Sんjれαヵ9J9,′2αJ oFPOJιり
Sι
フJι
θdVol 15(March 2008)
Foreign Language Teaching Refor■
1:̀a円
「 11lngness to Co■llnunica俺"as Theoretical and Curricular Foundauon in Japan and lts lmplications
Sean A.WHITE
l lntroducion:Historical Context 2 Willingness to Comェ 4uniCate
3 WTC and ReforHェ
Efforts in Recent Vears4 Discussion&Condusion
1. IntrOduction:コ Iistorical Context
The roughly two hundred year history of English language education in Japan has seen at least three distinct periods of refo■ ■ l of how the language is taught and leamed in the country's schools,and although not wihout some successes,an hrec of thesc have been described as failures in acheving sittiflcant results(Smith&Imura, 2004,upOn whch the remainder of his section is largely based).Though beginning at
its earliest as a practical o荀eCt Of study in order to provide access to Western science and technologtt by the late 1800s English had become heavily associated with entrance to higher levels of the education systeln through the ubiquitous entrance exa■ linationo What is now known asブ
"乃9れ
―
cttgο( entrance exam English'')was at Other ti14eS referred to asん
9れsο ん ,9な ο(̀̀irregular English")and was(and cOntinues to be)distinguished by it's ahnost total reliancc onダ α乃秘
'ο
力防 ( translation reading") as both instructional technique and classroom learning activit>Like todaゝ ダα乃秘―
,θ
た ,,which has usually been placed in the reahn of graHllnar‐ translation teaching methodology but,as others have pointed out,really pays litde attention to graHllnar itぃ self but rather translation alone,was at times sutteCt tO much citicism and pre‐ war
attempts at refornl,beginning、 vith the efforts of Japanese educators Kanda Naibu
(1857‐
1923)and Okakura Yoshisaburo(1868‐ 1986)and later,more pro■ linently through the work of Harold E.Pahner(1877‑1949),̀̀linguistic advisor"to the coun‐
try's Departlnent of Education and director of the se■ li‐ offlcial lnstitute for Research in English Teaching(IRET)from 1922 to 1936(Smith&Imura,2004).
Structural and sociocultural factors contributed to certain deBrees Of resistance to reform and persistence ofん
9れsο 乃秘 English,while Palmer himself seems to have tried to work within the systenl,focusing on the use of readers in implementing his oral‐
focused approach(Imura,2003).I[is ideas did also achieve some successes.Howeve島 the lead up and actual conll■ encement ofthe Second World War put an end toward
―
‑ 77 ‑
Sん ,pα
,9あ フ勒ατ
oFPOιウ リ Sι
,0ウcs Vol 15 (Mar(五 2008)refOr4 ng English education andダ α力 ,,溌 秘 14ethOds and nearly― but of course not entirely一Enghsh education itself
lt was not until after the war and occupation of」 apan that there was another con―
certed effort to reform language education.This was again begun by educators in
」 apan,who were inauenced by Pahner's ideas and were instrumental in compiling the
rlrst pOSt‐
、 var courses ofstudy in 1947 and 1951.They were also the」 apanese propo―
nents ofthe methods of Un ersity of Michigan professor Cha』 es C.Fries(1898‑1967) and his Oral(WIichigan)Approach,with the initial impetus and strong backing of the
American English Language Education Comlnittee(ELEC,later to become the EngLsh Language Education COuncil),which had as its goal the complete reform of English language education in Japan,While the movement daimed so■ le successes in organizing teacher training at the grass―
roots level and in■uencing materials develop―
ment bet、 veen 1956 and 1968, it lacked any ofFicial recognition and failed tO sufaciently cooperate with potential allies,while Fries and other principal people involved in the effort appear to have lost interest(SH th&Imura,2004).In terms Of
inユ
uence on」 apanese English language education,it had even less than the、 vork of Palmer and the IRE■ as it'S reliance on drilhng failed to catch on in classroom prac‐
tice and fell from any favor it may have ettOyed around the same time it was losing
its in■uence in the United States.
