Dynamic Assessment in Collaborative Interviews with EFL Learners

Dynanlic Assessment in Collaborative lntewiews with EFL Lcarllers

教育 内容

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法 開発 専攻

文化表現 系教 育 コー ス

言語 系教育分 野

(英

語

)

M15188E

大和

智子

Dynamic AssessIIlentin Conaborative lnterviews with EFL Leamers

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty ofthe Graduate Course at

Hyogo University ofTeacher Education

In Partial FulflHInent

ofthe Requirements for the lDegree of

Master ofSchool Education

By

Motoko Yamato

(Student Number M15188E)

December 2016

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all the people who have given

me tremendous support and sincere encouragement as l worked on my thesis.I had a marvelous time as a researcher,teacher,and learner at Hyogo University of Tcacher Education.

First and foremost, I would like to express my highest appreciation for my supeⅣisor,Professor Tatsuhiro Yoshida.His words,“ we should have different lens or perspectives as teachers"and``we should have powerin language"have renlalned in lny mindo l learned how to perceive my classroom and how to colrmllmcate through

reading articles and books,conducting presentations,and participating in discussions in

seminars.He never ttected Ollr thoughts or feelings and explored ideas with us thoЮughlyo No matter how busy he was,he made time to talk wi■ us about ollr research.I saw an idealteacher's modelin his devotion to his work,his way ofthinking, and his personalityo Moreover,we were always excited to learn in his seminar or class because it was f1lled with profound and interesting discussions and, sometimes, we laughed a lotol had no idea how lucky l was to have leamed ibm him.Because ofwhat l have learned ttOm him,I wish strongly tO contirlue with my research.

I am also gratenll to the teaching staffin the Depattment ofEnglish Language at

Hyogo University of Tcacher Education,who gave nte consmctive and professional advlce.

My hearelt appreciation also goes to my seminar c011eagues for their meaningil and very interesting discussions and wann encouragement: Ms. Kanade

Kamata,Mso Nobuko F可

五_{,Mso Nahoko Ueyarnち}

MsoKmiko OL Ms.Y面

kO I五e,

would also llke to express my deep gratitude to my colleagues in my year.I never expected to meet such面 ce mends during my graduate life.

I am deeply indebted to all the star at Maiko High SclЮ ol,especially the pHncipal,Mso Chiemi Tako,and the previous vice pHncipal,Mr.Shoichi Tanigawa who listened to my hopes and encouraged me to avail ofthis great oppormity.I also thank all the students ittonl the English Conversation Class ul the academic years 2014

and 2015,as well as the ESS club members.Based on the allalysis of their interview data l becalne interested in the interaction between an intewiewer and alinterviewee.

I thank the follr university students who participated in my research ppject. Without their sincere participation,I would have never completed my research。

And of course,I aln very gratemi to my sweet children,Kokoro and Kotoh亀 who supported me wiJl their big snliles and warm encouragement. I aln also deeply gratenll to my mother‐in‐law,Noriko,for willingly taking care of my children and

always being supportive ofrny family.

Last,but not least,I wish to thank my husband,Kanito,who was always on

my side and supported me vath a huge heart and warm laugh. Without his

encouragement,I would never have completed iny thesis.Thank you.

Motoko Yarnato

Kato,Hyogo

Abstract

This study explores the ways in which a mediator and a learner collaborat市ely interact宙th each other during the輸 plerrlentation of Dynamic Assessment in a one―on―one inteⅣ iew se■ing.In particular,the learner's perceptions of the mediator's

assistance are analyzed to llnderstand how both partiesjomtly participate in the talk.

I had occasionally conducted a speaking test called HOPE(Imai&Yoshidち

2007)at high SChools and measllred my students'oral abilities.I believed that the test

allowed language teachers to carefユ 1ly obseⅣe the ways in which students interacted in

English in one‐on‐one encounters wlth dlelr teacher. However, it was difflcult to

obseⅣc how effectively the post― test feedback to the students actllally contributed to the impЮvement of their language pro■ ciency.While l was pl1771ing Over more effect市 e

assessment methods and ways of improving students'oral ability,I encomtered a

theoretical■amework called Dynalnic Assessment(DA).

Theoretically,DA emerges fbm socioculmal theOry(SCD,WhiCh Was■

.111ly

gromded h the theory developed by Vygotsky.Vygotsky developed the concept ofthe zone of pЮ 対mal development cPD),whiCh iS defmed as“ the distance between the acmal developmentaHevel as dete.mmed by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as dete.1..ined through problem solving llnder adult guidance

or in collaboration宙th more capable peers''(Vygotsky,1978,p.86)。 In order tO transfo.11l actual to potential development,learners are mediated by cultural tools.I)A

can be construed as a pedagogical application of the consmctiOn Of the ZPD through mediation.

Unlike non―DA,DA is``intentionally set out to help learners change during the

lV

ofdevelopment is valued rather thanjust assessing their actual development,traditional

interview tests are limited h this capacity because they focus only on learners'actual

development.To overcome this problem,I vnll employ an SCT perspective in inteⅣ iew settings and conduct DA interviews,in which the ZPD is co― consmcted between the mediator and the learners。

DA emphasizes the mteractive relationship betweenぬ e rnediator and the learner and leads to the co‐ consmction Of the ZPDo Previous studies have demonstrated that DA is an efFecive way of shaping mteractions in L2 settings,and山 威 mediation has a large impact on a learner's language development.Although most ofthe studies fbcused

on how″

θdiato/s perceived learners'errors and diagnosed their development,very few studies have paid attention to how′θ鮮■θ/S perCeive the mediation provided during the

interac●ono The present study thus aims to expbК how the nledator and the Larner collaborate during the intewiews,with DA,and how learners perceive and incorporate the lnediation into their development.

The study participants were four Japanese llmversity students m可

oHng in

elementary teacher education.The interviews proceeded ttough the three phases;

Interview I,H,and IH.In lntewiew I,two nks―

pic仙℃ descHption and role play―were g市en in order to explore indi宙 dual participants'language use and identi取

their acmJ deve10pment level.Inlmediately a■

er lnterview I,Intewiew II was

conducted,and the mterviewer and the participant reviewed their perfo....anCe,which

had been video recorded during lntervlew I.One week later,Intewiew IH was

conducted in order to cott their development ofthe inediated pomt.

The data used in this study were analyzed llsing conversation analysis to exalmne three features of collaboration: the interviewer's Юle, the participants' perspective,and the collaborative perspectives.

First,regarding the mterviewer's role, it was found that inediation should be strategically orered using a scale of graduated assistance宙 th appЮpHate th面

_n3in

order to obseⅣe the process ofthe participant's seliregulation.

Secondly,when the interaction beneen the mteⅣ iewer and the participant in the collaborative inteⅣ iews was exanlined,it was suggested that care■ l attention needed to

be paid to how the participant aS Well as the mteⅣ iewer9 perceives the mction of mediation.

Lastly,related to the second issue,even ifthe interviewer provides“ apprOp五ate''

mediation,if the participants fail to understand the interviewer's intention,this would

not lead to the participants' developmento This strongly indicates that intewiews are collaborat市e act市 ities,in which meallung is co‐ consmcted by both participants;in

other words,hey are establishing mtersuttect市ity.

The present study concluded with some practical implications ofintroducing DA into the L2 setting in Japan,and by explaining some limitations of my research.A DA perspective suggests that mediators should have an analytical lens that enables them to

see the learners' potential levels of dcvelopmento This means that mediators shOuld conceive of a whole group not as a single mass but as gathered individuals,who may create difLrent ZPD_FШ せЮrrnore,the stЩ_{w suggested■ ut,ln order to introduce DA}

into a classroo■1,the follo―g lssues should be exalnmed:the mtion of DA,task design,and the rnediator's role.

