of mot on and i thus the condi t ing ofthe addresseei ing doubted. on of rece・wng, or the giv s be. ln the exam ples given aboVe, an honor i i f ing or exa l ing form of a verb indi t ing di c humbl cat rect 1 on 57.

(9) . IBUTLER Ch・ys tabe. i i ing someth ng of an m‐group person ranked above you or an out冊group of mot on i s chosen forrequest ly the same rank or above‐ For an in‐group person of the same rank, the verb s near person who i “k “ i th the opt 1 i on of ng,i s chosen wi rom be 0w to above, or same rank givi ureru , wh ch shows giving f. l in form for peopl e close to you or be ow the negative masu-form for peopl a e ofthe same rank or the pl ts n rank,the standard verb kureru can be used in i n rank. For an out‐group person below you i you i l ine tune the ba f ferent uses ofthe verb endings can f in form. Thus ance of closeness and respect a pl , di one wi shes to e×press‐. 1992 i i iquet ) states that one strategy ingui ln a paper on Japanese l te or an Coulmas ( st c et , 320 , F1 “ imacy and in endi i f i th pl l a ngs to show bothint shown by f c verb forms wi s to use honor ema e speakers i a. in that the ”use of l 1992 iko lde et a ( a sense of decorum r ln a paper by sach ‐ , they expl , 292). l i i l ins the di honor i f i inta na e the use of f stance between the speaker and addressee or referent cs ma , wh f the l ims that i 1984 )c imacy i a t cl es shows int yekawa ( par , 77 . Yet another study by Agnes M‐ Ni l in intact i f i di tance in rank i c forms rema s too great s , but the content of the messages wa ,the honor idered the l l i imacy increase i s cons n di rectness as a s y speaking gn ofint . Genera ,the closest in‐group l l i f i i l famay in the modern day fami th cs are rare es ofJapan y used. , honor ,and wi. ive‐po l i The other negat s the anguage i teness strategy commonl y used in the Japanese l ind the verb form l i i sat on of the verb‐ln the examples above we f nomina. “. i i (want to ta o-negai sh. “ ” thi ) i i koto aru ta t becomes, onegai sh l i ) ng, so thati sed by the word koto ( make a request , nomina ing to make a request thing) though there are other ways to nomina脇e a verb in there i ( s a want - A1 i Japanese on by the word , nomina互sat. ”k t ” i lat l t t the speaker has 員t ng on to the thi e re o o expresses tha. ive l close to i lked about and does not fee t rect be ing ta ng a di ,the ‐(Makino l986 ,195) Thus , when maki “k t ” i l i Zat l i i therstheimpersona on on fur o o nomina zat .. i l i ive-po teness i s ma毅 ng a 超nd of Anotherverb form whi ch can be used for the purpose of negat th the te-form. The te‐form of the verb i i ini ) s shed sentence eu ps , by ending an utterance wi , (unf. 86 funct i ink sentences, and i tindi cate or clause w追 foUow (Makino l9 another predi cates that・ ons to l , ive-po亘teness di ty scussed t creates ambi 466 rategyfornegat ) gui ,anotherst ‐ So when used as an endingi i f i th an addressee honor c by Brown and Levinson es wi s straregy was used in the above exampl . Thi imashi form ofthe verb “be” to make “goza te” .. ini l part ofspoken messages‐ To end a sentence orf ipses ・s a integra sh something ln fact ing en , us i Zed e l l ipt i i t a number of convent c onal l rect and harsh to the japanese ear abrupt y seerns too di , so tha fect co l m L d be seen to be two l l ef inuous l lmost every ut terance rategi es are used cont st yin a . The overa ー ng sentence-ln the examples above there are two com mon or mor ng in turn one unendi e speakers ma顔 ”’ ’d ] 山 i i n es ga c patterns used: e pt. and. ” , ’d “ i t c ofthe cl e whi ch marks the topi s a par n esu kedo . Ga i. l l ing about that topi l l ete c to fo ow in a compl sentence so that norma y one would expect someth “ t hanging‐ ”Kedo iona丘zed e i l l i ef ci sintroduced and then l s sentence‐ln the convent ps , on the ,the topi “ l though B”. So l though” and expresses the thought A a tened form ofthe word “a s a shor other hand,i 58.