The 1970s again saw the country's Enghsh language education being caned int。
question,、vhich became most evident in the Fhraizunli‐ Watanabe debates of 1974.
The Great Debate on the Teaching of English in Japan"(42'gο 乃ダ∂ J乃 秘
,αか rο れ
sO″)
between HiraizuHliヽ Vataru(1929‑),aュ member of the House of Councillors,and Watanabe Shoichi(1930‐ ),professor of Sophia(」6chi)lJniversity tended not to focus on actual teaching techniques or methodolo邸 es,but it did focus attention on the pur―
pose of English Education in」 apan,with Hiraizunli emphasizing utilitarian
CO■
llnuniCation ones and Watanabe cognitive and cultural ones.This undoubtedly
in■
uenced the next reform movement beginning in the lnid‐ 1980s,ofrlcially Spear―
headed by the凸 江 inistry of Education(WIOE)with a focus on inore practical goals and COHllnuniCative trends in language tЮ aching in the West.
1987 stands as an important year for t、 vo reasons,First,it saw the draft proposal of a new course of study which emphasized die need to learn to communicate in English for the purposes ofinternational understanding(乃 ο乃
,sα'′
,ん α ,)。 Second,it was the year in which the Japan Exchange Teaching(」ET)progranl began,bringing to the country and its school classrooms hundreds of young,native Englsh speaking Assis‐
tant Language Teachers(ALTs)each yeatt bullding on previous but xnuch more liュ
n―ited programs such as the Fullbright and WIonbusho English Fellows,and British English Teaching programs.Assessments as to the effects of the JET program are still few in number,although McConnell's(2000)work is the most often citedo McCon―
nell lnakes dear that」 ET was a pohtical rather than educational initiative designed
―‑ 78 ‑―
ForelBn Language Teaching Reform
by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to extend the country's soft power by creating friends among ALT participants who would return to their home countries following their teaching tenures in Japan.It also convinces hat from the standpoint ofinternaぃ tionalization of Japan it can be judged a relative success in thatェ nore」 apanese were able to come in contact with these foreign teachers.Results have generally been much less encouraging in terms of greatly inauencing actual dassroom English teachng,as ALTs and the classes in which they participate have tended to become marginahzed in most,particularly acade■
lically―oriented,schools(WIcConnell,2000,S■ th&
Imura,2004).
In renecting on the history oflanguage teaching reform in」 apan,S■ lith and lmura present several potential reasons for the lack of substantive change(though they do also note that much depends on■
ow we look at things)。Perhaps interestintty,they do not include discussion of more recent trends,in particular those related to the inclu―
sion of English in the elementary school curiculum,which had its bettnnings around the same tiine as the start ofthe JET progra■ l and increased focus on conl14uniCation in offlcial courses of study,Had their artide been written lnore recently,they undoubt‐
edly would have.Before looking at that and more recent reforln trends,however,a dis‐
cussion of the construct of ヽ villingness to communicate''is flrst necessary in order to best frame and characterize them.
2. Willingness to Communicate
,11,″
J,,gれ cssサο
cO胞れ
,れ 'Cαサ 9(WTC)and itS Various component constructs were Flrst
conceived of in flrst―
or native language coHllnuniCation research and can lnost gener‐
ally be understood as the probability of engaging in colnxnunication when free to choose to do so."(Maclntyre et al。 ,1998,p.546).The WOrk of WIcCroskey and his col―
laborators(e.g。 ,WICCroskey&Richmond,1987)has been Oft cited in arst language (Ll)WTC research which has empirically linked it to such behavioral phenomena as communication apprehension,perceived communication competence,introversion―
extroversion,and self‐ esteem.Although initially conceived of as a trait‑like or person‐
ality variable,o世 ler researchers,especially Maclntyre,have con
ncingly argtled tl■at it is much inore of a situational one with both transient and enduring inユ uences."
(WIaclntyre et al,,1998,p.546).