I believe■at the present study has demonstrated the large pedagogical impact that a E)A session has on an individual learner's development. Particularly, as a language teacher,I wish to emphasize that we should not miss the learner's potential level of development. Flllally,I hope that the theo五 es and practice of]DA discussed

Vl Contents Acknowledgements。¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・_{・¨¨¨¨¨“¨“¨¨¨“}・_{・¨“¨¨¨¨¨¨}・・¨¨・_{・………¨…“¨}i Abstract.…_………五i Contents.… ………¨………¨¨………¨………・・…………・・¨¨¨………・・¨¨¨¨Vl Chapter l lntroduction.¨..¨¨¨・・¨¨・・・・。・¨“・・………・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・・・¨¨“¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨………・1

Chapter 2 Literame Review on Dynamic Assessment.… ….…_{…・………… ………・………・……}4

2.l Socioculmal TheOry¨ ¨¨¨¨¨¨“。・¨¨・・¨・_・¨“・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・_{・¨“………¨4}

2.2 The Zone ofProximal Developnlent.… ……….・……¨………・ヽ………・・¨¨¨・5

2.3 Dynallnic Assessment。¨....・・・・¨・・¨・・¨¨“¨・・・・¨¨¨¨¨¨・・・・¨¨・・………¨¨・・・・・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・6

2.3。l Conceptual Framework ofDA.… _………6

2.3.2 FЮ_{m NDA Interview to DA InteⅣ iew.… ………。6}

2.3.3 DA and Second Language Development.… …….¨¨¨¨・¨¨・・……・…¨。¨・¨¨¨・¨・…¨。¨8

2.3.4 Mediation and Corrective Feedback.¨ ..¨_“¨“¨・・………・・¨¨¨¨・・・・¨¨・・¨¨¨……¨“・10

2.3.5 Two Approachesto DA.… _{… … … …}

H

2.4 Conclusion.“_{“¨¨¨¨¨¨………・・…・・¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨“¨¨¨"¨}¨_{・・¨¨¨¨・・¨¨……¨¨“・・…………。・¨¨¨。}13

Chapter 3 Research Design..… … … … ……… ……… …… …………・………・……・………… 14

3.l Research QuettiOns.…

_………

14 3.2 Participants.… _{………・14} 3.3 Collaborative lnterview..¨ ¨¨¨..…¨・¨¨。_{・¨¨¨・¨・・・・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・¨¨・¨¨¨・………・¨・・…・・}15 3.4 Task Procedllre.… _{………¨¨¨}・_{・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨………¨“¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨}・・¨¨¨¨¨15 3.5 Mediation Prompts。 ¨………¨¨¨¨¨“¨¨¨“¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・・・¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨……

-17

3.6.Method ofAnalysis.¨ ¨¨¨¨¨¨_{・・“・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・“・・“¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨"¨}¨¨¨_{・・¨¨¨・・¨…17} Chapter 4 Analyses。_{…¨………}..…¨………・_{・………・・¨…“………・・…………・・………。19}

4。l The Past‐tense Morpheme``‐ed''.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨_{・・・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨……19}

Vll

4.1.2 Momo(See Appendix C for a負11 list oftranscHpo…_{………・………22}

4.2 Multiple Assistance.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨・・¨¨・・¨¨・・・・“¨……¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨・・・・。23

4.2.l Haru.¨ ¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨_・・¨¨¨・・・_{・¨¨¨“¨“}・・¨¨¨¨¨・・…………¨¨¨¨・_{・¨¨¨¨¨………¨¨“¨“¨……23}

4.2.2 Momo...¨ _¨¨“¨“・・“・・・・¨¨・・¨¨¨¨……・・……¨¨¨“¨¨¨¨¨・・¨・・¨………・_{・¨¨¨““¨}・・¨¨¨・_・“¨26

4.3 Wh‐question.¨ ¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨・_・¨¨“・・・・¨¨¨・_・“¨“・・・・・・・・¨¨・_{・¨“““}・28 4。 3。l Nao(See Appendix C forthe transc五 pt ofrole plays in lnterview l and III)28 4。4 The lnterviewer's lntention and the Participant's Perceptiolls ofthe Mediation。 32 4.5 The Participants Perception ofthe Collaborative lnteⅣ iew.…_………34

4.5。l Takuya.… ………・……・_{・………・……・・………・…}34

4.6 Sllmmary.¨ ¨¨..¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨…………“¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨“・・・・¨¨¨¨“¨・・・・¨¨¨¨¨¨………36

Chapter 5 Discussion。_{……¨¨………・・………・・………・・………・………37}

5。l The Process ofSelf‐ Regulation.“¨………・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・……・・¨¨・・““・・¨¨¨¨¨¨・_{・¨………・}37

5.2 Strategic Mediation。_“¨..¨_{"¨“¨“……}・・……¨…¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨…………¨¨¨・・“¨・・¨………38

5.3 Potential Level ofDevelopment.“ ¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨_{・・¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨・・}

40

5。4 Learllers'Perceptions Dunng the lnterviews...“ ....¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨………¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨

-41

5.5 Establishing lntersutteCd宙ty…

_………¨

42

5。6 Sllmmary.¨

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43

Chapter 6 Conclusion.… ………・………‐・

44

6.l lmplications,¨ ¨¨¨.・¨・・¨¨¨¨““¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨“¨¨¨¨・・・・¨“¨¨¨¨¨“¨“¨¨¨¨¨ "“。

44

6.2 1ntroducing DA into Japanese High Schools.… … … …

44

6.3 Lirnitations.¨_{¨“¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨………¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨・・¨¨・・¨……¨………・}

46

6。4 Concluding Remarks.… ………¨…・……・………。………。……¨

46

References...… _{………“・}・¨"¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨“““¨¨¨¨¨““…………・

47

Appendix A The notation ofconversation analysis.… ………・51

Vlll

Appendix C.… ……¨…………¨¨¨………・・¨…………¨¨……¨¨………・・¨………・・……・・¨¨¨¨・53

List of flgures

Ftyrθ fo Level ofMediation(Lantolf&Poehner,20H,p.153-154).… _………。11

Eig″″ 2.Regulatory Scale― Implicit(strategic)tO Explicit(Attaafleh&Lantoll 1994,p.471)¨ ¨¨¨..¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨“・・¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨…………12

Chapter l lntroduction

As a language teacher,I had been smggling宙 th a lack of appropnate methods for assessing students'speaking abilitieso When l assessed students'oral presentations,I

was not confldent about whether and how their accuracy or fluency should be evaluated.

In 2007, however9 an assesslnent nlethod called the High Schoo1 0ral Proflciency

Exalllination,or HOPE cmai&Yoshida9 2007),was published and it changed my

mderstanding of oral perforllnance tests.HOPE is speciically deslgned tO measllre Japanese jllnlor or high school students'English speaking abilides.The s破

‐

minute interview is composed of two tasks― picme descHption and role play tasks― and is

designed to measllre a student's pro■ ciency based on follr c五 teHa:ノ

レ

″

σ

′

わ4 θ

O″

″″

札

teX′

妙 θ

S,and cO″rθ

″

θ

″

sib″ iッ.

I had occasionally used HOPE to nleasllre iny students'oral abilities and used the results針oln the assessment as feedback to mprove students' oral proflciency as

wen as my language lessons.I believed that the test also a1lowed language teachers to care■1ly observe the ways h which students mteracted in English in one‐ on‐one

encomters unth their teacher. The problem was, however, that it was difHcult to obseⅣc how effectively the post‐test feedback to the students acmlly cOntributed to the

improvement of their language proflciency.In a typical oral proflciency mterview, testers are responsible for probing and explorlng the``ceiling"of the testee's perfol.1lance or ie pomt at which their perforlnance beghs to break dowll.Once they identitt thiS point,they lower dF dirlculty Ofthe task or questions to be asked and they

identitt the Stable level of proflciency,called the“

■

oor。''.This level indicates what learners can db at the time of the test.Although the breaking‐

dowll pomt may becOme

proflciency,the testers are not a1lowed to provide any i― _{ediate feedback nor push up}

the ceiling during the inteⅣ iew.

