Title
CULTURAL CONFLICT OF JAPANESE MANAGERS IN
THE UNITED STATES
Author(s)
Uza, Tokuyu
Citation
沖縄短大論叢 = OKINAWA TANDAI RONSO, 9(1): 61-75
Issue Date
1995-03-01
URL
http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12001/10665
MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
APPLIED TO CULTURAL CONFLICT OF
JAPANESE MANAGERS IN THE UNITED STATES
Tokuyu Uza
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
I • A DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
II. ANALYSIS AND SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM a. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
b. Lack of Knowledge About American Culture c. Prepare Their Children for the Arduous Entrance
Examinations at Japanese Universities d. Responsibility as a Japanese Father e. Keep Contact With Former boss in Japan III. CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
Every country has its own cultural differences. To understand this difference in culture is a puzzlement and frustration to people when and if they do not know how to manage the situation.
To live in a different culture productively is like going through a maze without going back and forth. It may take time to find out which way is closer and easier, but once one finds on easy path, understands the rules, directions, and angles to get though the maze one will develop a thorough understanding of the maze. There are many things one ought to know when living in a foreign country. In this paper, we shall analyze Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theroy and applied to cultural conflicts of Japanese managers in the United States.
I. A Description of the Problem
Japanese executives who live in the United States love America's less expensive food, big houses, and great golf courses. Nevertheless, among those Japanese executives there are shadows following them. They have to adjust to different cultural behavior and pay a stiff price when they return home to Japan. The problem is caused by their fear of returning to Japan and an uncertainty of fitting back into the society. The Japanese executives must learn to adjust to American cultural behavior whether they live in New York City, Atlanta, or Washington Court House, Ohio (pop. 12,700). More important, and more defficult, perhaps, they must preserve their Japanese character in order to fit back into Japan's homogeneous society. They also worry about not only themselves but also their children's educa-tion and their children's ability to compete in Japan's school system. This worry overshadows Japanese in the U.S. This apprehension isolates them from Americans. It sometimes diminishes their performance as managers
MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY APPLIED TO CULTURAL CONFLICT OF JAPANESE MANAGERS IN THE UNITED STATES
and it produces huge changes in their family lives. If these managers continue to think and act according to the terms of Japanese logic, they will not be able to perform efficiently in an American business setting. When Japanese bosses go off to restaurants or bars with their intentions to talk over the day's events, share gossip from Tokyo, and develop a team spirit, few Americans join in. "The Americans would rather be home with their wives and kids," says an American who works at Japanese company in New Jersey. "But important business is done at these get-togethers. Consensus is built and subtle information is exchanged. At the staff meeting the next day, the Japanese managers might unwittingly raise a point that was discussed the night before, then criticize the Americans for not being aware of what's going on" (O'Reilly Brian. "Fortune Magazine," p.245-264).
II. Analysis and Solution of the Problem
In this case, the problem is Japanese excutives who practiced the Japanese way of business in a different cultural context. Which was caused by their lack of knowledge of the United States' culture and motivaton. The problem cannot be solved just by acculturating the Japanese executiv, because there is more than just a lack of knowledge and motivation. There is the fear of security. This fear of security is not merely being secure in the United States, it is the security of whether they will be accepted by their peers when they return to Japan.
Unconsciously, this fear is their primary concern rather than their business in the United States. Consequently, a lot of Japanese executives are focusing on the cycle of migration and preparing for their return. When they focus on the cycle of migration they can minimize the change within themselves. Other possible problems are: being dogmatic toward the work system; the language barrier; worry about an education good enough to prepare their children for the competitive entrance examinations at
Japanese high school or universities; their responsibility as a Japanese father; and the obligation of informing their current or former boss.
a. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
Maslow describes a hierarchy of needs (1968), meaning that each individual has their own range of needs from low-level to hight-level desires. The most fundamental need was described as physiological, for example, the need for daily food and water. The second, most basic level is the need for protection from bodily harm. At the third level, Maslow describes the need for belonging, friendship, and affection in social context. And at the fourth level, he outlines the need for positive evaluation of both one's self and others. Finally at the top of Maslow's hierarchy was the need to be self-actualized. Unconsciously, most people use Maslow's hierarchy as part of their every-day conversation, describing themselves in terms of their need for lunch all the way to their need for self-actualization.