According to laclntyre et al.(1998),
There are inany variables that have the potential to change an individual's WTC,… [such aS the]degree Of acquaintance between conllnunicators,he number of people present,the formality of the situation,the degree of evaluation of the speakett the topic of discussion,and other factors̲Hoヽ
vevett p9′んOpsサん 9駒 ο sサ
J′α〃χ財テc υαr'αbJ9 οれ9 cα れ Cん αttg9'れ サん9 cο ″夕花秘れ 'Cα
ιテοれ
sθ
歩サ ',gラsι ん9 Jα″
g,OF9 9デ
―‑ 79 ‑―
Sカラ胞α,9 Joレ ′れα」oFPOJJり
Sι ,0テ
9s Vol,15 (lMarcl1 2008)Jラscοttrs9.rサ 'sc,9α
r
ι んαι
θ んα
,g,弔♂サ ん
9ι α ,g,α ♂
c oFCο″″れ
,れ 'Cαサ ,ο れテ 滝サ rο ,,c9sα
″
Xり Or cんα
ttF9,れサ ん
9 cο″ι ′ η
,ん 'Cαttο
tt s9ササ ウ ん ど
b9cαws9テサんα
sサん
9 pοサ
9れサ
'α
ι
ι ο
Oヵ宅 Cι
孵α
,ノ 9Fサん
9υ α
r,αb′
9sサんαサ cο れサ ′ テ
b秘サ
9ι ο
Ⅲ Ⅲ TC[emphasis added](p.546).
It is in light ofthis that MaclntTe and his associates extended the concept of WTC to
second language(L2)use,learning,and teaching.FurthermOre,they have argued
thatヽ VTC should be the priinary goal of L2 1anguage instruction,citing general research flndings of approximately.60 correlation between intentions or、 villingness to act and actual behavior lbund in the psychological research literature.
Maclntyre et al.(1998)lay out a xnodel ofヽ VTC that brings together research in bott Ll and L2 contexts.They derlne the L2 construct as the readiness to enter into
discourse at a particular tiュne with a speciflc perso4 0r persons,using a L2''(p.547).
The pyra■ 1ld lnodel they propOse consists of six layers,with Co■ lmunicadon Behavior at its apex(Layer I)and Social and lndividual Context at its base(Layer VI),with higher layers representing a number of more situationally‐ based variables and 10wer ones inore persistent or enduring variables.Listed togethett the layers are shown in Figure l.
Layer II Communication Bchavior
Layer III Behavioral lntentions Layer III:Situated Antecedents
Layerミ
ヽ、WEotivational PrOpensities Layerヽ
4 Affective‐Cognitive Context Layer VI:SOcial and lndividual Context
Figure l Macintyre et al.'s(1998)Heunsuc wTc MOdei Vanable Layers(p.547)
Each layer is comprised of one to three variables induencing` 丙昭C as listed in Table l.