Although l understood that a language test should nleasllre the levels of oral abilities students can achieve on their own,金 onl a practitioner's point ofview9 1 always

wondered what would ttpen ifl could pЮ vide feedback atthe breaking‐

down pomtso

that they could recognize their errors and develop their ability inlmediatelyo While l was pl1771ing Over more effective assessment methods and ways of teaching students' oral ability,I encountered a theoretlcal■amework called Dynamic Assessment(hereafter DA)。

The theoretical fomdations of DA have been developed based on Vygotsky's socioculmal theOry(hereafter SCT),whiCh Views social interaction宙th others as essential for hman development.Traditiondly,teaching and assessment have been seen as separate activities, but proponents Of E)A claim that they should be fully integrated(Poehner,2008)。 It seemed to me that DA was a reasonable methodology, which could be replaced wlth the traditional oral assesslnent and thus it inotivated me

to investigate its effectiveness under a J,panese EFL context.

This study explores the ways in which a nlediator and a learner conaboratively

interact with each other during the implenlentation of DA in a one_on¨ one interview settingo Additionally,the learller's perceptions of the lnediator's assistance w11l be

analyzed to understand how both partiesjOintly participate in the talk.

The thesis is stmctured in the following wayo Chapter 2 shows the theoretical ■amework of SCT,which is the concepmal folmdation ofDA.nen,previous empirical studies on DA宙 1l be re宙ewedo Chapter 3 presents the methodology employed in the present study.Contexts,participants,ぬ 鯰,and the method of analysis are descHbed.In particular,what l call“ collaborative interviews"is used in the present study.In Chapter

4,the data,based on transc五 pts of the interviews,are analyzed and some flndings of DA are identiiedo Chapter 5 1述 血er discllsses the fmdings and,in the conclusion, mher pedagOgical implications and some mmК directiOns for DA in the classroom settmg are presented.

Chapter 2 Literature Review on Dynamic Assessment

This chapter re宙

ews the literame on scT and the zone of pro対

mal

development, which provides the theoretical rationale for DA. Following this, the previous research on】 )A is reviewed wlth a focus on the dil圧 じrences beireen E)A and

non―DA(hereafter NDA)and the signiicant Юle that mediation plays in DA.Finally, previous empi五 cal studies on DA conducted in L2 settings are exanlllled and some issues to be pllrsued in this study are presented.

2.l Sociocultural Theory

DA is imdy gЮ

llnded in SCT,which oHginated in Vygotsky's theories of

hllman development.SCT can be sull― arlzed in te..1ls ofthree mttor themes(Wertsch,

1990,1985;Johnson,2001):

1)the developmental analysis ofmental pЮ cesses; 2)the sOCial oHgin ofhuman mental processes;and

3)the rOle Ofsign systems h the development ofhuman higher mentalibrdons.

Vygotsky(1978)stated:``Every mction in the child's culmal deve10pment

appears面

ce:flrst,on the social level,and later,on the individllal level''Φ 。57)。 In

other words,leaming is at irst a process mediated by other people;then,the leamer progressively takes on respollsibility for a given task over a period of time. In SCT,

therefore,the development of higher inental mctions is considered to be a process of the intemalization ofsocial interaction(JolmSOn,2004).For Vygotsky,then,in order to mderstand the higher folllls Ofpsychological imctioning,learners must be obseⅣ ed in

the context of their development(van cOmpemolle&William,2012),whiCh mOst

effecively occllrS in the zone ofproximal development eereafter ZPD).

2.2 The Zone of Proxilnal Development

Vygotsky developed the concept ofZPD to explain the relationship be゛ 、en the interpersonal and the intrapersonal plane ofhuman development.ZPD is deflned as:

the distance between the actual developnlental level as dete...lined by independent problen■ solving and the leve1 0f potential development as deterlmned through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration

wlth rnore capable peers _{(VygOtSky,1978,p.86)。}

As Lantolfand ThOm 2006)stated,internalization thus means the development of``the capacity to perfol.1l complex cognit市 e and motor ttmctions宙th increasingly less reliance on extemally pro宙ded mediation''o.266)。 To help learners develop their

higher psychological mtions, a more capable educator provides learners with

mediation,which transfo..1ls actual development into potential development。

Fronl the perspective of SCT,language and coIImurucative mteraction play a role in mediating higher, speciflcally hman, psychological tttions and their

development(van COmpemolle,2015)。

According to Auaa■ eh and Lantolf(1994), language development is promoted when``Inediational ineans are appropHated by the ind市idllal as a result of dialogic interaction宙 th other indi宙

duals''o.467).The

dialogic or collaborative interaction allows the leal■ ler and the educator lo oo―constmct the ZPD and leads to the learner's level of potential development. The process of achieving the potential development is the process lЮ m other― regulation tO

6

2。

3 Dynamic Assessment

2.3.l Conceptual Framework of DA

DA is based on the concept of development within the ZPD(Lantolf&Thom, 2006)。 As discussed,the ZPD is the difference between what a person is able to do alone and what becomes possible wlth exterlllal assistance or mediation. A learner's actual level of perfomance is developed to the potential level of development when mediatioL which is suitable for the indi宙 dual,is available.DA can be consmed as a

pedagogical application of the constutttion of the ZPD urough mediation.In recent studies of second language lea―g and teaching,SCT has been duential and sOme researchers have recently begun to adopt DA in assessing second lanuge learnes'

language abilities(Lantolf&Poehner,2010;Lantolf&Thom,2006;Johnson,2001;

Davin,2013,2016)。

The central feame Of DA is that learners are purposchlly given assistance duHng assesslment.In other words,DA does not separate illsmctiOn fronl assesslment mlike NDA.In NDA,learners are usually assessed in the ways in which they have completed the procedllre.In order to conduct DA in the pedagogical fleld,a variety of dilnensiolls related to l)A need to be exalnlned.In the f01lowing sections,sOme feames

ofDA compared with NDA in the pedagoglcal fleld are described.

2。3.2 From NDA Interview lo l)A Interview

ln this study,mterviews were chosen as the se■ ing where DA was conducted.In

the following sec」 on,I compare DA inteⅣ iews with the standard NDA interviews. As a one‐on‐one mterview test,which measllres the learner's oral pЮ_flciency,

the AmeHcan Colmcil on the Teaching of Foreign Langttes Oral Pro■

ciency lnterview(ACTFL OPI)iS One Of the lllost widely knowll and llsed testing tools

(AmeHcan Collncil on the Teaching ofForeign Languages,■.d。_)。 ACTFL OPI measllres

the testee's“acml developmer'by exp10mg dle points where the testee breaks dowll in collmunicationo Recently,however,some scholars have begun to argue against the

validity of ACTL OPI.For example,Johson(2001)reexalmed the validity of the

OPI fbm the perspecuve of vygOtsky's socioculmal■amework for second langllage testingo She questioned the validity of ACTFL OPI and attempted to re‐ conceptualize the nouon of speaking ability.Other researchers such as van Lier(1989),Lantolf and

Frawley(1985)and JOhSOn and Tyler(1998)have dOubted OPI's validity,arguing

about whether it IIleasllres testees'conversational abilities or the relationship between

the tester and the testeeso As Johnson(2001)states,even if two indi宙 duals are at the salne actual level of development in their speaking test their ZPDs may differo What iduences the direrences between two individuals'ZPD is the ability to solve problems through collaboration or interaction.In Johnson's new model oftesting based on SCT, called the Practica1 0ral Language Ability(POLA),local COmpetencies,“ which are situated in a variety of social,cultural,and institutional se■

ings,"o.195)are

considered.They are“acquired through a process of social interaction and through exposllre to a wide variety of socioculttral and institutional settngs''Φ 。195).ThuS,the test introduces a variety of tasks,such as group discllssions,lecttes,or intewiews,in which the learner's potential level of development can be seen■ rough face‐to‐face

interaction.

