Impact of Structural Adjustment on Indian Education

Impact of Structural Adjustment on Indian Education

著者 Balatchandirane G.

journal or

publication title

金沢大学経済学部論集 = Economic Review of Kanazawa University

volume 21

number 1

page range 197‑227

year 2001‑01‑18

URL http://hdl.handle.net/2297/24595

lmpactofStrucmralAdjustment

onIndianEducation

Ｇ、Balatchandirane

``Ｉｓａｙｗｉｔｈｏｕｔｆｂａｒｏｆｍｙｆｉｇｕ肥sbeingchallcngcdsucccssfiJlly，thattodaylndia ismoreilliterateｔｈａｎｉｔｗａｓｆｉｎｙｏｒａｈｕｎｄｒｅｄｙｅａｒｓａgo，ａｎｄｓｏｉｓＢｕｒｍａ，ｂｃ－

ｃａｕｓｅｔｈｅＢ耐tishadministTators，ｗｈｃｎｔｈｃｙｃａｍｅｔｏｌｍｄｉａ，insteadoftakingboId ofthingsastheywere，ｂｅｇａｎｔｏｒｏｏｌＩｈｃｍｏｕｔ･Theyscratchedthesoilandbegam tolookattheroot，ａｎｄｌｅｆｔｔｈｃｒｏｏｔｌｉｋｃｔｈａｔ０ａndthebeautifilItreeperished、The

viIIageschoolswercnotgoodcnoughfbrthcBri【ishadministmtor，ｓｏｈｅｃａｍｃ

ｏｕｔｗｉｔｈｈｉｓｐｒｏｇＴａｍｍｅ・EveryscbooImusthavcsomuchparaphemaIia，building，

ａｎｄｓｏｆｂｒｌｈＷｅⅡ，ｔｈｃｒｅｗｃｒｃｎｏｓｕｃｈｓｃｈｏｏｌｓａｌａｌＩ．…ancientschoolshavegonc

bythcbCard，becausetherewasnorccognitionlbrtheseschools，andthescbooIs

establishedafiertheEuropeanpattemwerctooexpensivefbrthepeople，and thercfbrctheycouldnotpossibIyovc仇akclhethingldeIyanybodytofillＩｉｌａ ｐＴｏｇｒａｍｍｅｏｆｃｏｍｐｕｌｓｏｌｙｐｎｍarycducationofthcsemassesinsidcofacentury・

ThisverypooTcountryofmincisillablctosustainsuchanexpcnsivemcthod ofeducation，OurStatewouldrcvivcthcoldviuagcschooImasteranddotcvcIy

vilIagewithaschoolbothlbrboysandgirls,，,

-MahatmaGandhi

AtCllallMImHouse，London，２００ctober，1931《'１

llntroduction

lndiahadbeenpursuingeconomicpoliciesthatwereinwardlookingunder acentralizedplanningsempfbraboutfburdecadestilll99LThesepolicies tendedtoholdbackalotofpotentialgTowthintheeconomy、Anearcrisis situationinmid-1991fbrcedthegovcmmenttodrasticallyalterthebasic economicphilosophyitwasemployingtillthenThefbreignexchange

－１９７－

金沢大学経済学部論集第21巻第１号２００１．１

reservespositioninlndiahadshrumkquitelowandwasenoughtocoverjust twoweeksofimports，Growthwasnegativeandinflationwasrisingalarm- ingly・Thebalanceofpaymentssimationwasunmanageableandfbrthefirst tiｍｅｔｈｅｒｅｗａｓａｒｅａｌｄａｎｇｅｒｏｆｈｌｄｉａｄｅfaultingonitsexternaldebtobliga- ti０，s・TheproximatecauseofthissituationwasthefiscalproHigacyandthe mismanagementoftheeconomyinthcearlierdccadeThecrisisofl9911ed toashiftinfavorofapro-growth，malket-orientedpolicythatopenedthe economytofbreigndirectinvestmentandfiPeedtheindustryfiPomtheearlier licensingsystem・TheNewEconomicPolicy，whichreferstothesetofeco-

nomiｃにfbnnsmitiatedatthistimc,werereflectiveofthe‘adjustmentpoli‐

cies，thatareassociatedwiththeWorldBankandthelnternationalMonetan／

FundandwhichwereimplementedaroｕｎｄｔｈｉｓｔｉｍｅｉｎｗｅｌｌｏｖｅｒｌＯＯｃｏｕｎ‐

triＣｓ・

Thesepolicies，whilequestioningthedominantrolｅｏｆｔｂｅＳｔａｔｅ，promote theunbridledroleofthemarketasthearbiterofdevelopment・ＴｈｅｒＣｓｕｌｔｉｓ ａｓｔｅｅｐｆｔｌｌｌｉｎｔｈｅｐublicsubsidies，includingthoseaimedateducation．Ｔｈｅ ｐｕｂｌｉｃｐｏｓｍｒｉｎｇｏｆｔｈｅＳｔａｔｅｉｓｔｈatthereisapositivelinkagebetweenthe processofeconomicliberalizationandprimaryeducation・Ｉｎｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｍｉ－

ｌｉｅｕｏｆａｎｅｏ－ｌｉbcraleconomicsemp，thislinkageimpliesareducedrolefbr theStateandanincreasedemphasisonthefimctioningofthemarket、Ｔｈｉｓ explainstheriseofprivatizationalongwithadecreaseinStateexpcndimre inrealterms，inbothhigherandelementaryeducation.(2)

Interestingimplicationshavebeenarrivedatinrecentresearchwhichhas studiedboththeadjustingandnon-adjustingcountriestoseethcirimpacton educationaldevelopment、First，whilemvcstmentsineducationdonoｔｒｉｓｅ ｗｈentheeconomyisdoingwell，theydeflnitelyfallwhenthe輝ｉｓａｄｏｗｎ－

ｍｍ,asduringlheadjustmentperiods､Sccondly,thetrade-offthatfbllowsis undcsirableThequalityofeducationgetssacrificedfbrquantitativeexpan- sion，equityconsiderationsarcgivenupfbrquantitativeexpansion，invest‐

mentprioritiesshiftfmmmasseducationprogramstohighercducation

－１９８－

ImpactofStmctuInIAdjustmentonlndianEducation （パラチャンディラン）

Tablenol

LlTERACYRATES1991-RURALANDURBANMALEANDFEMALE

（percentages）

Ｒｅ二Ｄｑ－ＩｒｃｅＤｅｖｅＩｏｎｍ色ｎｆｌＱＱＱ・１Ｃ

Note：Ｃｅｎｓｕｓｗａｓｎｏｔｃｏｎｄｕｃｔｅｄｉｎｌ９８１ｉｎＡｓｓａｍａｎｄｉｎｌ９９１ｉｎ

ＪａｍｍｕａｎｄＫａｓｈｍｉｒ．

ftworingtherelativelywell-offscctionsofsociety，ａｎｄｉｎｒｅａｌｔｅｒｍｓｔｈｅｒｅｉｓ ａｄｅｃｌｉｎｅｉnpub1icinvestmentsmeducationThildly，waysandmeansof fimdingeducation，whichwouldhavebeenfiPownedupon，iftheeconomy hadbeenmpinkhealth，gctsanctified・Thereisaclearassociationbetwecn intenseadjustmentpoliciesandafhllineducationaldevelopment.《3：