―‑ 80 ‑―
Foreign Language Teaching Reform
Table l Macintyre et al's(1998)HeuriStiC Model of Variables lnluencing WTC (p 547)
1.L2Use[Layer li Communication Behavior]
2.Wilhngness to Conilnunicate[Layer II:Behavloral lntentions〕
3.Desire to Co41lnunicate with a Specinc Person[Layer III:Situated Antecedents]
4.State Coniェ
nunicative SelttConlldence[Layer III:Situated Antecedents〕
5.Interpersonal WIotivation lLayerヽ ヽ 、Motivaional PropensitiesI 6 1ntergroup Motivation tLayer「 強 1虹
otivational PropensitiesI7.L2SelttConndence[Layer出 上
Motivational Propensities〕8.Intergroup Attitudes[Layerヽ
l Affecte‐ Cognit
e Contextl9.Social Situation lLayerヽ
l Affective‐Cognitive Contextl
10.Communicaive Competence lIPayer V Affect e‐ Cognit
e Contex倒11.Intergroup Chmate lLayer WI:Social and lndividual Context〕
12,Personality[Layer VI:Social and lndividual Contextl
Yashiュ
na(2002)inveStigated WTC specirlcally in a Japanese university EFL con‐
text.The results ofthe path analysis of her data found,in addi■ on to conflrHling the appropriateness ofthe rnOdel in a」apanese context,thatヽ VTC was most direcdy inユ u‐
enced by students'English Communication Conidence,"In the data,this was inユ u―
enced by learner lnotivation,which、 vas itself largely inauenced by learner attitude, Operationalized and described by Yashilna as International Posture,''or an interest or desire to coHllnuniCate with the world outside」 apano With regard to classroom instruction,Yashima urges that EFL lessons(1)raise students'interest in different cultures and international arairs,and(2) reduCe anxiety and build conidence in co■ 1‐
municatior'(p.63)。
At its most essential,WTC might be charactettzed as being composed of(1)a desire
to communicate,(2)communicative competence,and(3)self Conidenceo We might also further simplify by subsuming(2)communicative competence under(3)selttCOnt…
dence,since as Maclntyre et al.point out,rather than an obiectiVe evaluation,it is
the learners self‐ perception of his/her coniェnunicative competence that underlies self―
cOnidence in communication.It is interesting to note hoヽ Vevett that in Yashima's (2002)analySiS,L2profldency had only a weak inユ uence on L2 co■ llnuniCation coni‐
dence,which was lnore greatly inユ uenced by L2 1earning xnotivation.
Back in expanded form,but with a ditterent,more concrete focus,we might ask, what would be the ideal situation or student that we can envision at the end of a sec‐
ond language course of study?From this perspecive,Maclntyre et Л.'s model might look something like Figure 2.
―‑ 81 ‑一
Sttpα
29あ
レ勒 αJ oFPOど'Cy Sι
ttJi?s Vol 15(March 2008)
Goal:
F範
"′
bJ9/
S,サヵαチラο
ttα J
A p9rsοれ
rt7ん
οcο
ηれ,ηJθ
αヵs,中 に
,9ぉο卿
,ι」 ,PDAJサ
O cOれれ
,カウ Cα チ9…
.A person who desires to coHwnunicate with a speciflc person…
A person conident communicating in a specinc situatioǹ…
A person who is motivated to communicate with other people.¨
A person who is motivated to cOmmunicate with target(L2)group¨
.A person who is cOnddent in conllmunicating using the L2.¨
A person who has a positive attitude toward speakers Of L2[&L2itselfI.¨
A person located in a conduc e social situation(genderj age,poweL purpose,topic)…
A person(ω
んο
s99sカラ れ /ん
?ぉ9Tas)possessing surlcient communicative competence縮解
Figure 2 1dealizadon of
Ⅲ 胡aclntyre et al.'s(1998)WTC MOdel
With such an ideal or goal in xnind,we、 vould of course ask at that point,which of these are 140St likely to be open to in■ uence or lnodiflcation,particularly in the L2 classroo■ 1,and furthermore,、 vhat knowledge and experiences would best help to achieve this?As indicated above,variables that are either underlined or printed in b01d may be open to varylng degrees ofchange,and it is particularly the latter(bold) ones that may especially be targeted in formal instruction in classrooni settings.As noted,Yashilna(2002)proposes that in order to increase」 apanese learners'WTC,
EFL lessons should be designed to enhance students'interest in different cultures and international affairs and activities,as wen as to reduce anxiety and build confl‐
dence in cOnllnunication"(p.63).Howevett the prospect that aェ nore concrete plan of action,including both intensive and lnore extensive training programs,is a very entic‐
ing one and deserves further attention,Although this has yet to happen,the need to in some、 vay address these issues has been at least recognized by researchers,Inany teachers,and,significantlゝ official courses of study and other WEOE initiatives to which we now turn.