(10) . 閃 [ CAN ENGLISH . APANESE AND AME] CONCEPTIONS OF POLITENESS 悶 1. i th theintroduct t wi ch i on of a contradiction whi s never expressed‐ ef when used as an ending we are l ive and then expresses an unexpressed contradict ln thi ion wh i rect s way the speaker makes a di ch ,. thdraw the di serves to wi rect lve .. h ln the japanese examples above ing , t e reoccurr. ’dd ” icle phrase “ t esu i s used par ,. as an. “ロ ” ” ” ー Uocut i ined by Brown and Levinson to be a wo【d i onary force i ocut onary hedge s def . A hedge on i i 逆 にer tmentto the statement and ot phrase wh cates something aboutthespe宅 scommi chin solme wayindi ’’ i l t thus suspends the face value ofthe statement ch i s reduced to n in phrases,i c e no s ‐ The par , whi. i i s marker used as a marker for a reason being g1ven, or as an emphasi s、the A mer can Engl sh , such a “. f rea l lず (Makino l986 i ) use o ts oning native speakersaboutthe meaning ofi . However ,324 , when quest luding ted above ts purpose use i n the exampl es ci , no one was able to give a clear answer as to i , inc t softens the sentence. Th i several professional teachers‐ The only unanimous response was that i s ly points to i icle in an embedded pos・ ts impor t tance as a hedge clear ・on that , a part , as Brown and. Levinson expl in l l l l ing a fuzz iness over the who l t a s not c ear e y marking an賃hing at a ,i , thus cas utterance‐. Another negat l inE ive-po員teness strategy out id by Brown and Levinson, and exemp避i ed in the. ” “ ive/noun/adverb “chot 五t l to“ ( t )i ze Rx strategy- The adject e preceding examples,is the minimi s used d fy the request l l tseem sma repeatedl et y to modi , an makei ‐. ” 1n the above examples two k inds of apo l l l i l to warurn,dakedo“( t t ogi es are used- The apo ogy chot e , bad rea l l )i s used for close in‐group same rank addressees, or in‐group l owerranked addressees‐ y but . ” The otherapo l ogy. , “ ,i ing thing i ) where moshr moshi wakenarndesu ga ( say s not an excuse tea=yi s s. l i l l an referent‐related humb i ng form ofthe verb say, and whi ch can be rough rans atedinto Engl sh as yt ” “ lrea l l lbad about thi s s used for superiors‐ y fee , i. ln conclus ion then i i i tuat ons presented about the prefer red redress , t appears thatforthe type of s. forthe FTA was convent i l i i th appropr ldren ona zed indi rectness wi ate deference . VVhen spea姫ng to chi in imperat ive cou1d be used wi the pl th no need for tedress ive informants were a ‐ vvhen the nat i t ] = were deemed oned about the use of other strategies, such as hinting, g1v・ng reasons or i ques rony ,a to be presumptuous and general ly undesi imate in‐groups such as the t垣n very int rable, except wi. famay ‐. PART I I I 電 CAN ENG1 亘SH . POLITE EXPRESSIONS 璽N AMERI ‐ l Be fの鶏 of A meγ i i ow i s an exce【pt f l rom a textbook F“れct ) tabl cαれ EれgZ sれ (Baeyer 17 el be ow‐ ,in, Thi i te requests that can be found in many coln municat ive or iented si s the kind of presentation of pol textbooks these days ing po丘teness i ncreas s ordered in terms of the ‐ As one can see the order of i increas ing value ofthings ing requested‐ However i s no indi cat on i n thi s tabl e of who ,or Rx , be ,there i i ing to whom. So t rem山ns up to the speaker to adjust the 1 s speak l of eve , we must assume thati 59.

(11) . Chり IBUTLER tabe s ′. ” i 1 the exPressions use a Conventionalizad indirectness, such as ”l need- the r Po互teness - , or . AI. ca n ‐. l l h impe d l i s e rat ve rectness i s Created by use of moda you‐ ‐ ‐ Can, Wi ‐ , and the indi ,i , as oppose to t e. inl l(Brown and Levinson 136 Us i ) es ma ng the Brown and Levinson mode y at work ,the overau strategi ’ ” ion, hedge” strategy, that is “dodt as seem to be the quest sume anything about the addressees ” “ imi i l ingness to do the act s st C strategy s、assume that the addressee i wa ; and, the be Pess , that i i l ing up of hedges and pessmi i l ing to do the aCt tenesi st c phrases s created by a pi unwn ‐ So pol , and in 1 iVeform i 1 i i iveform 1 i terthantheaff ti test s po rmat onges s a1 so the po genera1 ‐ln genera ,the1 ,the negat “ ’ “ i imi th the “be pess e end me a dime sin accord wi st C face redress strategy whi chi . You Couldntl , ,i ” ” ” i l l ibl ld you2” Poss ibi l i ty operators, such as poss ona oCut cou l r y ght y , or mi , act as a hedge on the i l l f force o i i bi i fthe statement, questioning the feas tse i l ty ofthe act i a sh i sr ch in adverbi ‐ln fact , Engl “ ” ”fi ’ oK “ “ “f ou i bl fi 1 f‐C lddt mind. t t would be poss hedgessuch as thei e… The s ause e wou y ‐ . . . i , i , i ,i ” ” 1 ofthese hedges are used to soften the l s another Common y used hedge phrase do you think… i . AI di rect lve ‐. i i TABLE I : Funct l i ons of A mer can Eng sh. i tethey Here are s i th stars t ng ome useful ways offeques . Thをy are marked wi , according to how Pol are .. ★. Hey ,l need some change. rm a l loutof change‐. ★★. ter You do灯t have a quar , do you? ? Have you got a quar ter , by any Chance. Cou l dl borrow a quarter? ★★★. Youcou l d汀tl end me a doUar ,could you? l l ? i Do you th ar end rne a do nk you couldl l l wonderi f you couldl ar end me a dol ‐. ★★★★. ? i l l i Wou l d you mindl ve do a r s end ng mef l i l l fyou couldl ve do ar s end mef . ,rd be very grateful. ? ter l d you possiblyl ★★★★★ Cou end me yourtypewri i ? ter Do you th i end me yourtypewr nk you could possiblyl i ter l wonderi f you could possiblyl end me yourtypewr .. fi t ★★★★☆★ l hope you don’t mind my asking, butl wonderi. l l possible for you to l end me might be at a. your car .. l d use these requestforms Dec i de wi th yourteacher when you wou . Can you add any moreformsto i ? thel t s. i Another ma s poロter than the present tense‐ vedi s thatthe use ofthe past tense i n strategy invol i l wonder.“ ln thi l i ing ” i l was wonder terthan the phrase “ For exam ple the phrase “ et C s case s po ,a di 60.