McNarnara(1997)also questioned the validity of OPIお

m a socioculttal

perspect市 e by stath略,“if collllmllmcation is a joint responsibility,then who are we to

blalne if collunmication goes away?''o。 459)。 McNalnara claimed that we needed to broaden ollr view ofperforrnalllce lll second language perforllnance assessment to pennit

Lantolfand Thom(2006)stated that one ofthe compelling attributes ofthe ZPD is that

in contrast to tradidonal tests and measllres that only indicate the level of development already amined,the ZPD is fomard looking through its assertion that assisted perfo....ance,and iⅢortantly the varying qualities of assistance

needed for a particular individual to perfollll particular competencies,is otten

indicative ofindependent inctiomtt h the ime o.263)。

Furthe....ore,While NDA separates teaching ttom assessment,DA integrates teaching and assessment into a single act市 ity in the ZPD that focuses on the learner's

development.Unlike NDA,in DA,`ヽ

鴨 intentionally set out to help learners change during the assesslnent"(Lantolf&Poelmer,20H,p.47).In other words,

“while a dynalnic procedllre provides us wlth a broader picture of learners' abilities,lt also supports the development ofthose abilities.… _{IHowl assessment} and instmction can be illy integrated in order to optllnally― ―and sIInultaneously

―understand and promote development''

is considered o.7).ThuS the uniication ofteaching and assessmentis a key concept of

DA.

To sll―

nze,if assessing the learners'potential level ofdeveloplllllent is valued

rather thanjllst assessing their actual development,traditional inteⅣ iew tests are limited in this capacity.To overcollne this problem,I、 租Ⅱ employ an SCT perspective in interview settings and conduct DA inteⅣ iews,in which the ZPD is cO‐

consmcted

bettten the inediator and the learners.

2.3.3]DA and Second Language Development

9

a second language settingo She exanuned the potential of E)A and concluded that intervention during assessment revealed valuable info....ation regarding the linguistic

capabilities oflearners.

In addition,Pochner(2008)conduCted detailed analyses of mediator― learller interactions and presented the way in which learners had perceived their own L2 development during the interactions.In his study,learners reported the conision or stmggle they experienced as they overcame their linguistic problems during the E)A sessions.Itis certam thatin the NE)A fbHnat,those problelllls would be ignored.

Unlike most L2 studies,which were conducted in one―on¨one settings such as

tutormg,Davin and Donato(2013)exp10red the effects ofDA in the classroom se■ ing. Although their flndings indicated that classroom DA might not be sufflcient for the language development of all students,they suggested that DA might have an impact on learner's developmentifitis combined with small‐group collaborative l,sks.

Moreover,van Compemolle(2010)diSCOVered the incidental development that OCCllrred during the OPIs.According to his study,even h the OPI,in which any

intervention or assistance お ln the interviewer is not a1lowed, the learner and the

interviewer solved the problem together and an oppormlty fOr microgenetic

devebpment though theh talk― in‐interacuon was observed.van Compemolle argued

that nucrogenetic development was promoted, not by what the learner and the interviewer were saying,but by whatthey were doing together at any given inoment.

In his di」圧brent study,he hrther indicated that rnediation should be provided not

only for correcting their errors but also for reestablishing the``mutual understanding of

the meaning and intention of one's interlocutor(i.e., intersuttect市 ity)''(Vall

Compemolle,2015)。 HoweVer,the mutual understandhg should be established not Only frorn the mediator's pomt of view but also lκ 》In the learner's perception of the

10

mediation provided at the moment they make linguistic errors.It is necessary for both parties to overcome the gap in their perception,which leads to the reestablishment and

maintenance of intersu● ect市lty.

2.3.4 Mediation and Corrective Feedback

The role of mediation in the development oflanguage ability may resemble that of corrective feedback, which has been studied in the context of second language acquisition.In the case of corrective feedback,teachers locate the learner's errors and

provide either implicit or explicit feedback so that the learner w11l becOme aware of the

errors.The important pomt here is the way in which a particular type offeedback(either

explicit or implicio enables leamers to flx the errors by themselves.In DA,on the other

hand,Inediation is provided in contingent and dialogical ways and airns to raise the learner's potential development. That is, a mediator should obseⅣe the learrler's

behavior carefully and corlsmct the zPI),becoming responsive to the learner's actions.

As the mediator gradllally reduces the level ofassistance dllnng the sessiOns,the learner

eventuany becomes rnore independent。

In order to ensllre the leanler's development with success■_{1l mediation, ``the} mediation requires an intersuЦ ecive mderstanding between participants,mediator and

learner,ofwhat they are doing together at any g市

en moment"(van COmpemolle,2010,

p.77)。 Even if mediation was directed at the errors that learners make,the interaction

between the mediator and the learner would not be successhl without intersuttect市 e

llnderstanding frst being established.

In this study,DA will be pЮ 宙ded dllrmg the collaborat市 e interviews and the

interaction will be analyzed hm an SCT perspect市e,aiming tO identitt the learners'

2。

3.5 Two Approachesto DA

How and when to provide mediation shOuld be collsidered in order for learllers and the inediator to co‐consmctthe ZPD.In recent studies on DA,either or both ofthe following hvo approaches have been employed: the mterventio五 st approach and the interactiOnist approach.

In interventio面 st DA,when the leamer encounters a problem while the task is pЮceeding,mediation is g市 en and recorded according tO a standardized scale(See Figure l),ranging ttOm implici to explich.This approach is acceptable in assessment contexts because it is usually quantiflable.

1.Pause

2.Repeat the whole phrase questiorlngly

3.Repettjust ie part ofthe sentence with the error 4.Teacher asks,“What is uttong with that sentence?" 5.Teacher points out ale incorrect word

6.Teacher asks either/or question 7.Teacher identifles the correct answer

8.Teacher expldns why

aν

″ノ

。

Level ofMediatiOn cantolf&POcher,20H,p.153‐

₁₅₄₎

Interacdonist DA is an appЮ ach h which mediation is pro宙 ded through interaction between the mediator and the learner.Unlike lnterventionist DA,as

mediation is enlergent the lnediator should be sensitive to the learner's ZPD.

Although Auaafreh and Lantolf(1994)used the regulatory scale(See Figllre 2), which consists of twelve levels of regulation,they realized the need to be sensiive to

the learners' ZPD through One‐ on‐

one

価 ting sessiOns. In addition, Lantolf and

12

lesson.They follnd out that the teacher successhlly applied the scale of mediation(See

Fitte l)to a one_On‐ one mteraction with a student because she mderstood the concept of DA before she acmally taught a lesson.Similarly,Kozulin and Garb 9002)also utilized the phased scale in the session Ofrnediation between pre‐ test and post‐ test in the reading class. By using a collmon scale, lnediation was consistent ttonl teacher to teacher.Thus,we should choose either or both approaches depending on the task,the teacher's expe三 ence,and the lllstitutional situation;how to use the two approaches is

more crllcialthan which approach we should choose.

O Tutor asks the learner to read,flnd the errors,and correct thenl independently, prior to the tuto五al.

l Consmction Ofa“

collaborat市

e name"pЮ

mpted by the presence ofthe tutor as

a potential dialogic Partner.

2 Prompted or focused reading of the sentence that contalns the error by the learner or the tutor.

3 Tutor indicates that something may be wrong in a segment(eog。 ,Sentence,

dause,line卜

_“Is theК anything wrong h this sentence?" 4 Tutor reJects llnsuccesslhl attempts at recogmaШ g the error.