3. WTC and Refor]m Efforts in Recent Ycars
Offlcial MOE interest in both co■ 11■ uniCative competence/1anguage teaching and motivational aspects in foreign language(Enghsh)teaching date to the early to lnid―
1980s and coincide with the introduction of foreign language assistant teachers in the schools and later start of the」 ET program.The 1989 revised Course of Study for lcjwer secondary/iuniOr high school describes the goals of foreign language teaching as
外 国 語 を理 解 し、外 国語 で 表 現 す る基 礎 的 な能 力 を養 い 、外 国語 で積 極 的 に コ ミュ
ニケーションを図ろうとする態度を育てるとともに、言語や文化に対する関心を深め、
国際理解の基礎を培う。
―‑ 82 ‑―
Foreign Language TOaching Reform
TO understand a Foreign language,to develop basic abilities in expressing one―
selfin a foreign language,サ
οテれsι
テJι
α pοs,サ
ラυ9α
ιサカ,J9サ
ο″αr,cο
″ι″秘秘ηテCαサテ,F'Ю
α FOr9兜gんJα
,gttαg9,ln addition to deepening an interest in language and culture and fostering basic international understanding。 (WIEd,1989a;lny translation, emphasis added)
Siュ
nilarlゝthe 1989 upper secondary/high school revised Course of Study described goals as
外 国語 を理 解 し、 外 国語 で 表 現 す る 能 力 を養 い 、 外 国語 で積 極 的 に コ ミュ ニ ケ ー ションを図ろうとする態度を育てるとともに、言語や文化に対する関心を高め、国際 理解を深める。
To understand a foreign language,to develop abilities in expressing Oneselfin a forelgn language,サ
ο Jηsサ
テJ′
α Pοs,ι ,υ 9α
ササラサ,J9サ
οpar,cο
孵 腕 秘崩cαサカgレれ a FO躍 ばれ ιαttgヵog9,in addition to increasing interest in language and culture and deepen―
ing international understanding.(AttEXT,1989b;my translaion,emphasis added)
Fる
stering positive attitudes toward co■ 1lnuniCation(a willngness to co■ llnunicate) remained a goal in the 1998 revised courses of study.The lower secondaryも uniOr high school revision read as
外 国語 を通 じて
,言語 や文化 に対 す る理解 を深 め ,積 極 的 に コ ミュニケー シ ヨンを
図ろうとする態度の育成を図 り ,聞 くことや話すことなどの実践的コミュニケーシヨ
ン能力の基礎 を養う。
To develop students'basic practical co■ 1lnunication abilities such as listening and speaking,deepening the understanding oflanguage and culture,and,6sサ 9r―
テ ,F α
pο sカテ υ9α財】 ι 秘所
9サο
pα,電cο駒秘,崩
cαサ テ οЮ
ι ん′ ο材どん
Fo躍をれ Jα ,g,og9d.(MEX■
1998/2003; IEXT 2003al emphasis added)
The upper secondary/high school revision siュ nilarly read as
外 国語 を通 じて
,言語 や 文 化 に対 す る理 解 を深 め ,積 極 的 に コ ミュ ニ ケ ー シ ヨンを
図ろうとする態度の育成を図り
,情報や相手の意向などを理解 したり自分の考えなど を表現したりする実践的コミュニケーション能力を養う。
To develop students'practical conllnunication abilities sudh as understanding information and the speaker's or writer's intentions,and expressing their own ideas,deepening the understanding of language and culture,and FOSサ
9r'れgα
pο s舟
,υ 9α
ササカ秘'9
ιο
pα r,cο
胞 胞 秘れ 'Cαれοれ サん
rο
ttgん FOr9,どれ ιαれど秘97gcs,(MEXq
1999/2003,W【 E岨
Ⅲ2003bl emphasis added)
―‑ 83 ‑―
Sん ,mα 29 JoErr,α
ど
oFPO力り Sサ
,OJ¢s Vol.15 1Marda 2008)It was also in 1998 that the teaching of foreign language(Enghsh)became possible in the regular elementary school curriculum (previOusly it had been a1lowed on a researdi basis only).It has yet to be estabLshed as an orlcial sutteCt Of Study,but has been an exphcit option for inclusion in weekly lntegrated Studies(sogbι
9乃'兒
α
Fαttα
sんう 舟οデι 力α,)classes,which were flrst established in the school cur
culun■with the 1998 Course of Study revision.Regarding the purpose ofthe new lntegrated Studies clas‐