－１９９－

Source:MinistryofHumanResourceDeveIopmentl9g9：１９

STATE ＲＵＲＡＬ

Ｍａｌｅ Ｆｅｍ２Ｉｅ ＰＰ｢=⑥nｓ

UＲＢＡＮ Ｍａｌｅ F⑱､迫U② per＆０，ｓ

TＯｍｎｂＬ Ｍａｌｅ Fem21② Persons Andhra

PradeSh

4７ 2４ 3６ 7６ 5６ ６６ 5５ ３３ ４４

Arunachal P｢adesh

4７ 2５ 3７ 7８ ６２ 7２ ５１ 3０ 4２

Assam 5９ 3９ 4９ 8４ ７３ ７９ 6２ 4３ 5３

BIhar 4８ 1８ 3４ ７８ 5６ ６８ 5２ 2３ 3８

ｅｏ２ 8２ ６３ 7２ 8６ ７３ 8０ 8４ 6７ 7６

Guia｢aｔ 6７ 3９ 5３ ８５ ６８ ７７ 7３ 4９ ６１

Ｈａ｢yana 6５ 3３ 5０ ８２ 6４ 7４ 6９ 4０ 5６

Himachal Pradesh

7４ 5０ 6２ ８９ ７８ ８４ 7５ 5２ 6４

Ｊａｍｍｕ＆

Kashmir

０ ０ ０ 0 0 ０ ０ 0 0

Kamataka 6０ 3５ 48 8２ 6６ 7４ 6７ 4４ 5６

Ｋｅ｢aIa 9３ 8５ 8９ 9６ 8９ 9２ 9４ 8６ 9０

Madhya Pradesh

5１ 2０ 3６ ８１ 5９ ７１ 5８ 2９ 4４

Maharashtra 7０ ４１ 5６ 8６ ７１ 7９ 7７ 5２ 6５

Manipur 6８ 4３ 5６ ８２ 5９ 7１ 7２ 4８ 6０

MeghaIaya 4５ 3７ 4１ 8６ 7７ 8２ 5３ 4５ 4９

Mizoram 7７ 6７ 7２ ９５ 9２ 9３ 8６ 79 8２

NagaIand 6３ 5０ 5７ ８６ 7９ 8３ ６８ 5５ 6２

OnSSa 6０ 3１ ４５ ８１ ６１ 7２ ６３ 3５ 4９

Puniab 6１ ４４ 5３ 7７ 6６ 7２ ６６ 5０ 5９

Rajasthan 4８ 1２ 3０ 7９ 5０ 6５ ５５ ２０ 3９

Sikkim ６３ ４４ ５４ 8５ 7５ 8１ ６６ ４７ 5７

TamjlNadu ６７ ４２ 5５ 8６ 7０ 7８ ７４ ５１ ６３

TrIpura ６７ ４４ 5６ 8９ 7７ 8３ ７１ ５０ ６０

UttarPradesh ５２ 1９ ３７ 7０ 5０ ６１ 5６ ２５ 4２

WestBenqal 6２ ３８ ５１ 8１ ６８ 7５ ６８ ４７ ５８

Ａ＆NlsIands 7６ ６２ 7０ 8７ 7５ 8２ ７９ ６５ ７３

Chandiqarh ６６ ４８ 5９ 8４ 7５ 8０ 8２ 7２ ７８

、＆NHave1i 5０ ２３ ３７ 8６ ６８ 78 5４ 2７ ４１

Ｄａｍａ、＆Ｄｉｕ ７５ ４７ 6２ 9１ 7２ B２ 8３ 5９ ７１

Delhl 7８ 5２ ６７ B２ ６７ 7６ 8２ 6７ ７５

LakShwadeep Ｂ９ 6９ 7９ 9１ ７６ ８４ ９０ 7３ 8２

Pondicher｢ｙ ^{7６ 5４ 6５ 8８} ７２ ８０ 8４ 6６ ７５

ＩＮＤＩＡ 5８ ３１ 4５ 8１ ６４ ７３ 6４ 3９ 5２

金沢大学経済学部諭集第21巻第１号２００１．１ TablenQ2

LlTERACYRATES1997-RURALANDURBANMALEANDFEMALE

（percontages）

Source：Minist｢ｙofHumanResourceDevelopmentl999：２０Ｔｈｅ

o｢iginalsourceisthe53｢dRoundoftheNationalStatisticalSurvey．

ｌｎｔｈｉｓａｒｔｉｃｌｅｗｅｆｂｃｕｓｏｎｃｃｒｔａｉｎｃriticalareasoflndianeducationaｎｄａｔ－

ｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｓｅｅｗｈａｔｈａｐｐｅｎｅｄｔｏtheseareasduringtheperiodofthestructural adjustmentpolicicsstartingfiPomtI1cearlyl990s,usmgliteracyratesasthe representativequantitativemanifbstatioｎｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｒｅａｄｏｆｅｌｅｍｅntaryeduca- tionTableno､１givesthcdetailedbreakupofmaleandfemaleliteracyrates

inbothrurａｌａｎｄｕｒｂａｎａｒｅａｓｉｎａｌｌｔｈｅｓｔａｔｃｓｏflndia、Ｗｃｃａｎｕｓｅｔｈｉｓａｓ

ａｂｅｎｃｈｍａｒｋａｎｄｃｏｍpareitwithTableno2whichgivescomparablcfig- uresfbrl997，ｔｈｃｌａｔｅｓｔｙｅａｒｆｂｒｗｈｉｃｈｄａｔａｉｓａｖａilablc・Ｔｈｉｓｇｉｖｅｓｕｓａ、

ｉｄｅａｏｎｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｒｅａｄｏｆIitcracyinalltheregionsoflndiaｉｎ

－２００－

ＳＴＡＴＥ

ＲＵＲＡＬ Ｍａｌｅ Ｆｅｍａｌｅ Person巳

UＲＢＡＮ Male FGqT理!⑨ ＰＧＤｒ臣､nｓ

ＣＯＭＢＯＮＥＤ Ｍａｌｅ FFnTｮIＰ PerS⑪ｎｓ

Andh｢ａＰ｢adesh 5７ 3５ 4６ 841 ６９ ７７ ６４ 4３ 541

ArunachaIPradesh 6７ 4５ 5８ 8６ ７３ ８１ ６９ 4８ 6０

Ａｇ霊、 Ｂ１ ６３ ７３ 9２ ８５ 8９ ８２ 6６ 7５

Ｂｌｈａ「 5９ ３０ 4５ 8４ ６４ 7５ ６２ 3｣Ｉ 4９

Ｇｏａ 9５ 7５ ８６ ９１ B２ 8６ 9３ 7９ 8６

Guia厄１ 7ヨ 4７ ６１ ９１ 7４ 8２ ８０ 5７ 6８

Ｈａ｢vanａ ７１ 4５ ５９ 8８ 69 ７９ 7６ 5２ 6５

HlmachaIPr2d②色ｈ 8６ 6９ 7６ 9５ 8５ 9０ ８７ 7０ 7７

Ｊａｍｍｕ＆Ｋ臼shmir ６５ 4２ 5３ ９３ 7５ Ｂ５ ７１ 4８ 5９

Karnataka 6０ 4３ 5２ Ｂ３ 7０ 7７ ６６ 5０ 5８

Keral弓 9６ 9０ 9３ 9６ go 9３ ９６ 9０ 9ｓ

MadhvaPr＆HngEh 6４ 3２ 49 ８７ 6８ 7８ ７０ ４１ 5６

Maharashtra ７９ 5４ 6６ 9３ 7９ ８６ 8４ ６３ 7４

ManIDur ８２ 6２ 7２ 9５ 7７ ８８ 8６ 6６ 7６

MeqhalaYa ７７ 7２ 7５ ９７ 8９ ９３ 7９ 7４ 7７

MIzoram 9５ ９１ 9３ ９７ gＢ ９８ 9６ 9５ 9５

Naqaland 9０ 7２ 8１ ９３ 8７ ９０ 9１ 7７ 8４

ｏｒ'二要 6０ 3３ 4６ 8７ 6７ 7８ 6４ ３８ ５１

Puniab 6５ 5７ 6１ 8６ 7５ 8１ ７２ ６２ 6７

Raiaslhan 6ｓ 2７ 4９ 9０ 6３ 7７ 7３ ３５ 5５

SikI⑰、 B４ 7０ 7７ 9２ 8０ ８６ ８６ ７２ ７９

TamiINadu 7３ ４９ 6２ 9１ 7８ 8４ 8０ ６０ 7０

T｢ip咄｢ａ ^７６ 6４ 7０ 9６ 8５ 9１ 79 ６７ 7３

Utla「Ｐ｢adesh 6６ 3５ ５１ 8０ 6２ 7１ 6９ ４１ 5６

WestBe仇qal 7８ 5８ 6９ 9０ 7６ 8３ 8１ 6３ ７２

Ａ８ＮＩｇｌ=､&Ｓ 9４ 7４ 8５ 1００ 9５ 9７ 1００ ９＄ 9７

Chandiqa『ｈ 6８ 4２ 5９ 9４ 7７ 8６ go ７４ 8３

DaNHavelI 6３ 2５ 4５ 1００ 8５ 9３ 6６ 3０ ４９

Ｄａｍａｎ８Ｄｉｕ ^9３ 7２ 8６ 99 7４ 8７ 9５ ７３ ８６

DeIhi 1００ ６１ 8３ 9０ 7８ 8５ ９１ ７６ ８５

Lakshwadeep 9８ gZI 9６ 9８ 9０ 9４ 9８ ９３ 9６

PondicherTY 9４ 841 8９ 9３ ８７ 9０ 9４ 8６ 9０

IＮＤＩＡ 6８ ４３ 5６ 8８ 7２ 8０ 7３ 5０ 6２

ImpactofStTucturalAdjustmentonlndianEducation （パラチャンディラン）

thestrucmraladjustmentperiodAcursolyglanccatthetableswillgivethe impressionthatlndiahasnotdonetoobadlyHowever，wecontendthat lndianeducationhassuffercddurmgthestructuraladjustmcntperiodInwhat fbllows，aftcrprovidingabriefhistoricalsketchofthecolonialandthepost-

independenceperiod，ｗｅcover

LThedisparitiesinthespr℃adofcducationoverregionsandsocial

groups

２．Thefinancialaspectsofeducationlikethelowinvestmentsineduca-

tion，andthesubsidiesquestionmhighereducation

３．TheState1sindiffermcetoanddiminishingroleinthefieldofedu- cationasseenmitsabdicationofitsconstitutionalobligations，thepri-

vatizationofeducationanｄｔｈｅｐｈｅｎｏｍｅｎｏｎｏｎｆｂｒｃｉｇｎａｉｄｉｎeducation

IIBriefhistoricaIoverviewOfthecDlonialperiod

Ａｓｉｓｗｅｌｌｋｎｏｗｎ，thecolonialrulerswcreneitherenergeticnorenthusias‐

ticwhenitcametoprovidmgeducatiｏｎｔｏｔｈｅｌｎｄｉａｎｐｏｐulationThelitcr- acyratewas６３％ｉｎ1881,7.3％ｉｎｌ９１１ａｎｄ９､3％ｉｎ1931．Therulershad crCatedaclassofeducatedlndianstohelpthemadministerthecountryand feltlittlecompulsiontoproceedbcyondthat・Enlightenedlndianleadersdid