5 Tutor narrows down the location of the error(e.g。 _{,tutor repeats or points to the} speciic segment which contains the error。₎

6 Tutor indicates the name Of the error,but does not identitt the error(e.gっ ￢here is something wrong宙 th the tense marking hereつつ_)。

7 Tutor identines the error(“You can't use an auxiliaり here'つ)。

8 Tutor reJects learner's tlnsuccessill attempts at correcting the error.

9 Tutor pЮ

宙des clues to help the learner arrive at the correct fo.11.(e.g。 _{,``It is not}

really past but something that is sill going on''). 10 Tutor provides the correct fo■ 1■1.

1l Tutor provides some explanation for llse ofthe correct fb.111.

12 Tutor provides exalnples of the correct pattern when other fo.11.s of help fail to produce an appropnate responsive action.

■ク″

2.Regulatory Scale― Lnplicit(strategic)to Explich(Auaafleh&Lantolt 1994,p.471)

13

2.4 Conclusion

ln this chapter,previous studies on DA were re宙

ewed.Unlike NDA or a

cognitive approach,which alins to mend the learller's errors vnth corrective feedback,

DA emphasizes the establishent ofa relationship between the inediator and the learner,

which vnll lead to the co‐ consmction Ofthe ZPD.In this respect,lnediators should be very sellsitive to the learners'ZPD and should use a variety of ways to assist in the learner's development.Previous studies have also demonstrated that lDA can become effect市e in shaping interactions in L2 settngs,and mediation has a large impact on a learlller's language development.

Although most of the studies reviewed in this chapter examined how mediators perceived learlllers' errors and diagnosed their development, few studies have paid attention to how learners perceive the mediation pro宙ded during the interaction.One exception is Poehner(2008),who COnducted lDA and also provided additional sessions called Transcendence(TR),whiCh Were given at the end ofa langllage program.In TR, Poehner(2007)exp10red whether a learner's development would be transferred to novel and more complex tasks.He did so by interacting vnth learners in dialogic ways and the

results ofhis study indicated insights into the learners'perfo.1..ances。

In this regard,■ is necessary to understand whether intersiЦ eci宙ty is acmlly

established during a DA session,even ifit appears to facilitate learller development.To

pllrsue this issue, I would like to exanline the learners' owlll perceptions toward mediation as well as their potential level of development during the collaborative lntervlews.

14

Chapter 3 Research]Design

3.l Research QueStiOns

ln Chapter 2,the pre宙 ous studies on DA were re宙

ewed and the followhg

issues were raised as requiring mher exploration. Firstly, although research On the interactions bei″ _{een a teacher and a learner has been dra― g mOre attention than}

before,relatively fewer studies on])A have been conducted and thus it is still not illy

understood how DA should be implemnted in pedagogical cOntexts,especially under Japanese EFL contexts.Secondly,ul mOst Of the studies on E)A,the ways in which a mediator provides assistance have been mvestigated mostly ttOln the mediator's point of

view,and very few studies have loOked at the ways in which learners understand the role of rnediation and used i for their own development.Thus,I would like to pllrsue the following h″ o questions regarding how the mediator and the learner collaborate

during the interviews with dyllanlic assessIImt

Research QueStiOn l:From a DA point of view,what characteHzes the collaboration between the mteⅣiewer and the participants?

Research QueStiOn 2:How do■

К

_{participants perceive and incorporate the mediation}

mto their development?

3.2 Participants

The particゎ ants Of the study were follr university students m巧 _o五

_{ng in}

elementary teacher educationo They v01untanly joined the studyo Their ages were 21 or

22 years.Their English pЮ iciency was(or estimated at the equivalent leve1 0o Eiken Grade 2 or Grade Pre-2.According to the Eiken Foundation,Grade Pre-2“ _{is aimed at}

15

second―year Japanesc high school students. IExallninees are expected to be able to understand and use English at a level sufflcient to a1low thenl to take part in general

aspects of daily life''(``About EIKEN GTade pre-2'',n.d。 _)。 Grade 2 1evel“is aimed at

Japanese high school graduateso Exalmnees are expectd to be able to llnderstand and use English at a level sufflcient to allow thenl to take part in social,professional,and

educational situations''(“_{About EIKEN Grade 2'',n.d。 ).The inteⅣ iewer was the}

researcher hersel■

3.3(Collaborative lnterview

Although the participants were requred to do language tasks during the intelviews,the interviews did nol fo1low the typical procedlre of an oral proflciency test.The inteⅣiewer occasionally intervened at the pomt where participants made linguistic errors,and helped them develop their linguistic performance by offering them

a standardized mediation(i.e。 _{,the inteⅣ}entiodst appЮach).ThuS,by mvestigating how

the interviewer's intervention iduences the participants'perception through E)A,the process of acqurmg their self― regulation w11l be elucidated and the details of the conaborative inteⅣ iew will be discussed.

3.4 Task Procedure

The inteⅣiews proceeded ttЮugh the■ Кe phases;Interview I,H and ⅡI were conducted in September 2016.Interview l was conducted in order lo explore individual particlpants'language use and identl取 their actual development levelo lt consisted of

two tasks; pictre description and role play, and it took flve to seven lninutes. IIIunediately after lnteⅣiew I,Interview II was conducted. It took about 15 1ninutes. Reviewlng their perfo..1lance during lnterview l recorded on an iPad,the interviewer

16

and the participant talked about their perfo.11lance, focusing on the breaking‐

_down

points,which rmght indicate their actual development.By pЮ

宙ding the nlost appropriate mediation for the participants,the inteⅣ iewer almed to facilitate their potential development.hteⅣiew III was given abOut one week later.All the interviews

were recorded using a digital MP3 voice recorder,iPt and Video camera.All the visual and somd data were later transcHbed.The fo■ owing is a sll―ary of the three

interviews glven tO the partictpants。

Interview I.

The interviewer gave the participants the following tasks and questions and provided participants with mediation,if necessary,accordmg lo the mediation prompt (See Figllre 3).

・ Picttre descrip● on‐ Interviewer showed one ofthe tto picmes(See Append破 B)and asked participants to descHbe it starting with“ last slumer...''at the

beach or``last」ght...''h the p賀_サsituation.

O Follow up questions― Interviewer asked some questiOns relating to the picire description and then asked participants to talk about their past episode.

O Role play‐ Interviewer and participants acted out the situation h English.For example, h one situation, the leanlers were told, ``You are mvited to yollr ldend's pa●・Ask yollr ldend some questiolls and decide whether or not you arejoining the paゥ."(See Appendix B)

Intewiew H

Follo宙ng lnterview I,a stimulated recall was conductedo A stimulated recall is

17

behavior at a speciflc rnoment and verbalize it fbr the interview.

InteⅣiew ⅡI

Five to seven days a■ er lnterviews l and II,the inteⅣiewer had a conversation

mJl the participants to conf― whether they had sustained their linguistic development

which was lnediated in the previous mterviewo Picme description,follow up questions, or role play were conducted ifnecessary.

3.5 Mediation Prompts

This study was based on mterventio面

st DA(See Chapter 2)becauSe the

interview targeted speciflc linguistic fo..J.s and the name Of the tasks tended lo elicit

two syntactic targets hm the participants:regular past tense morpheme``― ed''and the fo....ation of a wh‐ question.Accordingly,mediations were pro宙 ded following the list

of mediation prompts(See Figllre 3),whiCh Was used in interventio面

st DA(Lantolf&

Poehner,2011)。

1.Pause“Mm?''``What?''

