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(1)The‘28∼∂ぎConstruction: Focusing on the Mleaning of Equa1ity. 教科・領域教育学専攻 言語系コ∵ス 1M[08140B 友本 綾.

(2) The‘θ8∼∂ぎConstruction:Focusing on the Mleaning of Equa1ity. A Thesis. Presentea to. The Facu1ty ofthe Graduate Course at. Hyogo University ofTeachef Ed−ucation. In Pa並ia1Fu皿11ment. ofthe Requirements飾r the Degree of Mlaster of Scho61Ed−ucation」. by. Aya Tomomoto. (Stωent Number:M08140B) December2009.

(3) i. AckI1ow1ed.gements. Iwi・ht…p・…㎡y琴・・tit・d・t・一・…y…wh・?叩P・・t・dm・t・ comp1ete this thesis.. Fi・・t・・“・・m・・t,Iw・・1d1ik・t…p・…myd・・p9・・七it・d・t・. Assoc1ate Pro危ssor M1ar1ko Udo,my semmar supemsor,危r her va1uab1e ・・g9・・ti….一. E・d・・…ia…t・g・id・・…平iththi・th・・i・・With・・th・・. genemus support,I cou1d not comp1ete th1s thes1s.She a1so ad−v1sed me how to stud−y Eng11sh.I keep stud−ying EngI1sh and11ngu1st1cs not o汕y缶r me to. 1mprove my Eng11sh but a1so危r stud.ents whom I w111teach Eng1ish in the 血ture.. I wou1d−1ike to express my.specia1thanks to Mlr Kozo Harada at Maibara Senior High Schoo1缶r not on1y cheering me up but a1so introducing. Ms.Maureen Ho血mann at M1a1bara Semor H1gh Schoo1to me I am very. grate血1to Mls.M1aureen Ho拙mann危r a㏄epting my requests餌acious1y She read−thmugh a11of my thesis and be1ped me a1ot to improve it−If it. h・dmtb…血・th・^g1p,’thi・th・・i・w・・1d・・th…b・・…mp1・t・d・ I am ob11ged,to Mr.Robert Dobry at Takmo Jumor H1gh Schoo1.He ○脆red−me use他1in危rmation with read−iness.. I am grate血1to the teachmg staff of the Department of Eng11sh Language at Hyogo University−. 盾?seacher Education;esp㏄ia11ylMr Mitche11. C1ark br gIv1ng me va1uab1e mformat1on and−he1pmg me to mterpret Eng1ish sentences and−movies.. My appr㏄Iat1on1s extended to Mls R1e Tanaka,Ms.Nag1sa Ko1ke,and. Mr.Taku Sasad−a,my危11ow members m the semmar,危r the1r he1p血1.

(4) ii. in血rmatioh and−hearty encouragement.M1s.Rie Tanaka a1ways smiIed−at me whenever I met her.I cou1a spend−pr㏄io亡s time with her on a train. 血・mY・・bim’・h… 耳・b・t・Him・耳・,M二・・N・gi・・K・ik…dM・・T・k・. Sasaaa are k1ndto me.W1thout11avmg semmars mKobe Sate111te,Iwou1d never1〕㏄ome c1ose to them.. I am most tbankfu1to my危11o★students in the餌aduate d.epartment,. wh・・…1w早・・ki心h…f平1,・・ddi1i・・…Wh・・1m…h・m危・・h・趾・・ ・im・,1w…6・・…中・・m・…fth・m・…1d・千・h・・1・m・H・w・・・…h・・ are kind to me and−treat me1ike a血iend一.The other stud−ents are a1so kind. to me and一・they took me out to severa1p1aces.I1eamed ma㎡y things血。m them and−a1so had−a precious ti血e with them.Kobe Luminarie was one of. the most pr㏄ious memones w1t11a11ofthem.I w111never缶rget1t.These tw.o years wh1ch I spent w1th them have been meanmgfu1and worthwh11e.. I㍉thank my血iends危r beingwarm−hearted to me.When I平et them, they a1ways1istened二and−encouraξed−me.ALso,I cou1d.have been ta1king wilh・hgm危・h・・・・…h・・h・・・…di・m主k・・m・平・・11シ・・丘・・h・a・1…1X. thiヰth・t丘i・・d・・1w・y・m・k・m・・h・・川p・・ath・y…myt・…{蛇・…if we11ve m d−i脆rent areas.. Last but not1east,I wou1a1ike to o脆r my deepest gratitud−e to my fami1y;especia11y my mother危r a1Iowing㎎e to go to this grad−uate』choo1. Her support and−encouragement gave me ene㎎y to d−o everythmg.. Aya Tomomot0 Kato,Hyogo. Decemちer,2009.

(5) iii. Abstmct. The purpose of th1s study1s to recons1der the mean1ng of‘equa1ity’1n. the‘鵬二∂3construction. The’constructign is used−to express that two persons or things are equ白1aI1a is gene曲11y ca11ed−the‘comparison of equa1ity’・We usua11y use the worポequa1ity’without reaI1y cdns手dering what it means,but the平eaning is not easy to understana.I be1ieve that cons1d−ermgthe meanmgof‘equa11ty’wou1d1ead us to aproper und−erstand−mg of the‘∂8∼θ8’construction.. We are not concemeahere w1th1diomat1cphrases,such as‘as1ong as’, because these phrases are on1y seconaari1y based on the basic inte士pretation. of thg‘鎚.∼∂∼construction.A1so,negative sentence字are not d−ea1t with ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…1・・・…中シ・剛・・・・・・・…i・・ポ・・一・・’ 趾St.. First,I examine aictionaries and−encyc1opedias of mathematics, phi1osophy,and.Imgu1st1cs in order to understand−what‘eq−ua11ty’1s.From this,I丘nd−that tbe meaning of‘equa1ityテis‘edua1’or‘the same’.It is ・・p・・…岬th・・ymb・1‘=’i早m・th・m・ti・旱・・d1・宇・;th・ti・・舳・・A・・dB. have the sa叫e va1ue,the re1ationbetween them is−reホesented.asA=B. Next,the meanihg of‘equa1ity’in the‘郷∼一∂6constmction is inspected.. The‘船∼a3construct1on is genera11y r㏄ogmzed−as meanmg‘the same’. Some previous stud−ies present tbis interpretation and.use the symbo1‘:’危r. visua1understand−ing.The exp1anation seems to be ba§ed on mathematics. and1ogic because−sentences with‘郷∼∂6are shown With the.symbo1. A圧though this he1ps−us und−erstana more easi1X it might Iead us to a.

(6) iV. m1sund−erstand−mg of the meamng of‘equa11ty’m the‘舶∼∂3construct1on b㏄ause1mguist1c meanmg shou1d not be d−eaIt w1th m the same way as. mathemat1ca1or Iog1ca1meamng Othef previous stud−ies mention th幸t the‘∂8∼θ6constmction means ‘the sa血e or more’.In this inte叩retation,there is an adaitiona1phrase or. sentence a血er each‘a8㍗∂ぎstatement.For instan㏄,there is an e文amp1e which is“MaW is as中a11as her fath飢 In fact,she is ta11er than him.” In. the examp1e,the sentence w1th‘鵬∼a的ust means that Mary1s equa1to he正 father in height,and the second sentence works to te11d.etai1about theiI. height:that1s,the1r heights are not the same and Mary is ta11er In aω1t1on,the two sentences use the same ad一〕㏄t1ve and show them as“as ta11. as”and。“taI1er than”.From the two points,‘as H as’construction can be. meant as‘more’by supportmg the s㏄ond.sentence and the part of“ta11eI than”. Here,七hen,‘郷∼∂ぎitse1f d−oes not mean‘more’,so the‘more inte叩retatign need.s to be supported by an aωitiona1statement.In otheI. woras,when the speaker wants to show that somethmg1s‘more’,he must. add mbrmat1on to make the meamng of the utterance c1ear.Then,the ‘more’meaning can be interpreted.. Next,I exam1ne whether‘a8∼θd constmct1on can mean‘1ess’.Ther∈ is another examp1e whi6h is“Mary is as ta11as her fa亡her−In fact,she iε. younger than h1m.” Th1s examp1e is presented to compare wIththe examp1∈. above.Companng t11e two examp1es,both of the趾st sentences are th∈ same,but the second sentences are d1f胎rent. The d1曲rent parts are“ta11el than”and“younger than”. The adjectives are antoI1ym. Mloreover,the t“( sentences in this exa血p1e use aIltonymous ad−jeとtive and show them as“aミ.

(7) V. t.11。。・。hd・y・㎜g。。th。・・.B・・・・…fth・p・i{t・,thi・…mp1・i…g・・d・d. as ungrammat1ca1. From above,th1s examp1e1mp11es thaガθ8∼∂β constmction cannot mban‘1ess’・ Howevgr,we can use the‘a8∼姑 。onstruct1on when we do not kmw the d1脆rence between the two things bemg compared一.0nthe other lhand,when the a1価erence is obv1ous,we can. a1so use the・鎚∼∂6coI1struction in soムe cases.For examp1e,9enera11y peop1e d−esire to be superior to other peop1e,so they d−o not want to l〕e. considered m虹10r to anyone.Th1s state ofmmd a11ows the speaker to say that the he1s equa1to someone e1se even1f he1s actua11y s11ghtIy1n危nor. Hearers who know the tmth w111und−erstand−the utterance m context,but if theムearers d.o not know the truth,they wi11be1ieve that the speaker is not in危rior to the other.person in the comparison、. 趾。m these mvest1gat1ons,I丘nd−that the meamng of the‘∂8∼∂6 construct1on shouId genera11y be understood as‘the same’,but mte叩retat1on of th£‘棚’∼a3construction bas a range:‘s1ight1y more’or‘s1ight1y1ess’,. d−epend−ing on the context.In other words,the‘郷∼a8construction can acceptab1y be used−to express a s11ght d並亀rence. A乱er cons1dermg t11e. meamng of the‘鎚∼a6construct1on,I examme‘鵬∼a6constmct1ons1n mov1e scr1pts,to see how‘∂8∼a3construct1ons are used e拙ective1y. We can1eam the intenti㎝s ofthe speaker through interpretati㎝s of. the utterances.0ur mte叩retat1ons are r1ch enough to understand−maI1y thmgs even though the‘郷∼aぎ。onstructIon1tse1fs1mp1y means‘the same’. The interpretation1eads us to a deeper und−erstand−ing of the‘∂8∼2ぎ. 。onst㎜ction.When we understand the‘∂8∼2∼constmct1on proper1y we can und二erstand− not on1y its basic usage but a1so its expressive.