HghtfbrmasseducationButthelndianelitcwasvociferousinitsdemands andensurcdthatitsclassinterestsweretakencareofThusinstitutionsof higherleamingthattaughtthroughtｈｃｍｅｄｉｕｍｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈｃａｍｅｔｏｂｅｓｅｍｐ，

thoughthｅｃｒｙｉｎｇｎｅｅｄｏｆｔｈｅｈｏｕｒｗａｓｒａｐｉｄｓｐｒeadofliteracyandbasic educationinthcvemacular.(8)Thuswhenthelitemcyratehoveredaround 6％ｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒｈａｌｆｏｆｔｈｅｌ９ｌｈcentury，universitieswerestartedThisearly

developmentofhighereducation，ｍｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｃｔｏｔｈｅｄｅｍａｎｄｓｏｆｔｈｅｅｌｉｔe sincethelatenineteenthcentury，ｗａｓｔｏｌｅａｖｅｉｔｓｓｔａｍｐｏｎｔｈｅｇｒｏｗｔｈｏf educationinthepost-colonialperiod．

－２０１－

金沢大学経済学部諭梨第21巻第１号２００１．１

llITheprogressinthehalfcenturyafterindependence

PublicpnmaryschoolshavebeenrapidlysetupNowtherearcnearly

60qOOOoftheseschoolsalloverthecountry・The1℃areaboutl85,000sec- ondalyschoolsandaboutlOO,O0011ighschools・Thcrcarencarly7200col‐

Iegesfbrgencralcducationwhilethosefbrprofbssionalcducationnumber over2000．Universities，decmeduniversitiesandinstitutionsofnationalim-

portanceputtogetherarcaround229、Ａｓｏｆｌ９９７，overlO8millionsmdents werecnrolledingradesl-5、Over39millionwerecnrolledingradcs6-8and aboutl8millionwerecnrolledingradcs9-10、Ａｓｍａｎｙａｓ９５％ｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｉ‐

maryscboolsareavailablewithinawalkingdistanceoflkilometcr・Adult literacyrateshavcgrownfmm18％ｉｎｌ９５１ｔｏ６２％ｉｎｌ９９７，amorethan thrcefbldincreasc・ＦｅｍａｌｅｌｉｔｅｍｃｙｈａｓｓｈｏｗｎａｄｒａｍａｔｉｃｒｉｓｃｆTom９％ｔｏ

50％ｉｎｔｈｅｓａｍｃｐｅｒｉｏｄ

Ｏｎｔｈｃｎｃｇａｔｉｖｃside，ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｃ３５ｍｉllionchildrcnstilloutofschool37％

oｆａｌｌｐｒimaryschoolchildrcndropoutbcfbrereachinggradc5、Thelargcst illiteratepopulationｉｎｔｈｃｗｏｒｌｄ（424millionorabout30％oftheworld

total),whichismorethanthepopulationofNorthAmericaandJapanputto-

gcther,residesinlndiaUndiaspcndsjustabout3.5％ofitsGNPoneduca- tionAttendance，completionandqualityaremajorareasofconcem、５％of

theprimaryschoolsaremorcthanonekilometerawayffomthesmdents、

84％ｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｉｍａｒｙｓｃhoolshavenolatrmes，While58％oftheprimary schoolshavenosa化drinkingwater，４２％ofthcmhavenoplayground、８％

oftheschoolshavenobuildingandl4％aremudorthatchedhuts.…

Onefbatureoflndianeducation，whichcriesfbrattcntion，isthelow

spreadofeducationTable、０．３sllowstheattainmentsoflitcracyintheyears

l951tol99LThelatestavailablcfigurcsfbrIitcracyinlndiaarcfbundin thc53MroundoftheNationalSamplcSurvcywhichgivcsanoveTaIllitemcy rateof62％fbrthcpopulationinthe‘７yearsandabove，categoryfbrthe ycarl997・Educationpolicyinpost-indepcndencelndiahassufYbredfiPom

－２０２－

ImpactofStmcturalAdjustmentolllndianEducation （パラチャンディラン）

ＴＡＢＬＥｎｑ３

Ｌ１ＴＥＲＡＣＹＲＡＴＥＳｌＮ１ＮＤＩＡ，1951-1991

ＡＧＥ ＧＲＯＵＰ

ＯＶＥＲＡＬＬ ＭＡＬＥ ＥＭＡＬＥ ＲＵＲＡＬ ＵＲＢＡＮ

ａｎｄ ２ｂＤｖ

Sou｢Ｃｅ：Tyagi,Ｐ・Ｎ１９ｇ３:ｐ２２．

variouskindsofinconsistellciesandcontradictions、Thesewouldincludel）

confUsionofobjcctives，２）inconsistenciesbetweenstatedgoalsandactual policy，ａｎｄ３）contmdictionbetweenstatedgoaIsandrcsourceallocation

AsanofY§hootofthelastpointisthewidespreadacceptanceofchildｌａｂｏｒ ｆｂｒｂｏｙｓａｎｄｇｉｒＩｓｏｆｐｏｏｒｆｎｍｉlies，wbilethepriviIegedclasseshaveensurcd

andpemetuatedtheiraccesstoheavilysubsidizedhighereducation(6)

Thepushgiventohighereducationbytheeliteinthecolonialperiodwas accenmatedafierindependence・Theinvestmcntpattemsineducatio、ｗｅre

dictatednotbycconomiccriteriａｂｕｔｂｙｔｈｅｖｅｓｔｅｄｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｒuling

eliteandbymisconceptionsabouttherolcofeducation、Highereducation

grewatlO％perannuminthel960swhileelementalyeducationregistercd

growthraｔｅｓｉｎｔｈｃｒａｎｇｃｏｆ２-3％・丁hcIirsttwcnty-fivcycarsafterindepend－

encesawthenumbcrofuniversiticsｉｎｌｎｄｉａｇｒｏｗｂｙｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｆｂｕｒｔｉｍｃｓ anddoubleoverthenexttwenty-fiveyears・Theculmrallydominantandeco‐

nomicallystrongersectionsofsocictyexploitedtheresourcesoftbeStateto consolidatetheir画ipontheexpandingstatusapparamsｏｆｎｅｗｆｉｍｃｔｉｏｎｓａnd

OPPOrtUnitieS.(7)

－２０３－

ＹＥＡＲ ＡＧＥ ＧＲＯＵＰ

ＯＶＥＲＡＬＬ ＭＡＬＥ FＥＭＡＬＥ RＵＲＡＬ ＵＲＢＡＮ 1９５１ ５and

above

1８．３３ 27.16 8.86 1２．１０ 34.59 1９６１ ５ａｎｄ

above

28.30 40.39 1５．３３ 2２４６ 5４４３

1９７１ ５ａｎｄ above

34.45 45.95 21.97 2７８９ 6０２２

1９８１ ７ａｎｄ above

43.67 5６５０ 2９８５ 36.09 67.34 1９９１ ７ａｎｄ

above

5２２１ 6４１３ 39.29 44.69 ７３０９

金沢大学経済学部諭集第21巻第１号200Ｌ１

lVDisparitiesineducatiom

Thedisparitiesseeninlndianeducationcanbeclassifiedasthoseseen

amongvariouscastes，ａｓｔｈｏｓｃｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｕｒｂａｎａｎｄｒｕｒａｌregionsandbe- twcenthetwogenders、Thephenomenonofdisparitiescanaｌｓｏｂｃｓｅｅｎｏｎ ｔｈｅｂａｓｉｓｏｆｖａｒｉｏｕｓstates，religions，etc、HoweverconfIningoursclvestothe earlierthrcedisparitiesitselfwillgiveusagoodidcaofthehugediffbrc､‐

tiaIsineducationseenamongvarioussocialgroupsandregions、Theextreme diversityinthediffUsionofeducationalattainmentsisendemicandavery tenaciouSlyendurｉｎｇｆｂａｔｕｒｅｔｈａｔｈａｓｔｏｂｅｔａｋｅｎｉｎｔｏaccountbefbreanypol‐