2.Repeatthe phrase with the error questiomngly 3.Point out the mcorrect word

4.Ask either/or question 5.Identl取 the COrect answer 6.Explain why

ay″

3。 Mediation prompts

3。

6.Method ofAnalysis

18

Conversation Analysis(hereafter CA),whiCh iS a llnique way ofanalyzing language and social interaction.It o五 ginated in the work of Harvey Sacks,Emanuel Scheglol眠 and

Gail Jefferson in the 1960s to 1970s(Schegloff et al。 _,1977)。 CA has been used in a

vanety of flelds: applied linguistics, anthropology, psychology, and colnmmication studies. It is employed ``in order to discover and descHbe the recllrrent, systematic properties of conversation, mcluding sequential orgaruzation, mm‐ taking,repalち

preference stmcme,and topic management''(Lazaraton,2002,p.対

_)。 Although

utterances in a speaking test may llot be namally Occmmg and spontaneously

produced as in namal cOnversation,they are also considered authentic in the speaking test context(LЯ

_{"raton, 1996,2013).MoreOVer,血}

Юugh analysis,■he insider's perspective is obtained by uncoveHng how the participants lreat each other's talk in the

details of interaction(Wong&Waring,2010,p.6)".ThuS,by analyzing their

conversation in」に interview context through CA,their collaborat市 e work,strateglc mediation, and the participants' perceptions during the inteⅣ iews are illustrated in

19

Chapter 4 Analyses

This chapter demonstrates the results ofthe detailed analyses by exploHng each of the rcsearch questions ralsed in the previous chapter.As desc五 _{bed in Chapter 3,all}

the interviews were analyzed宙th CA to reveal the characte五stics,鍋

m a DA pointof

view, of the collaboration between the interviewer and the participants and how the particlpants perceived and incorporated the mediation. h the fol10wing section, the collaboration between the interviewer and the participants is analyzed by 10oking at particular errors the participants made(4。 1,4。2,and 4。3).In 4.4 and 4.5,how the participants perceive and incorporate the mediation is exalmned by analyzing the conversation」辟om lnterview II.I was particularly mterested in whether there was any

discrepancy between the interviewer's intention in offe五 ng the assistance and the participant's perception and acceptance ofthe assistance pЮ _{宙ded by the interviewer.}

4.l The Past‐

tense Morpheme“

‐

_ed"

The regular past tense“‐ed''is one Ofthe morphological feames in the English

language in which Japanese EFL learllers are insmcted in at an early stage ofleaming. Despite is early appearance in the leaming process,Is correct llse is gradually acqutted

through the stages ofthe pЮ cess(Ellis,2015)。 SinCe the participants in this study were

assllmed to have the linguistic knowledge of the past tense fo....,the inteⅣ _iewer initially offered implicit inediations when they made errors in past tense fo.11lS.In the

picme desc五ption,while they were busy searching for le対 _{cal items,which were} suitable for describing the scene ln the pictttKち they becalne aware ofthelr error in past

tense use by receiving an mplici mediation ibm the hteⅣ _{iewer.IIllmediately after the} picture descHption they were asked to talk about their own past expeHences。

20

Interestingly,they becalne more fluent but paid less attention to the correct past tense

fo....s.Excerpts l-3 show how mediations ofttred by the mterviewer facilitated Haru's

self‐correction.

4.1.l Harll(See Appendix C for a hlllist oftransc五pt) Excerpt l

lnterview l oicmre descHpuon,H=Haru,I=Intervieweつ

→

23 1

24 H

25

→

26 1

27 H

28 1

29 H

30

31 1

32 H

33

34 1

35 H:

36 1:

→

37 H:

mm SO(。

_{)What did She do(.)at that time=}

=ah(。

)at that↑

tttme(.)u(。

)She plays the

↑

guitar

for↑

us

=She p■

(。 )↑

plays=

=p(_)p■ ayed

↑

pla[yed]

[p■

ay]ed yeah.ethe gutttare for

uS(。

_{)and(2.5)s(。 )Sang(SOng?)(。}

_{)with us.}

mm sounds great(。

_{)and what did you do}

oh(5.0)I(。

)uu.hh(。

)I(。

)inVited(。

)my

↑

friends tO

play(.)beaCh(。

_{)beach ball}

m―

huh

with me

Ah(。

)sO did you have a great time?=

=ah(。

)yes l have(.)I had a great time.

Excerpt 2

1nteⅣiew I(Follow―up question-1)

40 1: Cou■

d you tell me about your summer vacation?

41 H: This

_↑

year?

42

工

: Yes=

→

43 H: =In this year′

_{I have(2.5)the(。}

_)th(。

_)exam(。

₎

44 fo[r(。

)]

21

46 H:

47 1:

48 H:

→

49

工: →

50 H:

51 1:

52 H:

53

工:

54 H:

55

56

=exam(.)oh(.)nO

↑

test?=

=°m―huh°

=

=fOr(。

)tO be a teacher

When? you(。 )you wil■

have? yo:u=

=ah I HAD=

=m―

huh=

=工

had a test for(。

_)tO:(。

)be a teacher(。

₎₌

°

m―huh°

=SO(.)I COuldn′

t have play(。

)With my friends

so(3.0)the test has(2.0)finiShed sO I want to p■

ay

with my

_↑

friends in this month.

In Except l,in descHbing the picttК ,Haru stated that ie picture was a photo taken at the beach last sll―er,and continued to narrate an episode that occllrred there。

It seemed he was able to use the past‐tense fo...l correctly.Aner the interviewer asked,

``″Zαr didsλθ db α′rLar rJ″θ2"in line 23,pointing to the girl in the pictne,however,

he began to fall back on the use ofthe presenttense,where the mterviewer onbred the mediation prompt No.2(line 26)。

ConsideHng his level oflanguage proiciency(Eiken Grade 2),equiValent to the pЮiciency of high school graduates,he should have self‐ corrected his error.So the inteⅣiewerinitially mediated h implich ways in response to the error he made(line 26)。

He repaired it i―ediately after the rnediation was ofFered and he was able to

self―correct his errors at the end ofthis topic in line 37.

When he started to talk about his owlll past episode regarding the exam he took

in the sulmler,however,he used the present tense agaln ln line 43. The interviewer attempted to inteⅣ ene with all implich Frlediation(line 45)but he kept talking without

noticing her mediationo She intenupted his talking by o能Hng more explicit assistance

22

emphasized the past tense in line 50.

In Excerpt 3,at the end of tte intewiew,Haru made the error again but he

self―repaired ilmnediately(line 128)。

Excerpt 3 1nterview I(Follow‐ up question-2)

127 1: =mm(。

_{)what did you do?}

→

128 H: (2.0)uh(。

)eat ate a cake e and(4.8)Sget gOt

129 ah(.)many presents [that′

s great].

■

30

工

: [a:h that′ s great]ah(.)g00d

131 girlfriend

132 H: Yes!

4。1。

2 Momo(See Appendix C for a負

lHist oftransc五

po

The following excerpt demOnstrates how Momo becalne aware of her error with a small signal a■er some error‐IIlediation interaction_

Excerpt 4 1nterview I(Follow‐ up question‐

1,MI Momo,I:Intewiewe⇒

91 1: Tel■

me about your best party that you have ever had.

92 M: Best(2.0)my↑ party((pOinting herse■

f))

93 1: [mm abOut your]OWn party

94 M: [ah:](。

)e(。

)my birthda:y(。

)m? my

95 birhtday party?

96 1: =mm(.)any(。

)any party is fine(。

)nOmi(。

)birthday

97 party(.)ChriStmas par[ty]

″ 滋″

_4gp針

_り

98 M: [ah(.)e(。

)ah]

99 M: this(2.0)thiS(。

)m(。

)laSt my birthday party=

100 1: =mm=

101 M: =e::my friends(2.0)e:Ce■ ebrate(.)my birthday

→

102 1:

°

ce[lebrate°

]((StiCking out her rttght hand with her

103 palm up))

23

105 sutt ka(.)↑

SSuikawariS= ((■

aughing))″

α′θ/″θわ′bνs′

106 1: =okay((■

aughing))

107 M: and hanabi(。

)fire(。

)WOrkS? e and(.)we ate the(。

)

birthday cake=

During the intewiew, it is observable that Momo becanle better able to

self‐correct her English with the intewiewer's mplicit inediation.In line 102,in the last

follow―up―question scene,she repared her error ofthe past tense with the inteⅣ iewer's

repetition of the word``celebrate''wlth a五 sing intonationo The interviewer's hand gestllre may have pЮ mpted Momo to elicit her self―repЯlr of the error in question(line

104).