(12) . CONCEPTIONS OF POL工TENESSIN JAPA1 ESE AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. in ing used to create distance. Using the Past tense Creates temーporal distance from the t tchi て .e swi s be ion and thus the request beco i lme l act rect and thus Po互ter ess di so r st aPPear to be ght f ‐ A1 , what mi. l i l l imP1 te phrases seems to be actua s e Past tense in some Po n #11 y use of the subjunct・ve, as i . Here ” ” “C ld ibl ou you Poss y lend me your tyPewriter, imP五es the second half of the unsPoken Phrase, if . “ ive seems to be at Work in most of the Po亘teness strategies‐ By asked you. Thi s use ofthe subjunct. i ing the subjunct ime swi l ive f i l tch in i tse et ct us ch i s ca , whi , in a sense a di , one Creates a hyPothet “ i i l i i i l wonderi f i tuat tuat ty‐ The Phrase “ on in t s on thati s di sconnected f rom the present s . ne and rea ‐ ‐ , i ten the Phrases, al so l ends to the hyPothet whi s used to sof cal nature ofthe utterance‐ chi. l l Actua ika (Niki and Ta iki l18) j th j y , in a study done by Niki and Ta , they found that Nor A mer icans in actuaI Pract ice tended to Prefer using an asking for permi ssion strategy versus a ing strategy when i ing the l l of the i l i i l of teness request eve r Po ncreas rl eve ‐ The subjects increased the i teness when addr ing Peopl i l di l e of greater soc a stance such as teachers ess Pol e be ow gives ‐ The tabl. i some exam P1es of exPressions taken f rom the rstudy‐. TABLE 2 Canl bor rOW…. Cou l dl borrow… N1 ayl borrOW… Do you th i nklcould bonow”“ ingi l was wonder flcould use…. Do you have a.”‐l could borrow ighti Wア 1 di f. borrowed.“ tbe al r ou. Wア i di tbe possible to borrow・ ou ・ . f we borrowed- Wア 1 d you mi ou ndi - ‐ i l was wonder f you might have a . ngi . ‐that. Wr e Cou1d borrow?. Here again we see that the di i ime swi l to creat ing the di tch i et ct s centra stance that i s the essence ofi lvedin as therfactorinvo l o i ndi rectness and thus po五teness. However i ng for Permi ss on , the o. i l f I Point s that the sPeaker names himse s not the foca ng , and thus the addressee i . Thus by aski i i i ss on ree to make a dec sf Permi s on and the sPeaker ,the sPeaker asserts the factthatthe addressee i l ltakeresPons ibi l i l f regardless ofthe deci ty for himse i wi t seems thatthe act of asking Perm・ss・on s on.l renders the speaker mor l eindePendent ofthe addressee whi e the act of requesting makes the speaker. more dePendent on the addressee (Nikiand Ta i k i ) j . .121. ln addi i t on, the natives softened their requests regularly wi th the use of hedges ‐ Phrases such as ”d ” l unk, th the power to m i o you t seem to award the addressee wi tered L ake the deci s on in an unfet i t ing Rx exPressions such way ng the imPos l ・ on, The A mericans also used mLany minimi z ,thereby reduc ” tf a ha “ ” ” i “ l as jus t t or w e e - , just′ al 61.

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