icyprescriptionismade

Theliteracyratcfbrlndiainl997was62％,ｓｈｏｗｉｎｇａｊｕｍｐｏｆｌＯ％ｐｅ炉

centagepointsoverthefiguresfbr1991．However，thishidestbefactthat

theliteracyratefbrruralwomeninDadarNagarHaveliwasjust２５％ａｎｄ ｔｈａｔｆｂｒｕｒｂａｎｍａｌｅｉｎＡｎｄａｍａｎａｎdNicoba「Islandswas100％．Ｉfaperson hasaUthethreedisadvantageousattributesofbeingawoman，livingina ruralarcaandbclongingtoabackwardsocialcaste，thepicturecanbequite dismal:ｊｕｓｔ4.4％ofthcSchcduledTribewomeninthestateofRajasthan

wereliterateinl99L

1Ｖ・ICastedisparities

Thosebelongingtotheschcduledcasteandscheduledtribeclassification

havehistoricallyfeaturcdatthcbottomrungsofthecastehierarchy・Ｔｈｃｓｅ

ｗｅｒｅｔｈｅ‘`untouchables，，ａｎｄｈａｄｒｏｕｇｈｌｙｔｈｅｓａｍｅｓｔａｔｕｓａｓｅｍｏｒ

ＺｗｍＡｚｲ、j〃inJapanescsociety・Puttogethcrthesetwosocialgroupsaccount fbrclosetoafburthofthelndianpopulationTheschcduledcastescomprise aboutl6％ofthepopulationandtheschedulcdtribesabout8％、Evenafier independcncethcsesociallydisadvantagedgroupshavecominuedtohavelow accesstoeducalioｎｌｎｌ９９１，asagainstthenationalaveraｇｅｏｆ５２％literacy

rate，thatfbrthcschcduledcasteswas37％andfbrthescheduledtribesit

－２０４－

lmpactofStructuralAdjustmcntonlndianEducation （バラチャンディラン）

ｗａｓ３０％、Theproblemwithtbesedisadvantagedcastesisthatwhiletheir enrolmｅｍｍｔｅｓａｌｃｌｏｗｔｈｅｄｒｏｐｏｕｔｒａｔｅｓａｒｅhigh、７０％ofthescheduled castestudentsand８０％ofthescheduledtribestudentsdropoutbetween grades6and8

Explanationsfbrtheeducationalbackwardnessofthesesociallydisadvan‐

tagedgmupsusualIyrevolvearoundpoveIFtyandtheilliteratehomeenviron‐

ｍｅｎｔｓｌｔｈａｓｂｅｅｎｆｂｕｎｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｌｅａｍingenvironmentinthefbrma］

educationaIsystemhasalsobeenaffectingthechildrenhromthesecastes・

PoorinfiPastructurefhcilitiesandanunsympatheticsystemofpedagogytend todiscouragethcschoolingofthesechildrenTheapathetictrcatmentby teachersandschooladministratorscontributeinnosmallmeasuretotheloss ofinterestinthesechildrenTheStatc，ｗｈｉｃｈｃｏｕＩｄｂａｖｅｄｏｎｅｓｏｍｕｃｈｔｏ ａｍｅlioratelhesimation，hasbecnindiffbrent・FormaleducationpositivelyafL fbctstheawareness，ideologicaleducation，politicalconsciousnessandthe culmralacquisitionofeducationNotwithstandingvariouslimitations，ｔｈｃａｃ‐

quisitionofeducationbythesociallydisadvantagedcasteshasbeenfbundto

bcassociatcdwithpositivesocial，politicalandculturalchangesevenunder aState-sponsoredanduppercastedomimtedsystemofeducationButthe

goingwillnotbeeasywhatwiththehighercasteprejudicesandanunimagi‐

nativesystemofschooltextbooks.(8)Thestrucmraladjustmentperiodhaｓ

ｂｅｅｎｄｒｉｖｅｎｂｙｔｈｅｍａｒｋｅｔａｎｄｔｈｅｓｐecificrcquirementsofthesedisadvan- tagedsectionsofsocietymtermsofsociaUyrelcvantstudymaterialthatis sympathctictotheirrequirementsandprovisionofproperinhPastructurefbr themhasnotbeenaccordedanypriority．

1Ｖ・IIRural-urbandisparities

Therural-urbangapinliteracyratesisquitcstrikin９．１，１９９７，theurban literacyratewas80％whilcthatinthemralareaswasjust５６％・Itshould

bepointedoutthattheeconomicremmstoinvestmentineducationofrural massesarchigherthanthosefbrtheurbanworker．Thuspublicsubsidization

－２０５－

金沢大学経済学部論築第21巻第１号２００１．１

ofeducationofthcruralworkerscaｎｂｅｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｅｄｏｎｔｈｅｇｒｏｕｎｄｓｏｆｅｃｏ－

nomiccfTiciency・Ithasbeenfbundthatruralhouscboldstendtoinvestless

inthceducationoftheirchildreneitherbecausctheyfhiltorCcognizetbe bcnefitsofeducationorbecausethcycannotafYbrdtoinvcstineducationor

becauseofboth(9)

Whilelndia'sliteracyrateismucblowercomparｃｄｔｏｔｂａｔｏｆＣｈｉｎａ，the lndianstatcofKemalahasaliteracyratewhichishigherthanChina's、

Further，Kera1a1sfbmaleliteracyratcishigherthanthatofevCノッノ"divMlｨαノ plqoW"ceinChina・Thediverseperfbrmancesofthclndianstatesmeanthat

apartfmmleamingfiPomothercountrics，Ｉｎｄｉａｈａｓｍｕｃｈｔｏｌｅａｍ６ｏｍ

ｉＭ/:('0）Aboutthree-fburthsoftheout-ofLschoolchildrenareinjustsix

statesofAndhraPradcshBihar,MadhyaPradcsh，Rajasthan，UttarPradesh，

andWestBengaLGenderdisparityisasmuchas42pcrcentagepointsfbr enrolmentratesinBiharand31fbrUttarPradesh，butisonly3pementage pointsfbrKerala、AsagainstKeralaisfemaleliteracyrateof９０％，Bihar1s

figurcsarconly34％、

Oflate，ｔｈｅｓｔａｔｅｏｆＭｉｚｏｒａｍｈａｓｅｍｅｒｇｅｄａｓｔｈｅｏｎｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｅｓｔｌｉｔ－

ｅｒａｃｙｒａｔｅｉｎｌ９９７ａｔ９5％，rclegatingKerala，theerstwhileｓｈｏｗpiece，toscc- 0ndpositionwithafiguにｏｆ９３％、TheurbanliteracyratefbrMizoramｗａｓ 98％ａｎｄｔｂｃｒｕｒａｌｒａｔｅｗａｓ９３％・ＴｈｅworstperfbrmingstatewasBihar,with anoverallliteracyrateof49％・ThepoorlypcrfbrmingstatesofBihar，

MadbyaPmdeshRajasthanandUttarPradeshhavelowercdthenationalav‐

crageastheyaccountfbr40％ofthetotalpopulation．

1Ｖ､IIIGenderdisparities

Litcracyraｔｅｓａｒｅｍｕｃｈｌｏｗｅｒｆｂｒｗｏｍｅｎｔｈａｎｆｂｒｍｅｎｉｎｍｏｓｔ”gions，

IndiahasoncofthehighestgendcrgapsinliteracyratesintheworldOnly fivecountrics（Bhutan,Syria,Togo,MalawiandMozambique）haveahigher gapthanlndia・Raiasthan,whichhasthebighestgendergapinlitcracyinthc world，hasapopulationthatislargerthaｎｔｈａｔｏｆａｌｌthelWecountries

－２０６－

ImpactofStructuralAdjustmcntonIndianEducation （バラチャンディラン）

mentioned.('1）ThestatesofBihar，UttarPradeshandMadhyaPradcsharc

onlymarginallybetterthanRajasthan

Traditionally，averylowpriorityhasbccnaccordcdtowomcn1seducation

inlndia、Ｂｙｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｔｈｃｌ９ｉｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，thefemaIcliteracyratewasstiU

6eﾉＣＷＯ"cperce"'，withfbwexceptions，ineveryprovinccofBritishlndia、

ComparcdtothisstateofafYairs，theprogressinfbmaleliteracyinthe20Ih

centuryseemsapositivedevelopment、Ｂｕｔｉｔｉｓａｂｙｓｍａｌｗｈｅｎｗｅｃｏｍｐａｒｃ ｌｎｄｉａ１ｓ妃cordwithothercountrics・Inlndia，ｈａｌｆｏｆａｌｌｆｅｍａｌｅｓｉｎｔｈｅｌ５－１９

ａｇｃｇroupareilliterate，ｗｈｉｌｃｍｔｈｃｃａｓｃｏｆＣｈｉｎａｉｔｉｓｌｃｓｓｔｈａｎ１０％、There

arcoverl20districtsinlndiawhereruralfbmalelitcracyislesｓｔｈａｎｌＯｐｅｒ‐

cent､Themeanyearsofschoolingfbrfemaｌｅｓｉｎｌ９９２ｗｃ｢ｅjust1.2years asagainsta5yearsfbrmalcs、