4。2 Multiple Assistance

As the excerptS below indicate,most of the assistance■om the inteⅣiewer was provided when the lemers had problems in their le対 cal choice.In offe五ng assistance,

however,the inteⅣ iewer did not provide the exact words but a kind of context‐ speciflc

prompt,which would not interfere with the flow ofthe talk.

4.2.l Haru

Excerpt 5 depicts a scene where Haru and the inteⅣ iewer conducted a role play.

In this tast Haru was mvited to a ptt and had to ask follr to flve questions tO decide

whether he would accept the invitation.

Excerpt 5

1nteⅣiew I(rOle play)

24

87

→

88

→

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

→

97

→

98

→

99

100

→

101

102

103

104

105

I

H

[m―

huh]

oh(2.0)what(。

_)S(10。

0)eI(2.0)hmm(1。

0)What I Want

to(2.0)haVe(。 )m?

m?

ah owhat工

(4.0)ha(。

)SOrry(.)mm(2.0)((Wttth his arms

crossed))(5.0)HoW much is the cost(。

_{)the [↓}

party]

[ah:]hOW much does it

↑

cost we■

l(。

)a(.)yOu don′

t

need(。

)you dOn′

t need money(.)[土

t′

s free]

[ah′

Okay(。

)]it′

S free

ah >okay thank youOoh′

_{I want to go the party<$=}

=yeah but tt want you to bring something=

=ah′

bring somethttng >what l want to<(。

)ah I

(。

)ShOu■

d bring it=

=ah(.)What ShOuld(。

)what?

What should l bring ttt(。

_{)tO the party=}

=ah(.)Okay I Want you to bring some

↑

drink=

=ah(。

)SOme drink(.)

Cou■

d you?

yes.

In line 88-89,Haru stated,“οみソカα′/力″″w力αr r″α″′ゎ みの θ″′"At thattime

the interviewer recogmzed that he was searching for the word i`brng."Hc intended to say“what should l bring?''or``What do you wantine to bHng?''The interviewer、 vaited

for some moments to o週 偽r assistance with his problem.Just before Haru was about to fl壷sh the conversation,the interviewer deliberately nted,`7 wα _{″′ノο″ わ} br″

g

sο″θ″′_{電,''WhiCh becalne a pЮ mpt for him to retrieve the word“}b五ng''(line 97).Haru

tried to use the word inllnediately but he could lЮ t fo...l a correct sentence(line 98-99)。 The interviewer provided him with a prompt contalrung the auxiliary verb``should'', which enabled him to create the fo.1..of an mterrogat市 e sentence,although it was still

incorrect because the ouect“ r'was le■in the sentence(lhe 101).

During lnteⅣiew II,a simulated recall interview,Haru and the intewiewer

Ｉ   Ｈ H: Ｉ   Ｈ

25

watched their video― record inteⅣiew(InteⅣ iew I)and tried to lnderstand how they

interacted with each other(Excerpt 6)。

Excerpt 6 1nterview Ⅱ

→

01 H: ((while seeing

the scene))ο

mοtt uた

abanakatta desu

video))

02 1: ((StOpping the

→

03 1: ima iemasuka

(3.0)>What should I<(2.0)↑

e(。 )°ShOu■d I° (2.0)↑

bring=

=Yes!

工

s there anything(。 )I shOu■ d bring? tOkademo=

=a(.)SOudesune(.)Bring ga chottO detekoanakatta

desu

[English translation]

→〉

ol H:((whttle seeing the scene))助

″ルg σα″θ _{zρ W′}ル “

ツ″滋

a

02 1: ((stOpping the video))

→

03 1: Ca″

_ッο″sη″″ο″2

04 H: (3.0)>What should I<(2.0)↑

e(。 )°

shOuld I°

(2.0)↑

05 bring=

=Yes!

Is there anything(.)I shOuld bring?

お αJsο οttη′

=

=α力Isθθ.“β/ing"″グ′ο′εο″θ ap.

While Haru was watching the scene ofline 88 in Excerpt 5,he explained that no word had come up at that tiine in line 01.The inteⅣ iewer urged hiln to fo..1.the same

sentence in line 03, saying,``Can you say it now?"in Japanese then he proceeded to think a li■le and then said it.The interviewer mtelected saying,``ルs′'In addition,he

said he was not able to recall the word``bHng。 '' The word ``bHng'' was exactly the

04 H

05

06 1

07 1

08 H

09

06

07

08

09

Ｉ   Ｉ   Ｈ

26

lexical iteln he was searching for at that tilne and he was able to llse it Ⅵath the mterviewer's assistance. That was not the only problen■ he had at that moment, however;he was also smggling with the correct fo.111 0f the question.This indicates that learners may need to have multiple sllnultaneous assistance targeting difFerent kinds of linguistic fol...s(ioe。,the lexlcal item“ bring''and the manipulation of the question fo....)。

4.2.2 Moコno

The following colⅣersation occllrred between Momo and the interviewer.In this

conversation,they conducted a Юle play(Excerpt 7)。

MomO Was tり

ing to ask some questions about the pな_{り,WOndeHng whether she was going to attend or not。}

Excerpt 7

1nteⅣiew I(Юle play)

68 M: mm(1.5)hm::m(。

)a(。

)thiS par(。

)when is this

↑

party

69 1: (。

)ah(。

)it Wi■

■

be on saturday=

70 M: =SaturdayO(.)ah(2.5)un(。

_{)mm(2.0)e:(。}

_)thiS

→

71 party(1。

0)dO you dO(。

_)↑

m(3.0)°

e:nandakke°

_(2.0)do

→

72 you(。

)ah(2.0)

°

nandakke°

_(.)ah(。

)What time will

→

73 this party start?

74

工

: It wil■

start at about six o′

c■

ock.

75 M: =sttx o′

clock.

76 1: Yes=

77 M: =ah

78 1: =m―

huh

79 M: yes(.)mm I Want to go.

During lnterview II,Momo and the interviewer re宙

ewed the scene■

om the video

27

Excerpt 8 1ntewiew H

→

01 M: nanka motteikumono aru?[mtttainakanj ide]ki kOukana

02 to omotte=

03

工: [a::::]

04

工

: =un un itte mimasyouka

05 M: ee(。

)(6.5)imademO nante iebaiinokanattekanji

jaa sonontthongowo kantanna nihongontt gimonbunga

tsukuriyasu■

n■

hongon■

s■tem■

mashouka

nan■ wo

naniwo(。 )what

a′

nihongo[desu]naniwo

[ah]

12 M: nan■ wo motte■ ku bekidesuka =

13 1: =un=

14 M: =ah(.)what ShOu■

d lebringethtts party?

←

15 1: mm(。 )tO thiS party…

[English trallslation]

→

01 M: /″

as ttθ

′

ル″

′

辱 ′

ル √ルθ

″お

Sο

″θ

″′

暉

fttο

“

″

br′

辱

.

02

03 1: [a:::] [ah:::]

041:=0り

ο

_{り θ}

“

″

“

η わ

Sη

′

′

2

05M:ソ

θ

〃

`〃

/物 srirJ w。

″

ル″

_れ

gル

ツ

カ″

/s力

ο″

″

say.

06 1: 0り

.;切

_{り あ′ケッο}

"″

α

4srara yO″

rヵ77″

sθ ttrO sJ″

ηル

Jttα

″

ωθ

sο

07

ルα′

yO"″

″ε

″α

たα

″滋た

rragaraッ sθ

″

た″

σ

θ

2

08 1: naniwo?(ο

_ttCα)

09 M: naniwo(。

_)what

101:肱

_{Ⅲ α}

η

esC,ソ

カ

α

′

zis

ο

_ttθ

ι

′

′

1l M: [ah]

12 M: naniwo motte ikubekidesua (″

力α′Sみο″′グ/bri4g)

13 1:

_〒ジ

`S=

14 M: =ah(。

)what ShOu■

d 10bringethis party?