(8) V1. interPretations..

(9) Vii. Contents. Acknow1ed−gement ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・……・・・・・・・・・・…一・・・・・・・…一・一・・・・・・・・・・・…1. Abstract. ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…一…・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・……・・・・・・・・……・一・・・・・・・・…一……・iii. Contents .・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…一・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・……・・・・・・………・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・… vii. IntrOauCtiOn. ・・・・・… .・・・・・・・・・・・・… 一… 一・・… 一・… 一・一・・・・・・・… 一=・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・… 一… r・… 1. Chapter1 Backgmund.on‘equa1ity’ 1.1The meaning of‘equa1ity’ …・一’一’’’一・・・・・・・・・・・…一’’一r’….一’’’一.一’一.一’……’5. 1.1.1Treatment m mathemat1cs and ph11osophy ’一・・・・・・…’・・’・…’一一’一一’5 1.1.2Treatment m Iingu1st1cs ・・一・一・・・…一I’’一I一’一・・・・・・・・・・………’’一一一’’’一’7. 1.2The meaning ofthe‘∂8∼a6constmct1on. ・・……’’一…’一・・・・・・・・・・…’・…8. Chapter2Inte;pretations ofthe‘aθ∼a3coI1struction 2.1An a1tematβmeaning ofthe‘as∼as’construction 2.2The inte叩retation of‘1ess’. ・…二・・・…………11. ・・・・・・・・・・・・・………一’一一’一一’一一’一…’一一’一’’’・’一・一.・15. 2.3Menta11ty when we compare w1th someone ’’’一’一’’’一’一’’一一一…・’・・’・…18. Chapt冊3ExamiI1ationofthe‘郷∼∂ぎ。onstructionthmughmovie s㎝1pts 3.1The mterpretat1on and upper11m1t of‘the same’. ・…・・・・・・・・・…一・21. 3.2Interpretat1on and.Ad.verbs ・…‘・・…’…・一…’’’一一一一’・・・・・…….一’・’一一一一一一24. 3.3The expanaed interpretation. CoI1c1usion. 一一=一’一I・’・・。・一・..一’一’.一一’一I一一’一一一・・‘一’“.一’一一一’’27. ・・・……一・…・・・・・・…’・・・・・・・・・………一…・・・・・・・・・・・……・・…・・・・・・・・・・…一・31.

(10) V111. Re危rences. ApPen砒. ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…. 一・・・・・・・・・・・・…. @一・・一・・・・・・・… 一・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・… 一・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・… 一・・・… 34. @一・一・… 一・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・… 一・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・… 一・… 36.

(11) 1. II1trOauCtiOn. (1)I am([as])oId一([as])H1rosh1.. (2)I am(【as])ta11([as])my moth吐. (地w0ト。㎜,2006) (肋〃8肋θ,2006). These are sentences of the‘∂8∼∂∼construction taken血。m junior high. schoo1 Eng11sh textbooks. Jumor h1gh schoo1 students are taught the constmction in the second餌ade.How・wou1d−we understand.anヰtrans1atg the two sentences into Japanese? It is assumed−t阜at we are aware ofon1y. the1itera1meaning of these seI1tences:examp1e(1)means‘I am equa1to Hiroshi in age’早nd−examp1e(2)means‘I am equa1to my’mother in height’.. Then,we wou1d−trans1ate examp1e(1)as‘watashi wa H1rosh1to ona]1 ・・m・・ia…(I・mth…m・・・…早i…hi)’・・d・・早m・1・(2)干・‘w・t・・hi・・ haha to onajikurai se ga takai(I am as ta11as my㎡other)’.Certain1y this. way of thmkmg1s not m1staken,and.these are the genera11y a㏄epted tranS1at10nS. Why d−oes the speaker want to say that the speaker is equa1to H1msh1. m age or to the speaker’s motlher1n he1ght? The speaker’s psycho1og1ca1 factors must1〕e at work.I be1ieve that it is impossib1e−to understand−these. senten㏄s w1thout c㎝sideri㎎such factors.We can express our age and he1ght not on1y by comparing w1th someone but a1so by usmg numer1ca1 va1u6.For examp1e,‘I am血wteen years o1d’or。‘I am one hund−red二一and丘冊y. centimeters ta11’. Numer1ca1va1ue mbrmat1on1s more sp㏄1丘。 than compansons because we can g1ve someone exact mformat1on about our age. or height.Why then,do we compare with someone? It is necessary to.

(12) exp1am the meamng of‘equa11ty’m‘舶∼∂6constmct1ons m order to answer. thisquestion.Moreover,aproperunderstanding−ofthemeaningof 一‘. ?荘≠=│1ity’初。u1d 1ead us t6 the deep interpreta=tion」w五ich ‘aβ ∼∂6. constructions can express. Since the construction−is genera11y taught to second year juhior high. −schoo1students,it seems that teachers teach st巾ents on1y the危rm‘θ6∼棚 ・・’and−the tmns1at1on‘…Coo〃幼加z獅J,wh1ch means‘加θψ∂〃。∼6〃・・ジ,. Genera11y,smce teachers d−o not g1ve students deta1Ied−know1ed−ge of the 1mgu1st1c express1on,most teachers d−o not teach the proper meanmg of‘∂8∼. aぎ.A砒er that,students d1o Eng11sh grammar or tmns1ation exercises. S・m・・・・…i・・苧i…1・・…di・g・i…1i・危m・ti・・血・mpi如・・…h・・t・i・. wh1ch two pieces ofm血rmat1on seem to be the same.lMoreover,皿rev1ew exerc1ses ofthree types ofcompar1son(the comparat1ve,the super1at1ve,and the=positive),stud.ents use‘鎚∼∂ゴwhen t命。 persons or things see^to be the. same aψusβ‘∼θ〃.〃。加∼肋m’when.tbere seems to be a di脆reme even二f. the d1曲rence1s s1Ight. It seems that teachers unconsc1ous1y印ve the stude干tlthev’6w・o’ntof‘A=B’・七bat’1・千as∼lsRmea早s‘A’sthesameas B’・b6…帥・・h・…h・・…a・・巾・・・・・・・・・・・…?・f・1i・h・di価・・・・・…. Genera11y when we ta1k about‘equa1ity’m Japanese,the word cou1d mean{bt o汕y‘the same;but a1so‘a−htt1e more or a1itt1e16ss’.・I wonder. whether the word in Eng11sh can have a range of meamngs Iike th1s.We m1ght have an mcorrect trans1at1on of‘鎚∼∂3construct1ons mto Japanese, or we皿1ght have a wrong mte叩retation ofthe me&n1ng of‘a8∼a3Itse1£. In a we11known Eng11sh grammar re免reme book危r h1gh schoo1 stud−ents,Ish1gwo(2000)exp1ams that when there1s no d−1価erence between.

(13) 3. two things being cdmpared,we use the‘鵬∼a6construction.He a−1so st主tes. th・t‘A・・一・・B’m・…“A二B”(P・203)・Th…p1早・・ti・干i・th…危・…gi・. s1m11ar to our generaI understand−1ng of the meaning of the‘鎚∼船’ const士uction.However,狛gi一(1987)states that‘今as H a−s B’cou1d be seen not a1s‘A:B’but as‘A≧B’:t11at is,noポA is the・same as B’but‘A is the. same or more−than B’.Whe血I丘rst saW・the symbo1‘≧1,I was very su叩r1sed because the exp1anat1on was de丘n1te1y d−i脆rent丘。m Ish1guro’s (2000). I{bund−the a1f庵rence of interpretat1on of‘∂8∼θぎ。onstruct1ons q・it・i・t・…ti・g・・dw・・t・dt・k・・w平・…b・・tw{・ポ・q・・1i声y’i・.Si…. 狛g1’s(1987)Ineamng of‘more than’is not genera−11y kmwn,I wonder whether he缶。uses on the‘more’一meaning too much−to exp1ain the new interpretation to us. The purpose of this stud−y is to reconsid−er the meaning of‘equa1ity’in. ‘船∼∂8’constructions.I attempt t〇二make our und−erstanding of‘equ包1ity’. c1ar1丘ed through d1scuss1on of the meanmg of‘∂β∼郷’construct1ons.I. ・?11…ga・・m・…m・1・・wi・h‘・用ぎ・・…m・…血・mm・・i・…i・t…th・. Intemet.The examp1es were飼und thmugh searchmg the webs1te ofmov1e s㎝ipts,usmg the search ter㎜‘as*舳as’. A乱er that,some sentences inc1udmg1d.1omat1c phrases,such as‘as1ong as’,were mama11y taken away b㏄ause these phrases are on1y second−am1y based on the ongma1meamng of ‘郷㍗∂8’and are not,ae左1t wit止in this study.N6gati∀e s6ntences were包1so taken out because these sentences are a1so secoid−ary and.I want to consiae士 ‘aS∼aS,丘rSt.. In chapter1,I give an overview ofthe山6aning of‘equa1ity’as fou中in. d−1ct1onaries and encyc1opedias The genera11y a㏄epted meanmg of‘棚∼∂3.