ses,the Course of Study states
総 合 的 な学 習 の 時 間 にお い て は ,次 の よ うなね らい を もって指導 を行 う もの とす る。
(1)自 ら課 題 を見 付 け , 自 ら学 び , 自 ら考 え
,主体 的 に判 断 し ,よ りよ く問題 を解 決 す る資 質 や 能 力 を育 て る こ と。
(2)学 び方 や もの の考 え方 を身 に付 け
,問題 の解 決 や 探 究 活 動 に主 体 的
,創造 的 に取 り組 む態 度 を育 て ,自 己 の 生 き方 を考 え る こ とが で きる よ うにす る こ と。
Integrated Studies classes should be conducted with the fo1lowing goals in lnind:
1.To nurture children's critical thinking and proble■ 1‑solving skills by developing their abilities to identify problems and topics and to learn and think independent呼
2.Ib acquire learning and thinking skills,to nurture a positive attitude to、 vard autonomously engaging in proble■ 1‐ solving and inquiry as well as thinking about how one lives his or her own life.
(ME餓 ,1998;my translation)
Fro41 thiS,it is clear that autonomous participation,attitude development,and motivation are objects of development in elementary school lntegrated Studies classes.Regarding possible areas of study/inquiry in these classes,the Course of Study states
各学校 においては ,[以 上 に ]に 示すね らいを踏 まえ ,例 えば国際理解 ,情 報 ,環 境
,福祉 ・健康 な どの横 断的 。総 合 的 な課題 ,児 童 の興味 ・関心 に基づ く課題 ,地 域 や学
校の特色に応 じた課題などについて ,学 校の実態に応 じた学習活動を行うものとする。
Each school shall,in lig,lt Of the goals lnentioned[above],set their own topics and plans of study based upon their o、 vn circumstances and xnay indude,but are not liinited to,such areas as integrated and cross‐ seCtiOnal study of international understanding,information science,environmental studies,welfare and health studies,in addidon to specinc areasん opics of children's interest and those related to he local region or specitc school,etc,(MEX乳 1998,my translation)
The text goes on to glve examples of types oflearning activities wlaich share in cOm―
mon a focus on experiential(and sometixnes cooperative)learning.Following this it touches speciflcally on foreign language study/activities in saying
―‑ 84 ‑―
Foreign Language Tead ng Reform
国際理解に関する学習の一環 としての外国語会話等 を行 うときは ,学 校の実態等に
応 じ
,児童が外国語に触れた り
,外国の生活や文化などに憤れ親 しんだ りするなど小 学校段階にふさわしい体験的な学習が行われるようにすること。
In the case that foreign language conversation activities are conducted as a part of international understanding studies,schools,based upon heir own situa‐
tions and circumstances,should involve children in experiential learning activi―
ties and seek to expose them to foreign language and falniliarize them、 vith foreign life and culture,etc,,in、 vays that are appropriate to the elementary school level,(MEttR 1998,my translation)
During the second‐ half of 2007,draft oudines of changes to the Course of Study for the expected 2008 revislon have emphasized the importance oflanguage,both flrst and second,in the school curiculum (WIEXT,2007).As a result,it appears likely hat a new suttect Will be created,tentat
ely tidedForeign Language Activiies,"for com―
pulsory once― a‐ 、 veek(35 hours annua■ y)English/foreign language study for flfth and
sixth‐
graders beginning in 2011,The introduction of English as an offlcial area of study in all」 apanese elementary schools was included in the WIEXT̀̀Japanese with Englsh Abilities"( 2を「ο
gαサ
S,乃α 9′
"れ 'ん ο巧′れ ")Action Plan of 2003(WEES,2003b;
2003c).