15 1: mm(。

)tO thiS party

06 1

07

08 1

09 M

10 1

1l M

28

sometimes be help」 hl for the learner(Walqui&van Lier,2010;Cook,2001).In line 71-72,Momo was searching for a verb to be used in tt question she was going to ask but she stopped in the nuddle and instead changed itinto a wh‐ question asking the tilne

the p錮_けwould begin(line 72‐ 73``Й ttα′′ル″θ

w″

_{″θ′α″夕}srarr′ ").In lnteⅣiew H,the

intewiewer tried to confi....what Momo wanted to ask at that tiine and she stated she wanted to ask``助4′wο ″οrra′

==″

a ti&s"肋

(What should l bring?)"(line ol).The inteⅣiewer then encouraged her to say the sentence lll English, which was not

success■■,and hher suggested that she state the equlvalentllleaning in Japanese flrst.

She caremlly stated the sutteCt and the verb in Japanese■ rst and then successilly reconsmcted the sentence ln English afterward with the help ofthe lnterviewer.

4。3 Wh… question

4。3.l Nao(See Append破 C for the ttanscript ofrole plays in lnterview l and Ш₎

Nao was able to fo....simple mterrogative sentences while she carned on the conversation.However,forllnlng wh― questions was a persistent pЮ blem for her. Excerpts 9 1o ll show how she overcarne the problem。

Excerpt 9 1nteⅣiew I(role play,N:Nao,I:InteⅣ iewe⇒

65

工

66 N

67

工 →

68 N

69 1

→

70 N

71 1

72 1

Are you coming to my(.)party?

Oh′ _mm(。

_{)when is party ho■}

d(。

_)[held]?

[ah](。

)On saturday(。 )next saturday

Oh(。

_{)What time(1.0)he■}

(。 )↑mm(。 )he■d(。

)the

↑

party?

ah(。

_{)What time(。 )What? What ti:me=}

=what t:[ime a::n]↑ night?

(。 )m―

huh

29

In line 68,Nao also could not fo.11l a queStion about the time of the pa吻

_,and

the inteⅣiewer pro宙 ded an mplicit mediation repeating the problematic part of the

sentence``″

力

α

′

riag wみ

″

7''(brompt No.2)HoweVer,this caused Nao to misllnderstand the mediationo G市en her utterance“w力

α

′

rieθ

α

rr′_1■

′

′

"h line 70,lt seems that she thought the interviewer was focusing on the mealung of the sentence(ioC。

_,dme)rather

than the sentence smctureo when the interviewer noticed Nao's consion, she

intempted the ongoing conversation and addressed her error but Nao failed to repair it.

Subsequc試_し

_,血

inteⅣiewer added the correct words untn sh cOmpleted■ e sentence.

While they were watching this scene in lnterview II,the interviewer conflニ _ュ1.ed

what she meant atthattime.

Excerpt 10 1nterview II

01 1: korene′

_{kokowa douyatte iebayokattato omoimasu?}

→

02 N: nanjini?tte iitakattandesukedo what taimu

→

03 (2.0)he■

dO? held(.)he■

dO tte′

_{attema[su]? held}

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

→

13

→

14

15

16

17

→

18

Ｉ   Ｎ [rrlm]

(3.0)a(。

)Wh(.)StartO? nanjini suta:tosimasuka

ttekiitara■

■

nokana =

: =rrm

: What time(3.0)do(.)m? dO(.)dO janai=

: =<party wa><nan]■

n土 >くha]■

marttmasuka>

: chotto matte kudasaine ((laugh))

: ((■

augh))

: =What time

ュ

tsu when demo

■■

desuyo=

=a sokka when(2.0)is(。

)iS janai(。

)when start(。 )dO

do desuka do=

=When(1.0)Wil■

toka

(。 )Wil■

party wa start suru

janaidesuka (when)Wi■

_■

I

N

I

N

I

N

I

N

I

N

I

wa the party(.)start(。

)

30

→

19 N: =ah(.)Wi■

l WO tSukau

→

20 1: toka (when)is the party starting(.)tOka

[English translationl

01

工: ИZttα′aθ_ッο″′ヵJ′ルyo″s力ο″みグルの θ wiダカere2

→

02 N: /″

α″′θグ ′ο sc乃 _{``″ %α}′rieθ

2"b“

′..。

what taimu:(2.0)heldO?

→

03 he■ d(_)he■

dO ISlir cttrerr′ he■

d

[Irm] [コnコn]

(3.0)a(.)Wh(.)StartO?ル

化フ

bθ

″″

″′

J″

θソ′

〃ノο

“

stttt,″igЙ

′

?=

=mm

What tttme(3.0)do(。

_{)m? dO(.)dO′}

ο,′′む″οl

=関

らα′′″ θ

w″

_{滋θρ″夕}Srarr2 NS″_/0″

α

Sι

θ

O′

α。

_(fa″Jリ

ノ

((■

augh))

=What time

閉νあ″

7夕

り″

ZJSθ

“

ソカ

θ

″

"2

Иれο滋秒とwhen(2.0)is(。

)″

ο

′｀

｀

iS″

(.)when start(.)dO

rs″ ヽヽd。″

?=

When(1.0)W±

11

(。 )Wi■■

乃″訪οttd‖se“ォあ2′り/1ッ"αnd`start't righ■2

(When)Will the party start=

瓢 れ

Isttο

″

″霞θ“

″

J〃"

ο

r

｀｀

(When)上 s the party startttng″

04

工

05 N

06 1

07 N

08 1

09 N

10 1

1l N

12

工 →

13 N

→

14

15 1

16 N

17 1:

→

18

→

19 N:

→

20 1:

In Excerpt 10,Nao attempted to create a sentence again,as follows:``″ _{乃″ ″′} “" 力θ′ab2乃ι″ 力cIあ rra,α rra″αヌ″′_{(is it COrrect?)"in line 2‐}3.The inteⅣ iewer waited llntil she noticed the lack of the sentence sutteCt.She needed to create an English sentence containing a suЦ ect and a verb,such as“Whattime willthe ptt be held?"As discussed in 4。 3.l she started to create the sentence ln JOpanese by hersel■ ′rhis tilne,

instead of using``hold,''she used the verb``start,"which might be easier to use as the

31

in line 13-14.Although Nao asked the interviewer if her use was cOrrect(line 14),a ittre auxiliary ``Ч 減11"was suggested instead. Finally, she hesitated to constmct the correct fom by herself(line 19),when the intewiewer demonstrated the correct sentences in line 18 and 20。

Excerpt ll

lnterview Ⅲ _{(role play)}

59 1: I′

m going to play the piano theree so please come′

60

↑

okay=

61 N: =Okay I′

m going there=

62 1: =Are you free today?

63 N: Yes. m― huh

64 1: And((pOinting the watch))

65 N: ((laugh))ah(。

)e(。

)What time start(・ )the icOn]

66 1: [↑

mm](。

_{)What tttme=}

→

67 N: =What(。

_{)what tttme(1.0)Wi■}

l(。

_)Will(。

_{)it(。 )↑}

start

→

68 1: Yes! a::h it will start at six O′

c10ck.

69 N: mm okay. ((Checking the watch))

70 1: Are yOu coming?

71 N: Okay.

72 1: Great!

73 N: ((laugh))

74 1: Thank you okay bye.

In lnterview III,the mteⅣ iewer and Nao conducted another role play,in which

Nao played the role of a student and the intewiewer played the role of her

English‐speaking teacher,who hadjust arr市 ed in a Japanese school.h teacher,whO was good at playing the piano,was plallmng to give a concert and invited Nao to the concert.In this task,Nao was supposed to ask the tilne and the place ofthe concert.