(14) 4. construct1ons Is a1so exp1amed In chapter2,I d−1scuss the meaning of‘the. same or more’in‘∂8∼∂∼constructions.The meaning of‘more’is此。used−on beca−use it is not.genera11y known. Further,I veri蚊 a ‘1ess than’ ihterpretation which is not refened−tひin previous stud−ies,and−consiaer o山. menta1state when we compare.Fma11y,m chapter3,I exam1I1e some exampIes of‘∂8∼∂3statements血。m a coup1e of mov1es to con趾m the. meanmg of‘equa11ty’m the‘郷∼a6constmct1on.Examp1es丘。m mov1es have v1sua1ana aua1o m此rmat1on,so they are he1p冊1to understand.the human re1at1onsh1ps and to empath1ze w1th the speaker’s emot1on.In other. word.s,the examp1es are usefu1此r exam1mngthe mean1ng of‘equa11ty’皿‘鵬 ∼∂ぎ。onstruct1ons through the speaker’s危e1ing and−intent1on..

(15) 5. Chapter1. Back距。㎜aon‘equa1i吋’. 1.1The mea㎡ngof‘eqw皿蚊’. 1.1.1冊eatmentinmathemat1csandph皿。sophy In・this chapter,I s㎜vey・the meaning of‘equahty’in‘∂8∼a6 construct1ons.Th1s attempt1s to r㏄ons1der the meamng of‘equa1ity’m‘∂8 ∼ ∂8’construct1ons. The ‘∂8 ∼ aぎ construct1on is genera■y ca11ed一 ‘compa皿son of equa1ity’. A此hough the word.‘equa11ty’1s used−in d−a■y. conversat1on w1thout丘皿。onsideration of the mea皿ng,1t1s d曲。阯t to ・・d…t・・d−th・m…i・g・・f‘・q・砒y’一Iホ・・…h・w‘・q・出tシ’i・t・・早t・di・ dict1ona二r1es and.encyc1oped1as.. 1nthissect1on,1w皿presentthemea㎜gof‘equahty’1nmathemat1cs and p阯。sophy. F皿st,1et us check the meamng in mathematics. In Lapedes(1978),‘equahty’means“the state of bemg equaユ’’(p.326).狛no,. Mlo印,and−Ishihara(1968)say・“Being equa1.It1s sometImes used−as the mea㎡ng of equ1vaユence”(p.323,trans1ated by author).In the two above,. the word‘equa1’1s used1nthe exp1anat1ons.We know the word‘equaユ’,but. 1t1S a1SO d曲Cu1t tO㎜derStand1tS meamng.TO m吐e Our㎜derStandmg c1earer,the meamng of‘equa1’1s exam1ned一.Laped−es(1978)says“bemg the same m some sense determmed by context’’(p.326),and狛no et a1.(1968). state that…‘A.and B are equaユ,and the re1ation between A and−B is represented一一asA=B by usingthe symboI of‘=’when the two symbo1sAand−B represent the same mathematicaユ。bject”(p.473,一. 狽窒≠獅唐Pated−by author).It. seems thaポequaユ’means‘t11e same’and can be shown by the symbo1of‘=’.

(16) 6. when two mathematica1obj㏄ts are the same.. N・xt・1・t・・・・…1t…y・1・p・di…f・hi1…phy危・th・..m…i・g・千 ‘equa1ity’.In Shimonaka(1971),there.are two meanings of‘equa1ity’in 1ogic and−they are the他11owing:“consciousnes芦that there is no di飽rence. between two thmgs m quant1ty or number”(p.864,trans1ated−by author), and“1t1s represented by the syml〕o1:”(p.1001,trans1ated−by author).It a1so says tha−t the d1脆rence between‘equa1’and一‘Ident1ca1’1s that‘1d−ent1ca1’. means one thing,whi1e‘equa1’mean』two contrasting things. The encyc1oped1a a1so ment1ons genera11y thaポ‘there are m worthy d−1脆rences b・tw…h・m・・…g・・d1。。。・f・ρ・i・1p。。iti。・,w・。1th,。・・,・・。g。・(P.116+,. trans1ated by author). Ed−ward.s(1972)says that,. The propos1t1on“Aand.B are equa1”may be d−es㎝1pt1ve or normat1ve, but in either case it is incomp1ete without a statement oftbe respects in. wh1ch the ob〕㏄ts o叩ersons compared are deemed to be equa1.In instaI1ces where tbis apPears not to1〕e so,ei此er the context supP1ies. the comp1ement or the compar1son1s ofpure quant1tIes,as m pure. mathemat1cs Two ob〕ects equa11nwe1ght,or he1ght,or va1ue may be. unequa1in otheHesp㏄ts;ap虹t肚。m the abstractions ofmathematics and−1ogic,no two objects cou1d−ever be said to beβqua1in∂〃respects, on1y in a11re1evant respects.(p.38−39). In mathematics and.1ogic,the syml〕o1‘=’is o冊en used to expIain the. meanmg of‘equa11ty’.The two dIscIp1mes are s1m11ar m terms of showmg the1o即。a1re1at1on m a s1mp1e way by usmg the symbo1‘=’.Then,what does‘=’represent? In L1ungman(1991),.

(17) 7. =:two hor1zonta1andpara1e1hnes together become the equ創s s1gn. The umt1ng and1mking q−ua1ity of_1s,so to spea二k,doub1ed,and creates the signおr8土㎜〃a〃.ξア丘。〃θ曲I血一θ皿8ゴ。皿,that ofσ㍗a〃血乏7in. mathematics,w1thasm1Iameam㎎msomeothersystems,such as geometry.(p.148). We危und.that the symbo1of‘=’itse1f means not‘the same’一but rather “s1mi1ar1ty m om dimens1on’’.. 1.1.2Tmatment i皿1i皿如stics. In t趾s s㏄tion,I ch㏄k the meaning of‘equε此y’in1in如stics. Japanese and−Eng1ish dict1onahes and−encyc1ope山as are re危rred−. F皿st,I cons1der the meaning m Japanese. 1Matsumura(1988). exp1a㎜s‘equa11ty’as“①bemg equaユm餌ade or degree,②bemg equaユm qua1iication or sk皿,③t止e same as eq㎜va1ence’’(P.1706,trans1atea by autbor). The worガequa1’is a1so used in t止e e耶1anations.In Umesao,. Sakak㎜la,H1mhara,and−Kinda1ch1(1989),‘equa1’means thaポ‘there1s no ホ曲rence between muユtip1e things m quaユ1ty quant1ty,or d−e餌ee−They are the same’’(p.1647,trans1atea by author)一A㏄ording to Sato(1989),‘equa1=. 1s d−escribed as“bemg the same1n comparison to shapes,qua正ty,condit1on, de餌ee,or numer1ca1va1ue.It1s very s1miユar’’(p.380,trans1ated−by author).. Next,we w皿examme t11e meaning m Eng1ish. In批θ〃皿8㎜∂” 皿b右。皿〃γof肋θ励幽8必工∂〃μ∂8θ,‘equahty’means“the qua1ity or state of be1ng equa1”(p.495). ク乃θ0曲”♂励8並8力Z〃。む。〃”y2(0亙0身de丘nes1t as. “the con砒ion of bemg equa1m quant1ty;amount,va1ue,mtens1ty etc’’ (P.347). Moreover,the mean1ng of‘equa1’1n the工。”81㎜∂〃皿を拉。〃〃ア。f曲θ.

(18) 8. 腕8脆必Za刀8〃∂θθ1s“1a.of tbe same quant1ty,amount,or number as. anotlh叫b.identica1h mathematicaユva1ue or1ogica1DENOTATION; EQUIWLENT・(P.495)・・d・3.…ψ一b・1・…d・・m・t6h・d’’(P.495). A㏄ordmg to the0瓦02,1ts mea㎜ng1s“0fma馴1tud−es or numbers:Id−ent1ca1. m amount;ne1ther1ess nor餌eater than the ob〕ect of comp趾1son.0f thngs:Hav1ng the same measure;1d.ent1ca1m mag㎜tud−e,number,vaユue, intensity etc’’(P.346).. So f趾,1t seems thaポequa11ty’Is e型1amed by the core meanmg of ‘equa1’or‘the same’.It maybe砒田。u1t to und−er早tand一‘equa1ity’ifwe do mt. understand the meamng of‘equar oポthe same’.The words‘equa1’anポthe. same’㎜e synonyms.The〃㎜8㎜a刀〃を施㎜〃γof批θ肋助8必Z舳μ∂8θ exp1ams the d雌rence of the synonyms as危uows:‘same’means“1tems under cons1deratIon are rea■y one,and−not two or more di田erent but hlke. t阯ngs’’(p.1314)and‘equaユ’means“two or more d1曲rent1tems co皿espOnd m Ya1ue,numbe巧size,etc”(p.1314).. 1.2The1=皿eani二I=■一gofthe‘a8∼a4construction. In this section,I pro㎡ae an over向ew of previous stu砧es of the. treatment of‘equε此y’m‘∂8∼a3constmct1ons.Be危re that,I cons1der o㎜. genera1understanホng of tbe ‘∂8 ∼aぎ construct1on. Genera11X we und−erstand一‘∂8∼θぎto mean‘the same’.The mea=㎡皿g I presented in the. prev1ous s㏄t1on,esp㏄1aユ1y the ae丘n1t1on in mathemat1cs and,Iog1c,m1ght. 1皿au−ence our understand−mg of the meamng of the‘∂8∼∂3construct1on− Some peop1e regard‘Aas∼as B’as‘A=B’.Some1in馴ists a1so reg趾d−it in. the same way Be1ow are examp1es血。mAnd−o(2005)and−Mats㎜(2003):.