The conflict within the Japanese executives can be perceived by Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory is the basic idea that, "people have certain fundamental needs and that people are motivated to engage in behavior that will lead to the satisfaction of those needs" (Arnold and Feldman. p.52). In relations to the Japanese executives' case, their primary need is to keep their Japanese character in order to fit back into Japan's homogeneous society when they return to Japan. The Japanese executives' needs are not materialistic needs but mean tal and psychological enhancement needs to feel confident that they will be accepted when they return to their home country. According to Cummings, Long, and Lewis (1987)," ... what is important here is that these needs are internal, mental states, and they are motivating (see Figure 1), making motivation function of the individual's achievement or satisfaction of those needs." Furthermore, they said "One person, motivated by different needs
~IASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY APPLIED TO CULTURAL CO~FLICT OF JAPANESE MANAGERS li\ THE UNITED STATES
from others, would communicate different from others because of the differences in motivational patterns" (p.228).
Figure 1
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
;S~
ACTUALIZATION (A
chievi~g
one's full~otential)
j'
NEED FOR \ESTEEM AND SELF-ESTEEM
I \
(Respect from self and others)
!'
SOCIAL NEEDS ' \(Belongingness, friendship, and affection)
NEED FOR SAFETY
(Security, protection from physical harm)
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS (Surivival, hunger, thirst, sex)
Japanese executives' "physiological needs" are met more than enough. However, their "need for safety" which are physical and psychological safety from external threats to their well-being are not meL Japanese executives have to live with the constant fear that they must not lose their Japanese character and they are losing their Japanese identity. This concern will imperil their freedom of leving and limit their behavior.
Japanese executives' "social needs" for the company and companionship of other people and their need for a sense of personal belongingness are lacking, because while they are in the United States, their coworkers in Japan are meeting with their boss informally in daily social gatherings. Important personal and business relations develop between worker and boss at these social gatherings. The Japanese executive in the United States is losing an opportunity to develop these important relations which may ultimately affect his own career. According to a former Mitsui executive, their sense of self-esteem and a feeling of self-worth are also lacking. He expresses the reasons as follow:
Twenty years ago, when Japan was desperately trying to assert itself in world markets, only the most promising businessmen went overseas. To be selected was a high honor. These days, when most executives can afford to travel for pleasure and even average salarymen get sent abroad to work, an overseas assignment is viewed much defferently. 'Now all I hear is what a disruption it is to come here,' says Simon Shima, a Japanese-born executive at Coldwell Banker in Los Angeles. Few Japanese turn down a request to relocate abroad, fearing with justification, that to do so could hurt their careers. (O'Reilly; p.246)
Because of the reasons noted above, those Japanese executives who are now sent to the United States in comparison to the past are uncertain whether they were selected because of outstanding or average performance. This kind of anxiety will lead them to have low self-esteem.
"Self-actualization needs" is the highest level in the Maslow's hierarchy and comprises needs for personal growth, for the fulfillment associated with
MASLOW'S liEED HIERARCHY THEORY APPLIED TO CULTURAL CONFLICT OF JAPANESE MANAGERS IN THE UNITED STATES
the realization of all of one's capabilities. According to the principles introduced by Maslow's theory, the Japanese executives cannot fulfill their need for growth since they must first fulfill self-esteem, belongingness, and safety needs.
In order for Japanese executives in the United States to have self-actualization, they need to build a bridge from physiological needs to self-actualization. Those bridges can be made out of three factors: safety needs, belongingness/social needs, and self-esteem needs. Among these three factors, the most important thing is self-esteem needs, because when and if one could give his colleague high self-esteem, his belongingness and safety will just follow. When self-esteem goes up that means he knows he is a part of the company and he will feel comfortable when he returns to Japan. Consequently, he will perform well on his project in the United States. If his colleagues continue to accept him and not develop any prejudice because he is in a foreign country, no problems will arise in terms of anxiety. In order to establish close rapport with one's employees and colleagues, the boss in Japan should encourage him in a positive manner rather than a negative manner. The boss must provide time for them to talk about what is going on in the United States, which means an open channel of communication must be available. This is an important elements of a team building strategy. Andrews and Baird said:
Listening is difficult. It takes time and energy and a real desire to hear what the other person is trying say, whether or not that person is a skilled communicator and whether or not we like what we are hearing (p.44).
Therefore, the boss in Japan should encourage others to express views that differ from his or her own so that people will feel involved in the project.
They will feel important and their self-esteem will improve.
b. Lack of Knowledge About American Culture
It is extremely important to educate not only Japanese executives but also their family before they go to the United States, especially about the culture of a target country and the basic conversations for emergencies or telephone usage. When people go to the United States wihtout knowing English language and live there for three months, usually will be able to communicate their needs to others. The wife of a Japanese executive went to the United States unprepared and subsequently the following incident occurred:
A wife of a Japanese trade official arrived from Tokyo to her new home in Pasadena. She was alone the next evening when people in grotesque clothes and face paint began ringing her doorbell. Frightend and unable to speak English, she slammed the door, but the ringing kept up for most of the evening. The Japanese do not celebrate Halloween (O'Reilly; p.246).