Thereareconvincingreasonsthatexｐｌａｉｎｗｈｙｔｈｅｒｃｈａｓｂｅｅｎａｌｏｗｉｍ‐

portancegiventofemaleeducationintllesocietyandwhythiscontinuｅｓｔｏ ｂｅｓｏＦｉｒｓｔ，cxistinggcndcrdivisionofIabo「tendstolowerthcpcrccived benefitsoffbmaleeducation、Ｉｎｍｕｃｈｏｆｒｕｒａｌｌｎｄｉａ，girlsareexpectcdto spendtheirlivesindomesticworkandchildにaring、Thescbeingthesocial expectationsofthegirlchild，ｉｔｄｏｅｓｎｏＩｓｅｅｍｗｏｒｔｈｗｈｉｌｅｔｏｔｈｅｐａrcntsto investinfemaleeducation・Theimmensebenefltsthataccruethroughfbmale cducationaresomethingthatdoesnotenterintotheircalculationsSecondly，

thenormsofpatrilocalresidenccandvillageexogamywhichcxpcctｓａ ｗｏｍａｎｔｏｓｅｔｔｌｅｉｎｈｅｒｈｕｓｂａｎｄｉｓｖillageafiermarrlageactasadisincentive toparcntsoinvcstingintheirdaughtcr'seducationThebcnefitsofinvcstmcnts madcinadaughtcr'seducationar℃secntogoloadistanthouschold

ParentalselfLinterestcolorstheviewandalowvalueisassociatedwithｆｅ‐

malceducationThird，thepracticeofdowryandtheideologyof hypergamousmarriagemrngirls1educationintoaliability、Ancducatedgirl canonlymarryamoreeducatcdboy，anddowrypaymentsincreasewiththe educationofthcgmomTheSCbeingthcbasicunstatedoperativcruIesoｆｔｈｅ ｍａｍａｇｅｇａｍe，ancducatedgirlismoreexpensivctomalTyoff：Ｏｎｔｈｅ

－２０７－

金沢大学経済学部諭集第21巻第１号2001.1

otherhand，inthecaseofboys1education，ｔｈｅｐｃ1℃eptionofeducationensurと

mgbetterjobprospcctsactsasaneconomicincentive;old-agesecurityisa

secondaryconsideration

lntherecentlibemlizedmilieuofthestrucmraladjustmentperiod,general awarcnessofthemasseshasincreased；ｔｈｉｓhasresultedinthenarTowing

downoftheeducationalaspirationsbetwecnvanoussocialgroupsSoone

findｓｔｈａｔｔｈｅｒｕｒａｌｐｏｏｒｉｓｋｃｅｎｔｏｓｅｎｄｉｔｓｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎｔｏｓｃｈｏｏｌａｓｔｈｅｙｎｏ ｍｏｒｅｎｅｅｄｔｏｂｅｔｏｌｄａｂｏｕｔｔｈｅｐｏｓｉｔｉｖｅｉｍpactofeducation・Butevenmotb- ersdiscriminatelikefatherswhcnitcametoeducatingtheirsonsanddaugh-

ters、Greaterpreferenceisshownfbrsenｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｓｏｎｔｏｓｃｈｏｏｌａｎｄｔｈｅｓｏｎ ｉｓｅxpectedtospendlargernumbe「ofyearscomparedtothedaughter，In

somecommunities，ｔｈｅｍｏｒｍｓｉｍｐｌｙｉｓｔｈａｔｇｉｒｌｓｄｏｎｏｔstudy・Thoughparen- talmotivationineducatingthegirlchildislow，ofYbringqualityeducation

caninfluenceit、

Thequalityofeducationandthepropcrfimctioningoftheschoola1℃

majorfhctorsthataffbcttheparentaldecisiontosendthegirlchildtｏｓｃｈｏｏＬ

Ｉｔｉｓｎｏｗ正alizedthatoneimportantrcasonfbrthepersistenceofendemic

femaＩＣilliteracyinlndiaistbepoorfUnctioningofthcschoolingsystcm Whenparentsfindthattheschoolintheirvillageisnon-fimctionalorfimc- tionsonlypoorly，theyusuallyrespondbysendingtheirsonstosmdyin othervilIages，ortoprivateschoolsinthevillageitselfwherethefeeswould behigherbutwheresomeusefillschoolinｇｔａｋｅｓｐｌａｃｅＢｕｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅＩ℃‐

ｓｐｏｎｓｅｉｓｎｏｔｓｅｅｎｍｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆｇｉｒｌｓ，asparentshesitatetosendtheir

daughterstogooutsidethevillagc，ｏｒｔｏｐａｙｔｈｅｆｂｅｓａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈａｐri-

vatescboolThusthebreakdownofagovemmentschoolafYectsfbmalechil-

drenmorethanmalechild1℃n.('2）Ａｓｔｈｅｇｏｖｅｍｍｅｎｔｓｃhoolsaccountfbran

ovcrwhelmingmajorityofthetotaLthedeficienciesinthegovemment schoolingsystemaffbctsthcgirIchildgreatly・Ｗｈｉｌｅｉｔｉｓｅａｓｙｔｏｆｉｎｄｆｈｕｌｔ ｗｉｔｈｔｈeparentsidiscriminatoryattitudetowardstheeducationofboysand

girls，ｔｈｅｆａｉｌｕｒｅｏｆｔｌｌｅＳｔａｔｅｉｎｐ｢ovidingproperfimctioningschoolsand

－２０８－

ImpactofStmctumlAdjustmentonlndianEducation （パラチャンディラン）

qualitycquationisthemajorreasｏｎ

Ｔｈｅｍａｌｅｌｉｔｅｒａｃｙｒａｔｅｉｎｌ９９７ｗａｓ７３％whilethatfbrfemaleswasjust ５０％・ＴｈｅＨｇｕｒｅｓｆｂｒｔｈｅｙｅａｒｌ９９１ａｒｅ６４％ａｎｄ３４％rcspectivelyWhile thereisanimprovementinabsolutcterms，thegendergapinliteracyhas nalToｗｅｄｆｉＦｏｍ２５ｐｃｍｅｎｔａｇｅｐｏｉｎｔｓｔｏ２３ｐcrcentagepoints・Howeverboth inabsoluteandinrelativetermsthefemaleliteracyrateｓｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｌａｇｇｍｇ ｂｅｈｉｎｄａｎｄａｌ℃acausefbrgreatconcern、Thereisenoughintemationalcvi- dencetoshowthattheeducatiｏｎｏｆｗｏｍｅｎｉｓｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｃｒｕｃｉａｌｔｏｅｃｏnomic development；ｉｔｍｉｇｈｔｂｅｍｏｒｅｅｆｆｂｃｔｉｖｅｔｈａｎｔｈｅｒaisingofmaleliteracy rates.(I⑩Tableｎｏ､４providesthetrendsinthedisparitiesinthestrucmralad- justmentperiodTherehasbeenonlyamarginallesseningofthedispa1Rities

inthestructuraladjustmentperiod

Whenｗｅａｒｒａｎｇｅｔｈｅｓｔａｔｅｓｏｆｌｎｄｉａｉｎａｎａscendingorderoffbmalelit- eracyratesandsectheperfbrmanceofthesocialindicators，therCisaclear correlationbetwｅｅｎｔｈｅｔｗｏ、NameIy，ｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｅｒｔｈｅｆｅmaleliteracyratefbr astate,ｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｅｒｉｓｔｈｅｌｉ化expectancies（bothmaleandfbmale)，andthe lowertheinftlntandmatemalmortalityrates、Similarresultsareseenwhen wesorttheabovementionedsocialindicaｔｏｒｓｏｎｔｈｅｂａｓｉｓｏｆｔｈｅｇｅｎｄｅｒｇａｐ ｉｎstatelitcracyrates.(Ⅱ〕Whilethepolicyimplicationsareobvious，ｗｈａｔｉｓ ｍｏｒｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｉｓｔｈｅｆｔｌｃｔｔhatthepricetbesocietypaysfbrneglectingfb‐

maleeducationislargercomparedtｏｗｈａｔｗｏｕｌｄｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｌｏｓｔｉｆｍａｌｅ

TablenQ4

Gendergapandrural-urbaｎｇａｐｓｉｎｌｉｔｅｒａｃｙｉｎｌｎｄｉａｉｎｔｈｅ

ＳｔｒucturalAdjustmentPeriod

（Percentagepoints）

１９９７

CompuIedfrom:MinistryofHumanResourceDeveloPｍｅｎｔｌ９９９

－２０９－

Gender gap

inliteracyin

ru｢allndia

Gender gap

inliteracyin urbanlndia

National

gende「ｇａｐ inliteracy

Urban

｢uｒａｌ gａｐＩｎ

|iteracy

1９９１ ２７ 1７ ２５ 2８

1９９７ ２５ 1６ 2３ 2４

金沢大学経済学部絢集第21巻第１号200L1 educationhadbecnneglected

VFinancinglssues

VJLowinvestmentS

Indianinvestmentsineducationhaveshownatremendousriseinthelast

halfcenmry、IncurTentpnccs，educationalcxpenditurchasbaUoonedfiom about550millionRupeesinｌ９５５ｔｏａｂｏｕｔ３７０ｂｉｌｌｉｏｎＲｕｐｅｅｓｉｎｌ996-7, denotingajumpofover670timesButifweconsidcrthel）Rapidgrowth ofpopulation，２）Phcnomenalincreasemthcnumberofsmdentsand3）