(19) 9. (3)A−comparison ofequa1ity:A=早. B.compar1son ofsupe皿。r1ty:A>B C.compar1son ofI皿胞r1or1ty:AくB. ひmdo,2005). (trans1ated by author). (4)This watch is as expensive as that one.(A=B). Ths watch1s more e理ens1ve than that one.(A>B) 丁阯s watch is Iess expensive than that one.(A<B) (1M[atsui,2003). And−o(2005)re虹s to these t㎞ee types of comparat1ve construct1ons and−. states“the trad1t1ona1grammars have reco紅zed−such types ofcomparat1ve construct1ons’’(p.567,tmns1ated by author)as the exp1anat1on此r(3)一He has not given any e理1anation of why he used−the symbo1s or what the. symbo1s mean.Matsu1(2003)states that“compar1son means showing the re1at1ve d−e距ee based on common sense and cons1d−ermg whether A1s equa1. toBorAismoretha血!1essthanB’’(p.95,trans1ated−byauthor),andshe prov1des(4)as concrete examp1es.刈though her three examp1e sentences correspond−to And.o(2005),she a1so aoes not state the reasons why she uses. the symbo1s or what the symbo1s mean.ALso,she d−oes not e理1am her reason{br intβ唖,reting‘∂8∼∂3constructions as‘the same’through the use of the−symbo1‘=’.She m1ght r㏄og皿1ze that she d−oes not have to state the. reasons because they are aheady we1known.Moreover,she provid−es the 危11owing examp1e sentences m a皿。ther a前1c1e..

(20) 10. (5)・・J・h平i・…1a・・M1町・ b.John is the same age as M1ary.. (M1atsui,2004). She states that“the exampIes of(5)are synonymous.The examp1es are mte叩reted−as meamng that they are the same age’’(p.45,trans1ated−by the. author). Then,she shows the re1ation between John and Mary with symbo1s:. (6)a.John=Mary b.John=Ma■y. (lMatsui,2004). From the examp1es of(5)and(6),I wonder Ifthe reason she t阯nlks that the. ‘∂8∼∂3construct1on1s regarded−as‘=’1s because she seems to think that. ‘批θ醐〃θ∼∂ぎand‘∂8∼∂ぎare synonymous.However,it1s not exp11c1t1y. exammed.She prefaces that a1examp1e sentences have been checked−by two1n危rmants,so she m1ght om1t an exp1anatIon ofthe d1曲rences between. ‘肋θ8∂〃2θ∼a6ana‘∂8∼aぎ. Thus,Ando(2005)and1Mlatsui(2003.2004) a杭empt to show‘equa11ty,super1or1城and−1皿胎r1or1ty’with symbo1s to make. the comp㎜isons easy to understand,but this attempt might give us a m1sunderstandIng ofthe meamng of‘equa1ity’m‘鵬∼∂6construct1ons..

(21) 11. Chapter2. Inte巧Pretations of the‘a8∼a3construction. 2.1An aユtemate meε㎜止唱。fthe‘船∼a3constmction In the1ast chapter,I examined−the mea㎡ng of‘equaユity’and危㎜d that. it seemed一‘the same’.I a1so presented−pre㎡ous芦tud−ies abo亡t‘船∼∂ゴ. 。onstruct1ons.Prev1ous stud−1es on1y show symbo1s or examp1e sentences. with‘船∼θぎto exp1ain the construction,and−they do not o脆r any. suggest1ons br where the meanmg of‘the same’comes血。m.0㎜genera1 ㎜derstan血ng matches that of these prev1ous stud1es,so we a㏄ept the exp1anat1on because the1dea is genera1Iy accepted. In this chapter,I fuヰher consider interpretations of the ‘∂θ ∼∂6. construct1on.I cons1der an a1temate meamng of−the‘棚∼∂3constmct1on, ‘the same or more’,m this sect1on.To be印n w1th,1et us rev1ew prev1ous. stud1es about the mea㎞ng of‘t血e same or more’m‘∂8∼θゴ。onstruct1ons.. The stu伍es a1so show examp1e sentences where the‘郷∼∂3construct1on. means‘the− 唐≠高?f. C一. b浮?the examp1e sentences are presented−without the. SymbO1‘=’.. (7)Jane is as o1d as Nancy.They a」=e both16years o1d. (Ybshida,1998). The・sentence“They are both16シeaエs o1d.’’is add−ed to show their age.. L1kew1se,0gawa(1989)shows the血nowmg examp1e:.

(22) 12. (8)N征ary is as ta11 as her father一. In fact,they’re id−entica1in height. (0gawa,1989). 0gawa(1989)shou1d have descnbed that as‘they are the same m he1ght’ 1nsteaa of“they’re1dent1ca1111止eight”. It1s recognj−zed−that the‘∂8∼∂ぎ. 。onstmction means三the same’血。m the examp1es(7)and一(8).0n the other. hand,0gawa(1989)a1so s止。ws the危■owing examp1e:. (9)Mary is as taI⊥as her father. In fact she1s taユ1er than him. ,. (0gawa,1989). (under1medby author). 0gawa(1989)exp1ains t11at the‘郷∼a6constmction does not mean‘exact1y the same’but rather‘the same or more’.Th1s aspect seems to a餌ee w1th 0〃02w1■ich says that“In this and the next sense o乱en with1atent iotion of ‘・t1…t・qu・11”(P−346)車th…p1・n・ti・n・f‘・q・・趾y’・. A此hough I have examineポequa正ty’and一節㎜d−that1t meant‘the same’,. some1m駅ユsts state that1t actuaユIy means‘the same or more’一 The meaning of‘more’seems to be a I1ew aspect because it is not genera■y known.. 狛g1(1987)states that the meamng ofthe‘船∼∂3construct1on1s‘the same or more’and represents it with the symbo1‘≧’.Let us co早sider危at1皿es.of the mean1ng of‘the same or more’m‘∂8∼∂ぎ。onstruct1ons.. (1O)Mary1s∂8施〃∂8ゐ”θ,maybe施〃舳 (Bo1inger,1972,as cited in Araki,1986).

(23) 13. (11)Jane has as much money as Fred一;〃危。Che has much血。岨 (Smith,1974). (12)John is as nch as Fred,1n fact he1sエηαoろ〃幽θr (1bshida,1998). (und.er1ined−by author). The examp1es(10),(11),and一(12)show that the‘棚∼∂3construct1on d−oes not. ody mean‘the same’but aユso‘more’.In the examp1e(10),the sentence “Mary is as tε皿as Jane”has aa砒iona1in危rmation;“maybe tε皿er”.刈so i二【1. (11)and一(12),each sentence has ad−d1tiona11皿brmat1on,si馴a1ed by the. p㎞ase,“m fact”.The addit1ona11皿おrmat1on shows what the speakeHeauy. wants to ten.A㏄ording to an i皿hrmant,the examp1es are a㏄eptab1e. because the‘棚∼a6construction means“the same or more’’.A皿。ther m危rmant says that the‘鎚∼∂ぎ。onstruct1on normaユ1y means‘the same’. when there1s no addit1ona111曲rmatIon.狛g1(1987)c1aユms that the‘∂8∼ ∂3construction means‘the same or more’,but the‘more’mea㎡ng in‘∂8∼∂3. construct1ons Is not norma1y mte叩reted by conversat1ona1mphcature.. This term−is provided by Grice. Grice(197字)states the缶■owing cooperati寸e princip1e fbr conversation:“Quantitx Qua止ty Re1ation,and− 1M[anner’’(p.45).Quant1ty means that the speaker has to speak without. exaggerat1on and w1thout om1ss1on.Quahty means that the speaker must not te■a He or someth1ngthat1s not tme.Re1at1on means that the speaker has to ta1k about somethmg that comects w1th the subユect.Mεmner means that the speaker must not say anything that is ambiguous or obsc㎜=e.. When we危11ow t阯s prmc1pIe,we can commumcate w1thout prob1em or.

(24) 14. m1sund−erstand1ng. Y主g1(1987)uses the pr1I1cIp1es and exp1ains that1f a. speake÷knows that Johムis oIder than B皿,the speaker w皿say mポJohn is as o1d−as Bi1I’but i皿stead,‘John is o1d−er than Bi11’. The utt6rance‘John is as. o1d as B皿’is va馴e because he㎜ers do not㎞ow whether John and B111are the same age or John is g1d−er.It is ce武ai証hat the meaning of‘more’in‘鎚. ∼∂6constructions is not generaユ1y und−erstood−without such ad一ホtionaユ in施rmat1on,In ad−d1tion,1t is supposed−that the‘∂8∼∂ぎ。onstruct1on d−oes. not a1ways mean‘more’and−there is on1y a poss1b皿ty of mterpretmg1t as ‘. ,. 1nOre.. It is impoれant to consider the range of the‘more’meamng when we. examine‘a8∼a3coI1stmctions.Let us consider ths range by proposiI1g. mmbers.For examp1e,there are two numbers,1.1and1O.We can say each nu叫ber is more than1.However,wh■e there is htt1e di=蛙rence. .between1;1and1,there is a big雌距rence between10and1.Wou1d you th1nk that these d1脆rences are regarded as t止e same丘。m the v1ewpo1nt. that both are more than1? I wond.er whether the‘as∼as’construction de丘nes a1imit to the extent tha士tbe construction can mean・more・.. (13)κ‘エηj8∂8広〃a8乃左. (Hud−dユeston&Puユ1um,2005). Hud一皿eston and Pu11um(2005)state that“Kim’s he1ght is AT LEAST equa1 to Pat’s,not that it is identica1.We can say without contra伍。tion:血.血j舳8. 佃∬郷此ち血色。C曲幼飲C出メ’(p.199−200). It a11ows not盆wide干ange of mea皿ingbut a s11ght range ofmeamng. Throu出the d−iscussion in this section,‘more’has been危und to be one.