As was noted above,the formal introduction of English in elementary schools may be viewed as the latest attempt to reform language teaching in the country.After a reading of Smith and lmura(2004),which descttbes a series of past failures at reforln
(relate tO stated otteCiVes),it is easy to feel less than wholly optimistic regarding the potential lbr successful reform.Regardless,it is clear that the aiins and focus of elementary school English education are developing positive attitudes to inauence lan‐
guage learning lnotivation at later stages of language education,and ultixnatelぁ
will‐ingness to co■ 1lnunicate(viz.Kanamori 2004,2005;Kumogi Sh6gakk6,2006 as
examples).As a result(and nOt insigniFlcantly,out of necessity,glven the lack of proFl‐
ciency and training among hOmerooni teachers who are expected to be responsible for insttuction),classrOom expettences emphasize posit e(e oyable)act
ities which ide―a■
y include the participation of ALT/English― speaking guest visitorso While there is cause for concern that e苅 oyment be the primary criteria for learning act ities,仏ere is some suggestion hat short― term enioyment may lead to more enduring mot 前
ion.For example,Hidi and Harackiewics(2000,cited in Nishino,2007)report a positive
in■
uence of situational xx30tiVation(related to the pleasure of the inilnediate learning
activity)later in■uencing longer― term intrinsic lnotivation among learners engaged in reading activities.Longitudinal studies will be necessary to detern ne whether such an approach,which attempts to inauence learner attitude and lnotivation,and as a result,willingness to conl14uniCate,is effective in the long run in improving the over―
all quality oflanguage learning over the course of formal education.At the same tilne,
―‑ 85 ‑―
S崩 れαれっe」0,′々α,oFPOJラリ
Sサ
レJres Vol 15(Marcl■ 2008)potential pitfalls and problematic areas(such as the quality ofinput and actual learning of language/coHHnunication itselつ Inust also be acknowledged and dealt with appropriately.
4. Discussion&Conclusion
As should be clear from the preceding,fronl a curricular perspective,instilling in
」 apanese learners a willingness to coHlllnunicate in a foreign language has become a main focus in he country's language education,in ttct if not necessa ly in name.The introduction of English education aciviies in the elementary school will coninue and strengthen this trend.To what effect,remains to be seen.Research on WTC has come to emphasize the importance oflearner attitudes,motivation,and selttconfldence,The question remains how lnight these be operationahzed for instruction and ettectively nurtured?
In addition,or as a supplement to regular school instruction,both educators and researchers,particularly at higher levels of the educational systen■ ,need to be con‐
cerned with building upon or enhancing learning and student experiences.For exa■
1‑ple, as a starting point we may ask how 、 ve ■ light diagnose willingness to COHlXnuniCate as well as further investigate it as a construct.A survey of existing instruments(questionnaires,etc,)and the development of supplemental ones、 70uld thus be in order.Secondly,should student development of willingness tO cOnl14uniCate be only a long‐terHl gOa1 0flanguage education,o4Hlight short― term training alsO be an option in foreign language instruction?If so,what kind of targeted and intensive training mttnt be developed?At what level might it be apprOpttate?Speciicall勇 how
■light the xnotivations and selttconfldence■ sted in Figure 2 above be targeted for and ilnplemented in instructio14/training?
On a inal note,it lnust kept in lnind that the development oflearner conllnunica―
tive(Inguistic,pragmatic,discourse)competence should remain an important gOal in language instruction as it clearly can contribute to learner selttconrldence and,as a result,WTC. Although lnuch、 vork still needs to be done along the lines lnentioned here,the concept of WTC appears to offer a satisfying explanation of current trends in English language education in」 apan as well as loundation for further curriculum development and research,so that we may perhaps be guardedly optimistic about cur―
rent reforms and the future ofthe country's second language education.
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Key words:willingness to coHllnunicate,foreign language teaching refornl, elementary English education,Course of Study
(Sean A,WHITE)
―‑ 88‑―