The wife's lack of knowledge about basic American culture eventually created this horrific incident. Although each culture has its own unusual customs, cultures are not either right or wrong, nor better or worse, they are just defferent from each culture. Every nationality thinks its culture is the best and the people tend to be ethnocentric. Cultures are complex and create a confusion of behaviors, but there are patterns, and one can begin to understand them by considering the different history, customs, and religions of the cultures of the world. There are ten ways to prepare for the overseas assignment according to Copeland and Griggs;
MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY APPLIED TO CULTURAL CONFLICT OF JAPANESE MANAGERS IN THE UNITED STATES
1. Read and learn about the culture. 2. Learn the language.
3. Study maps.
4. Practice the currency. 5. Learn measurements.
6. Meet someone from the country. 7. Talk to someone who has been there. 8. Prepare as a family.
9. Arrange good-byes.
10. Take what you need to make a home. (Copeland and Griggs, p.207).
Before leaving Japan, they should have known at least those ten listed on the above plus local rituals, events, non-verbal cues, value system, and other activities or rules which are different from Japanese. Otherwise, they may experience extreme culture shock.
It is important to know that the processes of communication remain the same across cultures; the differences are context of the communication.
c. Prepare Their Children for the Arduous Entrance Examinations at Japanese Universities
The parents who have children in a middle school or in a high school are worried about their children's entrance examinations for a high school or university in Japan. In Japan, children study most of their childhood in order to enter a reputable university so that they will have a promising future. When and if they cannot enter one of the famous universities sometimes they are considered as a failure and they have not only embarras-sed themselves but also they have embarrasembarras-sed their family. Therefore, the parents will make sure that their children are getting a proper and adequate
education to pass the Japanese high school or university's entrance exami-nations. The parents will do whatever is best for their children, but they do not know how to give a good education to their children in the United States. There is no intensive academic atmosphere in the United States so their children will not be motevated to study, and it is difficult to get current information about the entrance examinations in Japan. Parents get frus-trated about their children's future and it will cause friction in their family. Some Japanese families in the United States are forbidden to speak English at home in order to keep their children's Japanese language skills sharp. When something is prohibited even though it is not bad it will lead to frustration and those who are trying to enforce the rule will be aggressive. Consequently, a family conflict will develop. A Japanese executive said;
'If children stay too long in the United States, 'he says,' even at home they start speking English with their brothers and sister.' He fears he will have to send his wife and children back to Japan before it is too late (O'Reilly; p.258).
When and if he sends his family back to Japan, all the problems will be solved in the United States, but again he needs to worry about the family in Japan. When a person is in multiple crisis at the same time, probably a monochronic person will panic more than a polychronic person. Therefore, it is better to notify them that there are several methods of solving problems, and ways of approaching them. The individual should use the method which they feel comfortable with in managing their crisis.
When and if they are worried about their children entering a well known university in Japan. they should consider leaving their children in Japan. If they are old enough to take the university entrance examinations, they should be old enough to be independent emotionally and physically.
MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY APPLIED TO CULTURAL CONFLICT OF JAPANESE MANAGERS IN THE UNITED STATES
Furthermore, if their children were looking forward to getting into a famous university they are usually outstanding students both in an academic sense and in a mature sense, so their parents do not have to worry about any behavioral problems. From another perspective, they should consider entering into a reputable American university instead of a Japanese university. Parents need to understand that there are several options for their children. They need to think synergistically in order to overcome the variety of problems that may arise in the United States. The company needs to consider the individual's family in the selection process in order to reduce conflict and increase performance of its worker in the United States.
d. Responsibility as a Japanese Father
Japanese focus on the father as the most important role in the Japanese family. It is his responsibility for his children's behavior so again he needs to make sure his children are learning high morals; especially his daughters. Most Japanese parents are content to see their daughters become good housewives; they are under less pressure to be admitted to a respectable university. But they, too, pay a price for living in the United States. "A thoroughly Westernized daughter may have trouble attracting a Japanese husband" (O'Reilly, p.258). Therefore, Japanese executives also need to worry about how their daughters will grow up and behave and they need to teach their daughters Japanese concepts and behaviors while living in America. Subsequently, it may be difficult for the father to influence their daughter's behavioral development since the people around them are mostly Americans and they behave differently from Japanese. It is difficult to tell one's children how to behave while they are in an environment that exhibits different behavior. The best way to keep their daughters or sons from being "Westernized" is to have them study some form of strict Japanese art, for
instance, Aikido, Karate, Kenndo, Judo, Kado (flower arrangement), Sado (tea ceremony), Shodo(Japanese calligraphy), and other Japanese arts that will teach true Japanese philosophy and discipline. They need to search diligently for a good Master because it is difficult to find a good Master with true Japanese philosophy and discipline. If they do not find the right instructor it will simply be "Westernized" Japanese arts.