(25) 15. of the interpretations of‘∂8∼∂6constructions,but its range is s1ight一. 2.2The i二皿te−PretatIon of‘1ess’. In this section, I consider another interpretation of ‘∂8 ∼ ∂3 constructions:‘Iess than’. This interpretation is haエd1y d−iscussed−in the. previous studies. Each examp1e缶。m(9)to(12)that I presented−in the1ast section has a contrastive examp1e,(14)to(17):. (14)?Mlary is as taユ1as her father. In fact,she1s shorter than hi二m (0gawa,1989)・. (15)?M㎜y1s棚施∬28ゐ〃,maybe曲。κ砒 (Bo11nger,1972,as c1ted1n Aエaki,1986). (16)?Jane has as much money as Fred一;j〃危。Che has much1ess. (Smith,1974). (17)?John1s as nch as Fred;1n fact he1s血〃幽幽. (此shda,1998). (underlj−ned−by author). A1though the examp1es(14)to(17)are ongma11y marked w1th astensk mark wh1ch shows that the sentence1s un餌ammat1ca1,I put quest1on mark wh1ch. presents that the sentence1s una㏄eptab1e.I ca■the examp1es丘。m(9)to (12)‘t㎜e1’and the examp1es丘。m(14)to(17)‘type2’.The趾脆rences are. the under1ined−comparative adjectives.The adjectives are antonyms ofthe adject1ves m the丘rst examp1es(9)through(12).For examp1e,the ad一]ect1ve.

(26) 16. usea in(9)is“ta11er”and−the one used−in(14)is“shorter”. In the type1. e妄a皿p1es,the aajectives in the‘28∼クぎ。onst士uctions and.the comparative ad−j㏄tives in the aa血tiona1i㎡brmation are the same.0n the other hand一,. 1n the type2examp1es,the aa]ect1ves趾e antonyms一“as ta11as’’and “sho抗er’’m examp1e(14).It m1ght1〕e saユd−that type1is a㏄eptab1e and−. type21s㎜acceptab1ebecauseoftheantonymsofadユect1ves.刈so,1tseems that the una㏄eptab血ty oftype2Imp1ies that the‘郷∼aぎ。onstruct1on d−oes. not mean‘1ess than’.Watan止1and Petersen(2006)rem肛k that the‘鵬∼ ∂3constmct1on camot e理ress‘1ess than’一They exp1㎜n the fo11ow1㎎: There a■e two peoI〕1e,a speaker and a{other person. The second.person is. 173.3cent1meters ta■and proud of the he1ght.The speaker has a s1ster who is173.1centimeters ta皿,and says to the person as危11ow:. (18)Uc趾no imouto datte kimi to onaji k㎜=ai se ga takd yo. (19)My sister is as taI■as you... The Japanese sentence(18)canbe trans1atea as‘My sister is as tau−as you’.. I血J・p・・…〒・h・・p・・k・・・・…y‘…jik…i・・g・・吐d(・…皿・・)’i・岬・ s1tuat1on. In the Eng11sh sentence(19),the spea二ker cannot say‘as ta11as’1n. th1s s1tuat1on.They exp1am that the range of the meanmg m Enghsh Is a施rent from1n Japanese. The examp1es(18)and(19)do not correspond.. In regard to Watan吐1and Petersen’s(2006)s1tuat1㎝,an1n缶rmant s舳 that the speaker ca−nnot say sentence(19)when the speaker knows the1r. he1ghts.The iI此rmant a1so saユd that辻the speaker does not kmw the皿 heights,it is possib1e to say(19),even though strict1y speaking the sister is.

(27) 17. shorter,b㏄ause the杣脆rence of2m1山meters is very smε皿and−1t1s 1mposs1b1e to see the di日もrence of theu=he1ght.. Suppose inキhe s1tuat1on that there1s an obv1ous d−1f亀rence1n heights.. Is it1mposs1b1e to use the‘a8∼∂3construct1on? The answer1s‘no’.The speaker’s psycho1ogy ma上es1t poss1b1e to use the‘∂8∼∂6construct1on.For. mstance,a person C1s163cent1meters ta11and one of C’s出ends1s166 centimeters ta■.The a1脆rence ofthe皿height is three cent1meters ana can easiユy be seen.A㏄ording to m危rmants,m th1s s1tuat1on,丑C says‘C1s as. taI1as C’s出end’,it can be1nte叩retea m two ways.0ne mterpretat1on1s. that hearers㎞ow the1rhe1ghts and㎜derstand that the utterance1s not true.One1n危rmant e型1出ns伽s by te11ing about h1s paエents.The father of the誠rmant says that he1s as tau as hs w此,but m fact he1s a litt1e. shoれer than her.The m允rmant knows that the statement1s not true but can1magine hs father’s危elings.It1s not com血rtabIe危r men to say that they are sho武er than a woman.That1s why he uses that express1on,even though it is not tme.Some peop1e des止e to be superior to other peop1e. The d.esire makes it possib1e to use the‘a8∼∂ぎ。onstruction even though the ‘郷∼aぎ。onstruction d−oes not fund−amenta11y mean‘1ess’.In this situation,. the he㎜ers kmw the heights.What woud happens ifthe hearers do not. know the heights?In this case,there1s another mte叩retat1on.Here, heaエers rega■d−the utterance as a truth:‘C1s not shorter than C’s fdena’or. ‘the father1s not sho武er than hs w脆’.W,en hearers know the fact that C 1s sho武er than C’s缶1ena or the father is shorter than h1s w1危,the hsteners. might have the impression tbat the spe吐er,C or the father,has uttered a. fa1sehood−about the皿he1ght..

(28) 18. As observed above,1t1s poss1b1e to use‘鎚∼θぎ。onstruct1ons m some. ‘1ess曲an,cases:0ne1s when we dO not knOw the exact di施rence and another is when the inte叩retation comes丘。m the speaker’s psycho1ogy.It. m1ght be natura1thatthe speaker maybe consc1ous on1y of‘s1mi1ar1ty’rather. than‘1ess’.町pe2cannot llave ad.d−1t1ona1m危rmation1f the speaker aoes not want to show that the sub】ect of the sentence1s m免r1or to the other. person in the compar1son.刈so,‘船∼a3construct1ons can be regarded.as an enhancement ofa tra1t so that the two peop1e are considered一(a1most)the Sal=■1e.. 2.3Menta砒ywhenwe compam withsomeone II1the prev1ous sect1on,I re危rred−to the speaker’s psycho1ogy and− certain1y psycho1ogy o免en a価㏄ts our utterances..In this s㏄tion,I examine. 血rther the psycho1og1ca1state ofmind. Suppose there are two ch1dren,D and E,and曲ey are comparingthe1r. heights.The皿丘1enas趾e a㏄1amg who1s ta11er.It sometimes happens that there is very11tt1e a1脆rence1n the1r he1ghts.As a resu1t,the丘1ends may]ud−ge that they are equa1because the fr1ends cannot see a d−1f亀rence.. As a resu1t,the ch11drenw111be d1sappomted−1fthey had.exp㏄ted themse1ves to be ta1Ier.0ne缶ieψmig11t then say‘D maybe tauer than E’or‘E maybe ・・11・・.・ト・・D’・・・・…1・・f・…他1・b・・・…i…Th・…wh・i・j・d・・a・・’ 怐E taI1er,.even if on1y a・1ittIg ta1er,wi11be p1eased−at the resuIt,but巾e other. w111be chagrmed even1f the one1s on1y a1Itt1e shorter A1though the 血iends regard−the s1ight di脆rence as a minor matter,D and E regara it as a. S1gm丘Cant matter..

(29) 19. Even such young ch11d−ren have strong危e1ings about the resu1ts when. tbey are compared w1th amther person.I wonder whether peop1e typ1ca11y. avo1d compansons w1th someone when there1s an obv1ous d.1脆rence. Genera11y therg is a tendency{br ta11peop1e to be regarded as better and, most p6op1e wish to.be ta11er So,if peo云1e comp町e with heights,it just shows that one person is in a more ad−vanta琴eous position,with regard−s t0. he1ght,than the person they are compared−w1th.Thereあre,1t1s more 1nterest1ng to compare peop1e who seem to be equa1than those who have obv1ous d−1f亀rences.. Let us cons1d−er another case. There are two persoI1s,F and.G,and. they are comparmg the皿11e1ghts.F1s a11tt1e shorter than G.Then,if F say6‘F is shorter than G’,even though it is tme,the utterance may be. regardea as statem㎝t ofm鉄10r1ty.We genera11y wou1d mt say so1fwe were F and.think that being short is not as good一一as beinきta11. Suppose. ther6is somebod−y e1se,H,and−H d㏄iaes whg is ta11肌 In that case,H’s. d−ecis1ondepend−sonthere1ationsh1pHhasw1thForG.IfFand.Hknow 9・・h・th・…dH・・…危・珂・・佃wi11・ot・・y・・ythi㎎t・・p・・t早Hm・y not state‘F1s the same as G’because the〕udgment of‘the same’may make F d.isappointed−ifF wishes he were the ta11er.. Wh・・…p…㎝i・th…mp・・i…i・g…t・・df・m?・・;th・ imp1ication ofthe speaker is cbanged一.For examp1e,when someo口e states ‘my daughter is as pretty as Audrey Hepburn’,it is genera11y the case that. th1s1s not a fact m the11tera1sense When the person chooses to compare. the d−aughter w1th Au砒ey Hepbum,the person1s braggmg about the d二aughter’s beauty Peop1e can use comparisons to boast about themse1ves.