Riseinprices，thentherealincreaseinexpenditureperstudenttumsoutto bemodcst・Table、０．５givestllcplan（deveIopment）andnon-plan（mainte- nancc）expendituresofboththecentreandthestatesoncducationinthere- centpast，Ｔｈｅｌ９５０ｓｗｅｒｅａｐｅｒｉｏｄｏｆｒａｐｉｄｇｒｏｗthintotalexpcnditureon education．Thel960stoowercafavorableperioｄｆｂｒｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎＴｈｅｒｅｗａｓ ａｃｈｅｃｋｏｎｔhegrowthofexpenditureoneducationduringthel970s、Ｔｈｉｓ gavcplacetoarevivalofinterestineducationinthel980saseducation wasconsideredasanimportantcomponentofhumandcvelopment，Thusex-

pendimreoneducationroseduringthel980s・Ａｓａｇａｉｎｓｔｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｌ９９０ｓｃａｎ ｏｎｌｙｂｅdescribedasa‘decadeofcontainmcnt，、Thoughthereseemstohave beensystematiceHbrtstoraisetheallocati０，s，thcsehavebcenstymiedby thepoliciesofstabilizationandstrucmraladjustmentwhichdictatedthatthe

socialsectorallocationsbereducｅｄＴｈｅｒａｔｅｏｆｔｏｔａＩｇｒｏｗｔｈａｎｄｔｈａｌｏｆｐｅｒ

ｃａｐｉｔａｇｒｏｗｔｈｏｖｅｒａＩＩｈａｓｎｏｔｃｏｍｃｎｅａｒｔｈｏｓｅｏｆｔｈｅｌ９５０ｓ、Secondly，ｔｈｅ ｒａｔｅｏfgrowthofcducationexpcndimrCiｎｔｈｃｐａｓｔｈａｌｆａｃｅｎｍｒｙｉｓｏｎｌｙ

ｓｌｉｇｈｔｌｙｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｔｈｅｇｒｏｗｔｈｉｎｔｈｅｎａｔｉｏnalcconomicindicators.('３１ EducationexpenditureoflndiaseenasapercentageoftheGrossNational PToducthasrisenfromabout1％ａｂｏｕｔｈａｌｆａｃｅｎｍｌｙｂａｃｋｔｏｎｅａｒｌｙ３､5％

ｎｏｗ、However，thisratｉｏｃａｎｂｃｓｅｅｎｔｏｂｅｌｏｗｗｈｅｎｗｅｍａｋｅａｎintema‐

tionalcomparisonTheworldaveragｅｆｂｒｔｈｉｓｆｉｇｕｒｅｉｓ４､8％、Ｔｈｅ

－２１０－

ImpactofStructumIAdjustmentonmdianEducation （バラチャンディラン）

Tablenq5

PIanandNon-PlanExpenditureonEducationinCentreandStates

（RevBnueAccount）

（Rupees,inlOmillions）

Sou｢ceMinistryofHumanResou｢cesDevelopmentl997:２６ Note:Figu｢ｅｓｉｎｂ｢acketsshowpercentagesha｢ｅ

industrializedcountriesspendabout5.1％ｏｆｔｈｅｉｒＧＮＰｏｎｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎｗｈｉle thcdevelopingworldspentabout3.6％oftheirs・Ｔｈｕｓｌｎｄｉａｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｂｅ ｄｏｉｎｇｎｏｔｔｏｏｂadly・Ｂｕｔａｂｒｅａｋｕｐｏｆｔｈｅｆｉｇｕｒｅｓｆｂｒｔｈｅｄevelopingworld tellstheactualstory・ThefigurefbrSub-SahamnA行ｉｃａｉｓ５､4％thatfbr EastemEuropｅａｎｄｔｈｅＣＩＳｉｓ４､6％・LatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanreg- istered4､6％.('6）Thuslndianinvestmentsineducationisnowherenearwhat eitherthedevelopcdordevelopingworldismaking.('7）Table、０．６provides

thesector-wiscallocationsineducationbyboththccent1℃andstatesinthe

pastHvedecades

Twopointsneedtobehighlightedhere・First，thedcvelopedworldis spendingimmcnseamountsoneducationq化'･havingmadesubstantialin- vestmentsinthissectorinthepasLSecondly，ｔｈｅｆａｃｔｔｈａｔａｃｏｕｎｔｒｙｉｓｐａｒｔ ｏｆｔｈｅdevelopｍｇｗｏｒｌｄｉｓｎｏｅｘｃｕｓｅｗｈｙｉｔｃａｎｎｏｔｉｎvestproperlyinedu- cationJapandidinvcstsubstantialamountsineducationmorethanacentury

－２１１－

ﾄﾞ0ａｎ上xpenqIu｢eNon-Plan上xpendItu｢eTotaI(Ｐｌａｎ＋ＮＣ〃Plan）

Yea「 Centre StFRに二 Total Centre Stale Total Centre Slale ToIaI 1968.69 ２４

(26）

6９ (74）

9３ (100）

、㈹ 536

(96〕 (100）⁵⁵⁶

“、 ₆₀₅

(93）

649 (100）

1971-72 3９ (28）

１０１ (72）

1４０ (100）

３１３“

822 (96）

855 (100）

ため 922

(９３）

995 (100）

1981.82 ８６ (25）

２６２ (75）

348 (100）

1５５

（５）

32B７ (96） (100〉³⁴⁴²

241 (6)

3549 (94〕

3790 (100）

1987-88 ７７２ (51）

750 (49）

１５２１ (100〉

430 (5)

8479 (95）

909 (100） ^1２０２(12）

２２８ (88）

10430 (100）

1996.97 3441

〔44〕

445Ｂ (56）

７８９９

〔100）

1０９２ (4)

27593

(96） ^記685(100〉 ⁴⁵³³<12） ³²⁰⁵¹(88） ^365B４(100〉

金沢大学経済学部論集第21巻第１号２００１．１ Tablenq6

PercentageExpenditureofEducationDepartmentsofCentreandState GovernmentsbySectors

■■■---￣■両 一両■可、--ｍ一一一両

扇一■「可＝■■■而一刊一Ｆ而

忘〒■■両面￣－－面－－ｍ－Ｔ－－￣両 正面￣＝画一、－－ｍ一一一両

Ⅲ■■UFm-mr-m-ml￣-両

…￣面冗石一一一ｍ￣￣面一一一両 正而仔一ﾛ■■■■■

-面＝…-両 函円一一画－ｍ一一一一一両

m■■Ｆ、＝面一一iUH~~~￣「両

■忘仔■■ｐＴｒ－－－ｍ－－鞆－，－－両 函河一■■■■■■－面一一一－三－－ｍ

ｍ■■■Ｆ画一､■■｢~－日一Ｆ両

…￣■向冠一一一面一二ｍ￣冠一一両 困汗一一画＝河四一一＝、￣￣祠

凹■■Ｆ面一m■■ﾛｰｰ■ｒ丙

雨〒■■丘矼￣￣画一河■￣＝両－，－－両 函、■■■■■■■－面－，－－

ＳＣＵ1℃e:Minist『yofHumanResou｢cesDeveIopmentl997:２７

Note：EE-ElementaryEducation，TE-TechnicalEducation，SE-Secondary EducationHE-HigherEducationIAE-AdultEducation

backwhenshewasjustbeginningtomodemize・Whatmadeitpossiblewas

theState'ｓｃｏｍｍｉｔｍｅｎｔｔｏｔｈｅｃａｕｓｃＯｎｃｅｔｈｅｐｕblicwasconvincedofit theyalsocooperatedinnosmallmcasure・Unfbrtunately，ｉｔｗｏｕｌｄｂｃｄｉｆＨｃｕｌｔ

ｔｏｓａｙｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔhinginthelndiancontcxt.(18）

Ｖ・IISubsidiesinhighereducation

Tumingtothequestionofsubsidicsinhighereducation，thesehavecome

underclosescrutinyinthepresentmilieuofstrucmraladiustment・Ｉｔｈａｓ

－２１２－

Year EＥ SＥ ＡＥ/SpI

Ｅｄｎ

TＥ ＨＥ Olhe后 Total

Cenlre 1951-52 1８．７ 26.2 4２ NＡ 22.3 ２８．６ ０００

Stales 48.0 1８７ ５．４ NＡ 1０５ 1７５ 00.0

Total 46.1 1９．１ ５．３ ＮＡ 1１２ 1Ｂ２ ０００

CenIre 1961-62 ４，５ 1０．２ ０．９ NＡ 44.1 4０，３ ００．，

Ｓ１２ｌｅＢ 4３９ Z2.0 ５．４ ＮＡ 9.8 1ａ８ 0０．０

Total 40.0 ２０８ 5０ ＮＡ 1３．３ ２１０ 0００

Centre 1971-72 ００ ０７ ＮＡ ２８．８ ４７１ 235 000

Ｓ１ｮＩ壁 44.7 ３１７ 2２ ３６ 9.5 8.4 0００

Total 41,4 2９．４ ２０ 5.4 1２．２ 9.5 ００．０

CenUe 1９８１５２ ４．４ 9.8 ４２ ２４２ 45.6 1１．７ ０００

States 4６５ ３３．９ ０５ 2.7 ・１３２ 3.2 ００．０

Total 43.8 ３２．３ ＯＢ 4.1 1５３ 3.7 ０００

cent｢ｅ 1986.B７ ５．１ ２０１ ７０ ２３．６ 3９１ ５．１ ００．０

SｌａＩｅＳ 493 ３１．７ 0.7 2９ １２.Ｚ 3.3 ００．０

Total 45.9 30.8 １．２ 4.5 1４．２ 3.4 ０００

Centre 1987-88 178 2０４ 4.9 ２１．９ 27.5 7６ 0００

States 50.3 ３２２ ０８ 2.9 1２０ 1７ ０００

Total 46.6 309 １３ ５１ 1３９ ２４ ０００

CenIre 1991.92 1６．５ 23.8 6.1 1８．４ zａｇ ６．３ 0０．０

Sｌ２Ｉｇｇ 4９３ 34ｐ ０．７ ２９ １１．４ 1.7 ００．０

Total 46.3 33.1 1２ 4.3 1３０ ２．１ 1０００

Cenl｢ｅ 1996-97 5０９ 1５．９ 5.0 1０７ 1５７ 1.7 1０００

StaleS 50.0 3２７ ０５ 3.1 1０９ ２９ １０ＤｐＯ

Total 50.1 3０６ 1０ ４０ １１．５ ２７ 1０００

lmpactofStnlcturalAdjustmentoI11ndianEducation （バラチャンディラン）

ｂｅｅｎfbundthatinvestmentinprimaryeducationcarTieshigherremmscom‐

parCdtosecondaIyeducation，whichintumgiveslarger“mmsthanhighcr educationThereareproblemsinfinancinghighereducationandhowthe costcanberecoveredisacomplicatedissue、Highereducationcannotbe pricedlikｅａｎｙｏｔｈｅｒｇｏｏｄｏｒｓｅｒｖｉｃｅｄｕｅｔｏｔｈｅextemalitiesineducation，

namely，thebenefitswhichHowtopeopIcothｅｒｔｈａｎｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｐａｙｆｂｒｉｔ，

ａｎｄｂＣｃａｕｓｅｉｔｉｓｎｏｔｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｔｏｌｉｍｉｔｅducationtoonlythosewhopayfbr

it・

TheUniversityGrantsCommission（UGC）appomtedaHighPowered CommittecundcrtheChairmanshipofJusticeDr．Ｋ・Punnayyatoexamine thefinancialsimationincentraluniversities，instimtionsdeemedtobeuniver- sitiesandanumbcrofotherinstitutionsAmongotherthingstheCommitｔｅｅ ｗａｓｔｏｅｘａｍｉｎｅ“themanncrinwhichplanand、onplangrantsshouldbe dctermined，therationalenonnsthatshouldbeadopted，ａｎｄｌｏｏｋｉｎｔｏｔｈｅ ｐａｔｔｅｍａｎｄｓｙｓｔｅｍｏfexpenditureofinstitutionsfillｌｙｆｉｍｄｅｄｂｙＵＧＣ，，Ｔｈｅ Committee，initRcportofl993unequivocallyreiteratedthat“…Statefimd‐

ingmustcontinuetobeanessentialandmandatoryrequirementtosupport

higbereducationltwastheperceptionoftheCommitteethat“…theStatc mustcontinuetoacceptthemajorrequirementsoftheunlversltles．

^{．。｡”(l(1)}

ＴｈｅＣｏｍｍｉｔｔｅｅｈｅｌｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｒｃｉｓａｍｉstakennotionthathighereducation sectorisselfLsufficientandthatitdocsnotrequireStatesupport・Theinter- nationalevidencedidnotconPoboratethis、Ｔａｂｌｅｎｏ７ｂｅａｒｓｔｈｉｓｏｕｔ、Evenin theprivateuniversitiesandinstitutionsintheUS，ｔｈｅｓｈａｒｅｏｆｆｅｅｓｗａｓｌｅｓｓ ｔｈａｎ４０％andinpublicinstitutionsitwasaround15％、InBritishunivcrsities itwaslessｔｈａｎ１４％ａｎｄｉｎＦｍｎｃｅｉｔｗａｓｌｃｓｓｔｈａｎ５％ofthetotalincome

oftheinstimtions・

ＴｈｃＣｏｍｍｉｔｔｅｅｓｔａｔｅｄｉｔ“…viewedtheroleofhighereducation：

１）asanessentialinputfbrmcctingthemanpowerrequirementfbrimpor‐

tantandcrucialareasofnationaldevelopmentandfbrtheintegralpartof nationaleffbrtathumanresourcesdevelopment；

213

金沢大学経済学部諭集第21巻第１号２００１．１ Tablenq7

SourcesoflncomeofHigherEducationlnstitutions（％）

１９７５ １９８４

４２０ ５．８０

ｄ－１ｇ８０ｓ

Sou｢ce:Punnayya,K1993:１６０riginalsou｢℃e:ＯＥＣＤ．l目inancjngHigherEmJcaliD〃

CuV7BnfPalYBms・

Notes：

France

Japan NoIway UnitedKingdo、

ExpenditureofNationaIMinishyofEducation

７３ｐｅにenlofotherincomeisrevenueofhospiiaIsaltachediouniversities FiguresforfeesnotavailabIｅｂｕｔｖｅｗｓｍａｌｌ

ＡＩｍｏｓＩａＩｌｌｈｅｆｅｅｓｏｆｕｎｄｅ｢g旧duatesludentsa1℃paidoutofpublicfunds・

ＴｈｉｓａｍｏｕｎＩｓｌｏａｂｏｕｔｈａｌｆｌｈｅｆｅｅｉｎcomeofuniversitiesandpmbablya greaterproponicnoflhefeeincomeofpoytechnics

Fjgu｢esincIudeaⅡgovemmentexpendllurealaⅡlevelsLoansandg｢anlslo studemsamcuntedloabout80pe｢centoffeesinl969-70and95pe1℃enlin 1984.85.

UnitedStates

214

Count｢y「｢ypeofins1ilutions ^Ｙｅａｒ Gene｢aIPubic Funds

Fees Ｏthe「

Income Ｆ｢ance

AII1nslitulions

1９７５ １９８４

93.00 89.50

００９７■■２４ ００２８

■●４５

Germany AIIhighe｢education

1986 6850 ０．００ 31.50

Japan

PrivaIe4-y『insIitutions Publicinstitutions Al1institutions

1９７１ １９８５

1９７０ １９８７

１９７１ １９８７

００００６９００１１０９

◆ＧＧＧＢ●９５３３３１１８６５４ ００００９８８８０８６７

０の●◆●●５５２８１５７６３３ ００００１１９０■●●●５９４８１１１２ ００２２幅空

Nethenands ＡⅡinstiiuticns

1９８５ 80.00 1２．００ ８．００

ＮｏＩｗａｙ

PubIicinstitulions 1975

1987

００００●■５０９９ ＡＡＮＮ

５．００ 1０００ Spain

Unive応ities mid-1980s 80.00 2０００ Ｎ､Ａ、

UnitedKingdom ＵｎⅣe応iMes

PoIytechnics (Englandonly）

1970.71 1986-87

1986-87

０００２０４ｆ５ｚ７５７

６３０ 1３．７０

１６．２０

０００４３４型引伽

UnitedStates Privaleinstitulions PubIicinslitutions

AIlinsIitutions

1969-70 1984-85 1969-70 1984-85 1969.70 1９８６

００００００７４１３５８

●、■の●●０８１９６４２１６５４４ ００６７８８３３ ００００１５５４渦脚如型 ００００００６９７３９８

●■ロ●●□０２３６９２４４２２２３

lmpactofStructuralAdjustmentomlndiamEducation （バラチャンディラン）

２）asacriticalinputtoensulCsocialjusticeandequityfbrprovidingup‐

wardmobilityandacccsstohigherlevelsofeconomicandsocialactivities fbrtheweakersections；ａｎｄ