e. Keep Contact With Former Boss in Japan
Japanese executives who go to the United States will usually stay there for four years straight until they are able to return to Japan. Four years is a very long period of time to keep in touch with friends or former boss with letters or on the telephone. As a result, their contact will get less and less every year. Than a fear of belongingness will develop. They begin to worry about the decline in personal and social development with the boss due to years of isolation and its eventual impact on their career. The Japanese executives will feel like they were rejected already before they go back to Japan, even though it may not be true. "Many returning Japanese feel as if they are being ostracized. Japan is such a homogeneous society that it rejects anyone out of the ordinary" (O'Reilly, p.254). Therefore, Japanese executives in the United States cannot write a letter nor call the former boss so often because to write a letter or call him on the phone creates a subconscious reinforcement that this individual is from an out-group. The best way to keep contact with their former boss is to invite him to the United States for a pleasure trip or to show him what they are doing in the United States. It is obvious that if a person were invited overseas to do anything for a very short period it would give a good impression to others in Japan. The boss that visits the United States will undoubtedly talk about Japanese executive in America to his subordinates and other bosses in Japan. Japanese executives should invite their bosss from Japan for a visit
MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY APPLIED TO CULTURAL CONFLICT OF JAPAfiESE ~IANAGERS lfi THE UNITED STATES
to the United States at least every other year. These invitaions will build trust and rapport between the former boss and the Japanese executives in the United States. The main point is to keep the boss or former boss' attention as much as one can and let them know and show them what you can do and your plans for the future. Japanese executives in America should be periodically informed about the progress and plans of the com-pany in Japan.
III. Conclusion
The problem of the Japanese executives in the United States is caused by the fear that they will not be accepted by the people back home when they return to Japan. This may unconsciously affect their performance as managers in the United States. They need some kind of constant positive response from Japan so that they will feel secure and have a sense of belongingness to other Japanese in Japan. They need to have a basic understanding of American culture and the English language. The lack of preparation will cause culture shock and other emotional problems. Worry about an adequate education for their children is another serious problem. There are several alternatives for them. They may enter one of the well known universities in the United States, or leave the children in Japan if they are old enough. Responsibility as a Japanese father is a serious concern. They must maintain contact with their own or former bosses. They must be creative in order to maintain the relationship with the bosses in Japan. It is important to keep the boss' interest in them.
It is extremely important for the company to choose individuals that will be able to adapt to environmental cultural variations. The individual should be truly interested in relocating, be fluent in the target language and have the ability to perform adequately in a company in America.
References
Andrews Patricia H., and Baird John E. Jr. Communication for Business and the Professions. Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1986.
Arnold Hugh ]., and Feldman Daniel C. Organizational Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1986.
Asante Molefi K., and Gudykunst William B. Handbook of International and Intercultural Communication. Newbury Park: SAGE Publication, 1989.
Chesanow Neil. The World-Class Executive. New York: Rawson Associ-ates, 1985.
Copeland Lennie and Griggs Lewis. Going International. New York: Random House, 1985
Corey Gerald. Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1991.
Cummings H. Wayland, Long larry W., and Lewis Michael L. Managing Communication in Organizations: An Introduction. Arizona: Gorsuch Scarisbrick, Publishers, 1987.
Dyer W. Gibb Jr. Cultural Change in Family Firms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Gudykunst William B., Stewart LeaP., and Ting-Toomey Stella. Communi-cation Culture, and Organizational Processes. Beverly Hiss: SAGE Publications, 1985.
Harris Philip R., and Moran Robert T. Managing Culatural Differences. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1991.
Laborde Genie Z. Influencing With Integrity. California: Syntony Publishing, 1987.
O'Reilly Brian. "Fortune". April 25, 1988. p.245-264.
MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY APPLIED TO CULTURAL CO!IFLICT OF JAWiESE J!AiiAGERS 11i THE UXITED STATES
1985.
Tilanus C. B., De Gans 0. B., and Lenstra]. K. Quantitative Methods in Management. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1983.