(30) 20. or the1r be1ongmgs m order to make the hearers recogmze that they are superior. The speaker’s psycho1ogy a1so a脆。ts the inte叩retation and the psycho1ogy enhances eva1uat1on of the sub]ect of the sentence(the daughter) 血。m‘1ess’to‘(a1most)the same’.. In th1s way the speaker’s psycho1ogy has the e脆。t ofenhancement of. the va1ue(here,一the daughter’s beauty).Wh㎝the spe畔er is the subj6ct of. the compar1son,the utterame can be mte叩reted−as a kmd−ofboast or vamty. on the part of the speaker.When somebody e1se1s the speaker,the utterance can1〕e mte叩reted as an enhancement ofthe va1ue or a iattery of the’ 垂?窒唐盾?who is the subject ofthe sentence一.

(31) 21. Chapter3. 1Exa1=I1ination of the‘aθ∼a∼constructi01=L th■ough l1匝。vie scripts. 3.1The inte−Pretation anathe皿pPer11i二Init of‘t1=Ie salne’. In the1ast chapter,the mea皿ng of‘∂8∼a3construct1ons was 伍scussed extensive1y T止e core meamng of‘船∼2ぎ1s‘the same’,and the meani皿g of。‘more’is not aユways inte叩reted..This interpretation o㏄ws. when the spea上er add−s m㎞rmat1on to te■阯s mtent1on a㏄㎜=ate1y A1ternate1X when the fact1s‘1ess than’but the speaker does not want to e卒press it,the constructioIl can be usea and1t enbances the va1ue based on. the speaker’s psycho1ogy. For these reasons,the ‘θ8∼a3construction shou1d be mte叩reted−mt on1y as‘the same’but a1so as a s1ight d雌rence: ‘s1ightIy more’or‘shght1y1ess’.. In this chapter,I examユne the1nterpretat1on of‘a8∼a3construct1ons. based on exampIe sentences丘。m mov1e scr1pts.Examp1e sentences丘。m movies are easyto understanasituations.We cansee usagesofthe‘郷∼∂ぎ. 。onstructionandcons1dertheimp11cat1onsofthe‘妙∼∂∼statementsm context.I cons1der not o汕y the11teraユmeanmg of the utterances but aIso the intent1on of the speakers. The cons1derat1on of the examp1e sentences 丘。m mov1e scripts1s1〕ased on the d1scussion m the prewous chapter−. First,I w皿examine a situation that is inte叩reted as‘t11e same’.. However,the sentence does mt s110w an姉hmgthat1s‘exact1ythe same’.In this case,‘A as∼as B’shows t止at B is the uI〕per1imit and−the va1ue ofA is. enhanced to B when A ana B are compared.Th1s exampIe comes血。m the. mov1e,皿θ加a&〃α蝸θ.Ths mov1e1s about the t1es of缶1end.shp and一.

(32) 22. the 1ove between The1ma and Louise thエ。ugh runaway血。m po1ices. Tbe1ma is a housew曲wh丑e Lou1se1s a smg1e woman who works at a resta㎜ant as a waユtress.The1ma ana Lou1se are best丘1ends ana they d−ecid−ed−to talke a two・day vacat1on to go on a roaa tr1p. 0n the waX they go. to a baエto rest.The1ma ord−ers aユ。obo1,wh1ch Lou1se aawses her agamst. Be1dw is the conversation l〕etween TheIma and−Louise:. (20)Louise: TheIma!. The1ma:0h,what,te■me somethin’. Is this my vacatio皿。r isn’t it?. I mean,God,you’re as bad as Darry1.. Louise:I’m somy.. I’mjustnot usedto seemgyouthis way I haven’t seen you t阯s−way in a w皿1e. (bo1dface ad−d−ed−by author). D趾ry11s The1ma’s husband.The1ma d−oes not1j上e hm very much because he tr1es to contm1her.Louise knows that,and both women t出ηlk ofDarlV1 unkind. In th1s conversat1on,the utterance“you’re as bad as Darry1”has. the genera1meanmg:‘Lou1se1s unhnd to The1ma now.Lo皿se is aユmost equa1to Da皿y1㎜th regard−s to the d.e餌ee of uホmdness to The1ma’.. The1ma cannot do an沸hing丘ee1y;she has to ask危r permiss1on血。m her busband DarI・y1to do anything because he a1ways wants to be m contro1of. her.Now,Lou1se1s a1so t叩ng to contro1The1ma,when The1ma』ust wants to en』oy her vacat1on.Here,The1ma says“you’re as bad as Da皿y1”mstead..

(33) 23. ofjust saying“you’r6bad”.IfThe1ma says“you’re bad”,it might just mean. tbaポyou are unkmd’.It wou1d not be mea㎜ng曲1b㏄ausθThe1ma wou1d 〕ust be te11㎜g her危e1mgs to Lou1se.There1s a reason why The1ma uses −her husband、’s na血e、丁耳is reason sure1y inc1udes imnX which is c1ear丘。m the context and t11e backgrdunas ofthe characters and−the situation.. A㏄ord−1ng to an mbrmant,t上1s utterance1s11ke a〕oke. It1s. 1nte叩reted−as a]oke危r t11e危11owmg reasons.Compar1ng Lou1se w1th DarW1in terms of thei士unkindnesさ。r in terms of th?ir human nature, DarryI・is more unkind−than Louise.So,we cannot−say‘Louise is as bad as. D亭my1’in伍insicaI1y.There is m quantitative in危rmatio血b㏄ause theあ。us of comparing Lou1se w1th Dany1is t血e unkind−ness of the皿human nature,. wh1ch cannot be measured−m numbers.However,The1ma and Lou1se know each other and aIso kI1ow Dar町1ve町we11,so the two women r㏄ogn1ze wh1ch person1s more unkind一.Then,1t1s understooa between The1ma and Lo㎜se tbat曲e statement1s not pr㏄1se1y true wheI1the meanmg1s apP11ed to the actua1wor1d一.ALso,Louise und−erstand−s T五e1ma’s intention.For these reasons,the m血rmant understands the utterance,“you’re as bad−as. DarWI”,as a]oke.The m飴rmant a1so says that there1s11tt1e poss1b111ty. that‘郷∼a3meaI1s‘mらre’b㏄ause the.brm‘a8∼a3on its own genera11y means‘the same’oポequa1’.Wh㎝we mte叩ret a sent㎝ce w1th an‘舳∼∂ぎ expression,we canngt understand the sente{ce a㏄urate1y if‘郷∼∂3has two. mean1ngs.‘the same’ana‘more’.So,‘郷∼∂6bas1cauy means‘the same’, whI1e the meamngof‘more’may be mte叩reted in partIcu1ar contexts.. The‘a8∼θ6construction itse1f means‘thβsame’.However,we牛now that Louise is1ess than Darry1血。m the background in危rmatioh ofthe movie..

(34) 24. We mterpret the sentence as‘t止e same’because1t seems that Darry11s the 叩per11mit and−the unk1ndness ofLou1se1s enhanced to that ofDarryI based−. on the context and back駅。und−mbrmation.So,the utterance cannot be und−erstood.as‘more’b㏄ause Darry11s the upper11m1t and−the unk1ndness of Louise does not exceed−D趾ry1’s.. 3.2Inte叩retation and.Adverbs Some ad−verb1a.1phrases are concerned−w1th the und−erstandmg of‘∂8∼. ∂ぎ construct1ons. They a脆。t the 1nterpretation of the ‘a8 ∼ ∂ぎ. 。onstmct1ons.In the mov1e of肋〃ア此娩r2〃♂肋θθo〃θC ofハ油,‘a1most’ is us♀d−in an utterance with‘郷∼∂∼.The Harry Potter series is one ofthe. most famous mov1e舟amh1ses m the wor1d..Th1s mov1e Is the bwth story m the ser1es.Harry Potter1s a boy who1s a stud−ent at Hogwarts Schoo1of. W1tchcm舟and W1zarary. HarW Is a compet1tor in the“1w1zard Toumament,an mter・schoo1compet1t1on.In the th1rd−and一五na1task,the person who reacbes the Triwizard Cup is the wim肌 Har町and−Cedric D1ggoW,another compet1tor and HarW’s semor at schoo1,have he1ped each. ・th・・i・中i・T・・m・m・・t…th・yw・・tt・・h…th・wi・・S・・H・my・・d Cedic士each the cup at the same time. The Tri㎡izara Cup is a portkey w阜ich te1eports a町。ne who toucbes it. 宜arry and Cedric are transported−to. an o1d一飯aveyard,where they see a de飴rmed−Vb1d.emort and h1s servant. A乱er he is restored by11is sewaI1t,Vb1demort utters the fo11owing sentenges. to Ha岬:.