３）asanimportantinputfbrimprovingthequalityoflifebymakinghigher

Ievelsofknowledgeavailabletoawiderbaseofpopulationandfbrpre‐

servingourculturalhcritage.，,

HencetheCommitteeconcluded，“…theToleofhighereducationwillcon- tinuetobeaveryimportantelementofnationalendeavorandwillfilllyjus‐

tifysupportandinterventionbytheState."(20）Theにｉｓａｍｐｌｅ宛searchto showthattheCommitteetooktherightdecision(21）

VIStateisfmuretoprovideeducationmnditsabdicativerole

VLIConstitutionalObIigationsanｄｔｈｅＳｔａｔｅ

Ａｒｔｉｃｌｅ４５ｉｎＰａｒｔⅣoftheConstimtionofIndiastates：“711ｉｅＳＹｑ/ｅｓｈｑ〃

e"dbQyo"ｸﾞﾋﾞｏｐｍＶ雄,ｗ"ｈｊ〃αｐｅｌｊｏｄｑ／r“ｙｅｑ応加加ﾋﾟﾙｅｃｏｍ腕el7ceme"' q//ﾉjiSCb"sr"""o",/bl･たｅα"dco"､"んClﾌﾉediJcq"o〃『ＣａﾉﾉﾉﾙｅｃＡｊけe〃z(Ｐ /ｏ‘Jgピノblｲ"Ｃｅ""、AfUuhalfLcenturyhaspassedsincetheConstimtioncom- menccd，butnoteventwo-thirdsofthetargｅｔｈａｓｂｅｅｎｍｅｔ、TheConstiment

Assemblyinl948-50haddecidedｔｏｐｌａｃｅｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎｉｎＰａｒｔｌＶｏｆｔｈｅ

ＣonstimtionthatdealswiththeDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy、CIausc

37ofPartwdefinestheapplicationofthePrinciplescontaineｄｉｎｔｈａｔＰａｒＬ

Ｉｔｈｏｌｄｓｔｈａｔ‘`TheprovisioncontamedinthisPartshallnotbeenfbrceable byanycourt，buttheprinciplesthereinIaiddownareneverthelessfimdａｍｅｎ－

ｔａｌｉｎｔｈｅｇｏｖｃｍａｎｃｃｏｆｔｈｅｃｏｕｎｈｙａｎｄｉｔｓｂａｌｌｂｅｔｈｅｄｕｔｙｏｆｔｈｅＳtateto applytheseprinciplesmmakinglaws.，，TheDirectivePrinciplesofState Policyarenotjusticiablc；thatis,thegovemmentcannotbctakentocouｒｔ ｆｂｒｉｔｓｆａｉｌｕｒｅｔｏａｂｉｄｅｂｙｔｈｅＤｉｒectivePrincipIes・PartmoftheConstimtion deaIswithFundamentalRightsandisjusticiableThelndianStatehasstone‐

walledeffbrtstointroduceeducationinPartlllofthcConstitution

－２１５－

金沢大学経済学部繍集第21巻第１号２００１．１

Education，particularlyelementaryeducationhasncveroccupiedahighpo- sitionintheperccptionofthelndianState、Politicalpartiestoo，haveconsis- tentlyattachedalowprioritytocducation、TheStatehasfixedvarioustarget datcstoachieveuniversalliteracy，ｏｎｌｙｔｏｅｘｔｅｎｄｔｈｃｍａｓｔｈｃtargetdate nearcd、Ithasdilly-dalliedinitsrcsponsetothepublicdemandfbrmaking

educationafimdamentalright・

Howeverinanhistoricjudgement,theSupremeCourtofIndiaheldthat educationwasafimdamentalright、Ｉｔｈｅｌｄｔｈａｔ“Withouteducation，dignity

oftheindividualcannotbeassure｡，，ａｎｄｔｈａｔ“The‘righttoeducation，flows

directlynomrighttolife"・IthighlightedthefhctthatonlyArticle45of

SectionlVofConstitutioｎｈａｄａｔｉｍｅｌｉｍｉｔ（namelylOyears）andheldthat

"…therighttofiPeceducationuptｏｔｈｅａｇｃｏｆｌ４ｙｅａｒｓｉｓａｆｉｍｄａｍｅｎｔａｌ right，，.〔｣２１

ＴｈｅStatehasalwaysbeentardyinprovidinguniversalliteracyandeduca‐

tiontothemassesThefailurcoftheStatetoaccordoneducationacentral roleinthedevelopmentplansisgIaringThcvarlousactsofcommissionand omissionoftheStateandthevariouspoliticalparties，docsnotgowiththe rhetoricthatconstantlyemanatcsfiromthemTheStatelsabdicationofitscs‐

sentialrolc，despitctheexhortationbytheConstitutionisevident・

Ａｃａｓｅｃａｎｂｅｍａｄｅｏｕｔｔｏｓｈｏｗｔｈａｔｉｎａｄｅvelopingcountrylikelndia，

thereislittleincentivefbrpoIiticalpartiestoactivelypromoterapiddiffiJsion ofliteracyasitgoesagainsttheiTinterests，ａｔｌｅａｓｔｉｎｔｈｃｓｈｏｒｔｔｅｒｍ、Alarge uneducatedpopulationbccomesamcnabletopoliticalmanipulationandhcnce thepoliticalbenefitｓｏｆalargelyilliteratcpopulationismo１℃thanthatofa literatconc，ｆｉＰｏｍｔｈｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｏｆｔｈｅｖａｎｏｕｓpoliticalpartiesthatare vyingtoｃｏｍｅｔｏｐｏｗｅｒ、Ｏｎｃｃｉｎｐｏｗｅｒ，politicalpartiesrcaIizethatanun- educatedpopulationiseasilygovemedthananeducatedone・Ｔｈｅcollective conspiracyofvariouspoliticalpartiesassecnintheirapathytoproviding

educationtothemassesisthusunderstandableThereisnoshortageofinter-

nationalcvidencetllatpointstotheuscfillroleeducationplaysin

－２１６－

lmpactofStructuralAdjustmentonlndianEducation （バラチャンディラン）

modemizationandthecrucialroletheStatecanplay.(2;例Sulprisingly，educa-

tionhasneverbeenapoliticalissueinanyelcction，anywhereinlndia

Oflate，vanouspoliticalpartieshavebeentalkingofuniversalelementaIy

educationandraisingtheexpendimrconeducationtoatleast６％ｏｆＧＮＰ、

Ｎoneofthemhavebeenconsistentintｈｅｉｒｓｔａｎｄａｎｄａｎｕｍｂｅｒｏｆｔｈｅｍ，

ｗｈｉｌｅｉｎｐｏｗｅｒ，didnotseriouslyimplementpoliciesthatwouldhavetaken thecountlyanywhere、eartheabovestatedtwoobjectives・Raisingthesc twinissuesofuniversalelementaryeducationandincreasedallocationfbr educatio、isthepoliticallycorrectthingtoｄｏ，andnoneofthepoliticalpar‐

tieshasbeenfbundwantinginthisregard､121）

Alongwiththeabdicationofitsesscntialrole，theStatchassteadilydi‐

luteditsobligationTheNationalPolicyonEducationofl986，amajorpol‐

icydocument，ｈｅｌｄｔｈａｔｔｈｃｔｈｏｓｅｃhildrenwhocannotgetaccesstotheｐｒｉ－

ｍａ】ｙｓｃｈｏｏｌｗｉｌｌｇｅｔｉｔｔｈＴｏｕｇｈｔｈｃ“non-fbrmalstream，，．Ｔｈｉｓnon-fbrmal streamcouldnevcrbeasubstimtefbrtheregularfbrmalstreamDifferent layersofwidelyvaryingqualitywerebeingofficiallyblessedandsanctifled Tberesou1℃esrequiredfbrthenon-fbrmalstrCamsweremuchless，ｂｕｔｔｈｅ

ｑｕａｌｉｔｙｗａｓａｌｓｏａｂｙｓｍａｌｃｏｍparedtothefbrmalstream.(25）Thequalityof thiskindofschoolmgｃａｎｂｅｊｕｄｇｅｄｆｍｍｔｈｅｆａｃｔｔｈａｔｏｕｔｏｆthe700,000

smdemsenrolledinthe35,O00Non-FormalCcntrcsinMadhyaPradeshonly

5％ｏｆｔｈｅｂｏｙｓａｎｄ３％ofthcgirlsmanagedtopassthegrade5examina‐

tion

ResortingtovariousredherringsthattendedtoobfUscatetherealissues fhcilitatedtheabandonme､toftheconstitutionalobligation・Ｉｎｌ９９７ａｃｏｍ‐

mitteeestimatedthatthegovemmentneededaboutl,200billionlndian RupeestogivcfbnnaIqualityeducationtothellOmillionchildlCnwho wereoutofsch００１．Evenascaled-downversionoftherequirementof400 billionRupeesに6》tomeetthetargetofUniversalElementalyEducationwas

madctosoundastronomicalinpublicdebates・Inrealitythiswouldhave

beenjustanadditional１％ｏｆＧＮＰｆｂｒｔｈｅｎｅｘｔｆｉｖｅｙｅａｒｓＭｏｒｅ

－２１７－