(35) 25. (21)HarW!I’d a1most危㎎otten you were here.Standmg oI1the bones ofmy father Ild−intmduce you but word.has it you’re. a1most as血mous as me these days,The boy who1ived.How 1ies have蛇d.your1egend Harry. Sha11I・revea1what rea11y happened that mght th1rteen years ago? Sha11I d−1vu1ge how I. tru1y1ost my pow♀rs? It was1ove・兄u see wh亨n dear sw㏄t Li1y Potter gave her1i危fbr仁er on1y son she proviaed the {1timate pmtection.I cou1d not touch you.It如as o1d maま。,. somethmg I sho㎜1dhave他rseen.But m matter,no matter. Things have changed,I can touch you now! (bo1d−face aaded−by author). Vb1demort,s uttemnce,“you’re a1most as famous as me,,camotbe und−erstood−. as‘the same or more’because of the ad−verb‘a1most’、 0bv1ous1y,both. Vb1d−emort,who terri丘es peop1e as the most power血1ev11wizard m11ving. memorX ana Harry who was not kI11ed−by Vb1demort’s mag1c,are veW famous and−it is perce1ved.by mt on1y Vb1d−emort ana HarW but a1so other. pegp1e1iving in the wizard−ing wor1a一 §o,Vo1ae平。rt aωs the expression ‘‘. 翌盾窒?has1t’’to b1s utterance so that1t1s mt seen as his own judgment.. When Vb1demort says that“word−has it’’,he shows his pride.From his ・止・・・…},w・…早…血・t止・th・b・1i・…th・th・i・m・・hm・・咋m…’th・・ Har町.He might want to say this,but he rea1izes that Har町is we11known to many peop1e.So,Vb1de皿brt uses the function of the aaverb。‘a1most’。. Matsui(2004)uさes the制1owing exampIes to consider di脆rences between three expressions which portray the same re1ation:John’s age is1ess than.

(36) 26. Mary’s.. (22)a.John1s a1most as o1a as MlaW. b.Jane is not a睾。1d」as1M1ary.. c.一Jane is younger than M1ary. (M.t.ui,2004). Matsui(2004)exp1a1ns that1t1s a fact that a11of the sentences1og1ca1Iy. mean John1s younge兵but they have di脆rent emphases、(22a一)emphas1zes the c1oseness of the two,(22b)emphas1zes the d1脆rence,and一(22c)s1mp1y shows that John Is younger. In a冊1t1on,in examp1e(22c),1t1s poss1b1e to. understand John as much younger b㏄ause we do not know the de餌ee of. d−1脆ren㏄. Fo11owmg th1s mbrmation,we can understand that the utteran㏄“you’re a1most−as famous as me肌shoWs that HarW and−Vb1aemort are c1ose in terms of fame but that Vb1demort is.a1itt1e岬。re famous than. HarW.A㏄ord−mg to an m危rmant,1f1t were mt br the worポa1most’,‘as. famous as’means‘the same’in terms of fame.I asked−the i{危rmant whether it1s poss1b1e to und−erstand‘as famous as’as meaning that Harry1s. more famous than Vb1d.emort.The inbrmant says that there is a s1ight poss1b111ty but that1t1s better to say‘at1east as famous as’or‘(even)more famous than’ifI want to show the meaning of‘more’c1ear1y. Based on the m危rmation舟。m the mbrmant,I丘nd−that‘the same’1s the core meanmg of‘郷∼∂3construct1ons,but there is a s11ght poss1b111ty. that it can mean‘more’.In a岬ition,‘郷∼姑。onstmctions re1y a1most ent1re1y on express1ons such as‘at1east’or the comparat1ve of super1or1ty1f we want to show the meaning of‘more’..

(37) 27. 3.3The expanaea inte巧pretatioI1 In this section,I propose an expanded inteηPr♀tation of the‘2β∼∂ぎ. 。o{struction.As has b6en mentioned−in s㏄tions1.2and−2.1,the re1ation. between A ana B1n‘A as∼as B’1s somet1mes exp1amed−by usmg symbo1s such as‘=’anポ≧’.In examp1e(20)血。m section3.1,it is possib1e to express“you’re as bad−as Dar町1”as‘Louise=Darry1’,and一“you’re a1most as. famous,as me”in examp1e(21)血。m section.3.2as‘HarW〈Vb1d−emort’. However,‘郷∼a3constructions cannot a1ways be expressed−u睾ing symbo1s.. In8如〃C Z必施2a‘郷∼aβconstmct1on wh1ch cannot be shown usmg sy平boIs is used−e脆。tive1y 8加〃宕〃C地2is a血mi1y adventure movie about the t1t1e character,Stuart.There are丘ve members1n Stuart’s fam11y.. Mr.and Mrs.Litt1e,their son George,their baby d.aug耳ter Martha,and Stuart,a ta1kmg mouse who was ad.opted as the1r second son.Stuart seems to be a rea1member of the fam11y and.goes to the same schoo1as George.. 0皿e day oI1止is way bome血。m sc止。o1,Margaユ。,a危ma1e yeuow canary, drops血。m the sky into tbe passenger seat ofStuart’s car.Marga1o is be1ng. pursued−by another b1rd,Fa1con,and gets m〕wea.Stuart somehow gets M1町ga1o away血。m Fa1con and tak6s her to his hom6to treat tbe inju町. lMarga1o1s a11owe砒。 stay w1th the L1tt1es unt11her1njury1s hea1ed一. Stuart. and−Marga1o beg1n to危e1somethmg sp㏄ia1wb11e they spend t1me together. In th1s scene,Stuart and Marga1o are taIkmg wh11e they watch a mov1e at. home.Ma㎎a1o has never m餌ated south and says that thmgs never go we11.一 rt{art and Marga1o’s conversation continues:.

(38) 28. (23)STUART: 亜a11. Somet阯ng’s a1ways stopPmg me,to0 Everybod−y around−here thinks I’m too sm牟■to. a㏄omp11sh an煎hng.. MARGAL0.He又the way I see1t,you’re as big as you胞e1.. STUART: 亜ah. BoX I’m reauy g1ad you危■into my c趾。 I mean,you kmw... (bo1d出ace ad−aed by author). lMarga1o says ths enco㎜=agmg1y to Stua村who1ooks sad and1aments his ・m・■・i…M・・g訂・h・・・・…h・・St・・前i・早・d・・a−b・…,・1th・・ghith・・. on1y been a危w days. When we und−erstand the utterance literauy as ‘Stuart and.his heart are the same size’,we m1ght not appr㏄iate Margaユ。’s intention. lM1aエgaユ。 senses Stuart’s att1tude and use th1s Pb「ase to exP「ess. the bnowhg meaning:even if you are sma11,you have a hnd and brave hea武. The1mportant thing1s not the s1ze of your body but the s1ze ofyouエ. heart.There1s a saymg:a sound−mmd m a sound bo蚊 丁趾s saWng gene蝸皿y means that when yo皿body1s hea1thX your mmd w皿be hea1thy Based−on th1s saying,this utterance can be und−erstood−as meamng,when you have a b1g he趾t,you can be b1g.Ind−eed,one m允rmant und−erstands Ma㎎a1o’s statement as,‘even though you are smau,ifyou are positive and. have con冊ence,1t does not matter,or‘your att1tude1s more1mportant than yOur SiZe’.. The utterance“you’re as b1gas you危e1”1s a taghne ofth1s mov1e,and−1t.

(39) 29. is said two more times a乱er this.Both times it is said−by Stuart㎞mse旺.. 0ne daX sud−den蚊Marga1o dj−sappears. Stuart gets depressed and he dec1des to se㎜ch危r1M㎜gaユ。 because he assumes that Marga1o has been. 虹dnapped by Fa1con,The utterance1s m a scene where George tr1es to prevent Stuart丘。m1eaving.. (25)GEORGE:Are you crazy? GEORGE:兄u can’t go out there.. STUART:What you meanbecause I’m too sma11?. STUART:Weu,1etme−tenyousomet㎞ng,George,you’re asbigas yOu危e1.. (bo1dface added−by author). The utterance can be understood−as mean1ng that Stuart1s capab1e of se趾。hmg危r Marga1o no matter how d−angerous1t1s b㏄ause he believes m h1mseIfand is con舶ent. The other time the phmse is repeated is when Maエga1016aves Stua武. 危r the m1駅at1on.lMarga1o was under an ob11gat1on to Fa1con,so Fa1con mad−e Marga1o he1p stea1va1uab1es丘。m houses.Tha皿ks to Stuart,Margaユ。. was丘eed丘。m Faユ。on.NoW,at1ast,Marga1o can migrate south,as she has. dreamt of domg.刈though M1㎜ga1o ye趾ns br m餌atmg,she Is fun of. amd6tyb㏄ause itis her趾sttime.Stu舳enco皿ages Marga1o:.

(40) 30. (26)MARGAL0:Now,it’s the re副thing. GEORGE:Are you scared? MARGAL0:The wor1d’s pretty big,and−I,m pretty sma1. STUART:Somebod−yonce to1d me,’’兄u’re as big as you危e1’I. STUART:Just spread−your wings、..and−soaL (bo1dface ad−ded l〕y author). In examp1e(23),Stu航1amented h1s sma皿s1ze.This tme,lMarga1o1aments hers.Stua㎡teus M1arga1o the same t肚ng she to1d him.This key sentence. gives encowagementto htt1e Stuart and−Margaユ。.Therebre,the utterame is丘ttmg危r the1ast scene.丁止e utteran㏄1s sa1d−a coup1e of t1mes as a. taghne br the movIe,mc1u山ng the丘na1s㏄ne−The utterance must have a. p航1cu1ar mea㎡ng. If not,tben1t wo阯d−not work−A㏄or砒ng to an m危rmant,the‘郷∼∂ぎ。onstruct1oI1in this utterance d−oes not mean‘the. same or more’. Instead,1t1s‘Poet1c or1出。mat1c’一 So,1f we camot understand ths p㎜Tose ofthe utterance,we may not understand the story aS We11..

(41) .31. Conc1usion. In this stud叉the meaning of‘6qua止ty’in‘∂8∼∂ぎ。onstruction has been. considered−th=ough a discussion of previous studies−and−d−ata血。m movie scripts.. In chapter1,I consl】ユted−three k1nds of d1ct1onar1es and encyc1oped1as:. mathemat1cs,phiユ。sophX and−1ingu1st1cs.The de丘mt1on of‘equahty’was conc1uded−to be‘the same’oポequaI’.丁阯s conc1us1on matches the mea皿ng. of the‘鎚∼舶’construct1on wh1ch is genera11y a㏄epted− I exam1ned an mte叩retation that aescr1bes‘Aas∼as B’as‘A=B’,but the interpretat1on1s not exphcit1y e不p1aユned1n prev1ous stud1es. So,I conc1ud−ed−that th1s aspect. is we11・㎞own to us ana an exp1anation of where ths interpretation comes 丘。m is not need−ed.. In chapter2,I血scus艶d−the‘more’mea皿hgof‘郷∼∂ぎ。onstmctions.I found−that1t was砒舶。uIt to understand−the meanmg of‘more’1n‘a8∼aβ’. constmctiohs一 ワ。m the肪rm of‘舳∼aぎitse1手 In other words,the core meaning of‘郷∼a31s‘the same’,and−the‘more’mea皿ng Is not understood. un1ess there1s some ad−d1t1ona11㎡brmation.The mte叩retat1on of‘1ess’m. ‘∂8∼a3constructions was a1so伍scussed一. 丁阯s interpretation i§not. d1scussed−enough m prev1ous stu出es.Some sentences w五1ch have ths aspect are on1y shown as una㏄eptab1e sentences− However,it can1〕e used−. when the speaker does not kmw the di脆rence between two persons or thmgs.It1s副so used−when the speaker wants to be recogn1zed−as a better. person. It1s an1nterestIng point that the speaker’s psycho1og1ca1state of mmd−a価㏄ts the mte叩retat1on of‘1ess’.It enhances‘1ess’to‘(a1most)the.

(42) 32. same’.These inte叩retations that mean‘more’anポ1ess’do not come from the的rm of‘舶∼一aぎitse1f;they come伍。m context or psycho1ogy.Aユso;the speaker’s psycho1ogy iniuemes the intent of the utterance,so we s11ou1d cohsid−9r it when we inte命ret utterances.. In chapter3,I examined some exampIeミ丘。m movies.I a1so危und− that the core meaning of‘∂8∼∂ぎin movies was‘the same’.In the first examp1e,the‘∂8∼∂ぎu杭erance d1d−not actua11y mean‘the same’、In fact,m. the brm of‘Aas∼as B’,B was the upper1imit and.va1ue ofAwas enhancea. to the11m1t.Then,the utterance cou1d be mterpreted−as‘the same’.Some ad−verbs can inf1uence t11e meaning of‘郷.∼∂3e脆。tive1y by危。using the meaning of‘the same’.I此und−that the phrase‘a1most as∼as’(“a1most as o1d as”)1s simnar to the express1on‘not as∼as’(“not as o1d as”)and the. comparat1ve(“younger than”),1〕ut they have a aI脆reme m meamng:the phmse‘a1most as∼as’h1gh11ghts the c1oseness ofthe two persons or thmgs.. These meanmgs or interpretations are the bas1c ones.Another examp1e, though,shows us an expand−ed mte叩retat1on of‘舶∼a6.In that examp1e,. it d−oes mt matter whether the meaning of‘as∼as’is‘the same’.The. express1on1s1nte叩reted.as‘poet1c or1d1omat1c’1n the situation. Th1s aspect of inte叩retation has not been d−ea1t with when we consid−er the. meaning ofthe‘郷∼∂3constmction.. In summaW,the meamng of‘equa1ity’in‘郷∼∂ぎ。onstmct1ons1s simp1y‘the same’,buポ船∼∂ぎ。onstmctions can a1so be used.to express ‘s11ght1y more’or‘s11ght1y1ess’.These two mterpretatIons ar1se血。m the situation or intention ofthe speaker. So,I suggest that we shou1d consid−er. not on1y the basic meaning but a1so the interpretation of the‘棚∼∂ぎ.

(43) 33. construction when we try to understand−the sentences using‘∂8∼2ぎ.Ouエ inteηPretations based on context are rich enough to understand many things. even when the words themse1ves肛e not c1ear. This means that o㎜ 1nterpretat1ons he1p us to understana utterances beyond−the word−s spoken.. W■en−we interpret sentences with‘舶∼∂3proper1y we can understand not on1y its basic usage but a1so its expressive interpretations..

(44) 34. Re危ren㏄s. And−o,S.(2005).0θ〃幽j皿必ψρo地喫.Tokyo:Kaユtakusha. Araki,K一(Ea.λ(1986).〃8o北省。。肋θ皿Tokyo:Kenkyusムa. Edwaras,P(Ed一.).(1972).Z乃θ肋紬ψθ凶白。〆㎜08qρムγ(reprmt ed.).Vb1s.. 3_4.New兄rk:lMacm皿an.. Grice,HP(1975).Log1caI1dConversat1on InP.Co1e,&J.L.1M1organ (Eds.),馳佃x∂”♂86〃∂〃施θ吻Z易助θθ肋λo佃41・58,New York: Acad−emic Press.. Huω1esto早,R。,& Pu皿um,K.G.(2005).λ8施ゐ〃施血妨。ぬ。血。皿Co. 励助鮎θ欄〃〃舳Cambndge:Cambr1dge Umvers1ty Press. Ish1g1g“ro,T.(Ed.).(2000).地αム。α8b口θo〃皿8o”b雌8女(2nd一.ed一.)Tokyo:. Kirihara Shoten. K1oves.S.,&Rowling.J.K(n.d一.).肋〃γ此赫θ〆ク乃θ血広θj㎜θCMb㎜θ曲物云. 刀a佃加8θ.RetrievedAugust30.2009,丘。m http:〃wwwimsd−b.com/. Laped−es,N.D.(Ed.).(1978).M6α閉w’捌〃〃。血。皿〃ア。〆乃岬此8舳♂. M麦泌θ〃a地8.New兄rk:McGraw・H皿. L1ungman,G.C.(1991).〃。拉。〃〃γo〆敬㎜わ。ゐ.Santa Barbara,Ca1if... ABC・CLI0.. 〃皿8㎜舳〃肋。〃班y of肋θ励8脆ゐ工a刀8〃∂8θ.(1984).Har1ow,Essex,. England:Longman Matsu1,C.(2003).H1kaku Koubun no Se1yaku−TougotekiApurochi一.斯。広。 ハわ広〃uゐ血αゐ8〃刀虹8a五〃X6〃アロ幼。.[Bu11etin of Kyoto Notre Dame U㎡v6rsity1,3身95’107..

(45) 35. Matsui,C.(2004,1M1狐。h).H止aku Koubun no Im.皿卯8θ血θ〃.[The r1smg Generation】,45・47. Matsumura,A.(Ed.).(1988).刀幼㎞b.Tokyo:Sanseid−o.. ハゐw0−o㎜地8〃8五&〃θ8地w亙誠右。〃2(2006).Tbkyo:Sanse1do.. 0gawa,H.(1989).Ke1yoush H止a上u Koubun no Syosou.ゐu血賜ノ。f肋θ 乃。uノ勾7ofHuエηa〃’血θg 乙加』”θzsゴ句7o〆ク切a〃∂,74;63・90.. Sato,N.(Ed一.).(2001).M五〇四施必昭。刀瑚批θ〃.(2nd。.ed.).Vb1.11.Tokyo:. Shogakukan, Screenp1ay Dept.Fou皿n.Inc.(2008).&”θ理ρ危y皿‘騨五θ〃醐五肌Retr1eved−. J㎜e1.2009,丘。m http:〃www.screenp1ayco.jp仕ensaku佐ensaku.cg1. S阯monaka,H.(1971).%施〃牡〃”加皿.Tokyo:He1bonsha. Sm1th,S.(1974).M6i㎜〃g〃♂ル騨泣。㎜、The Hague:Mouton. 8口〃8伽hθ亙口幼も必0b㎜sθ2(2006).Tokyo:Ka1ryud−o. ク万θ0曲”d曲8〃曲〃b右。㎜則ア.(2nd.ed一.).(1989).0xbra:C1arendon Press.. Umesao,T.,Sakak㎜a,A.,Hmo止ara,S、,&K㎞aaic11i,H.(1989).地山〃曲∂. 肋a一あ伽M肪。㎜eo刀a功施〃.Tokyo:Kodansha.. Watan曲,Y.,&Pe偽rsen,M.(2006).伽艀皿〃。佃血θ”o山8θ〃地岬〃 皿肋ψo.[The Roya1Eng1ish Grammar br Pract1ca1Express1veness】. Tokyo:0bunsha. 狛g1,T.(1987).Z虹do助。騨〃広。砒a五α地uzo.Tokyo:Ta1shukan. 地no,K.,M1og1,I.,&Is趾11ara,S.(1968).8〃騨五〃鋤功施”.Tokyo:Kyontsu. ShupPan. YbshIda, S. (1998). 2∂五α 皿8o 柳08〃 ”o ね〃θ 〃。 皿乃α4ρo肌 Tbkyo:. Kenlkyusha..

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