Fostering critical thinking skills in the Japanese university EFL classroom
Philip Zamrej Graham
Abstract
Critical thinking skills are increasingly becoming more important in a fast changing and ever more globalized world. The Japanese university student, through reasons of culture, language, teaching, and the educational system seems to be lacking in these skills, or at least has not developed them sufficiently, especially when compared to students from other countries. It can be argued that with appropriate input, an alternative cultural viewpoint and the use of the English language, the EFL classroom can provide a unique space in the Japanese university setting to foster critical thinking skills among students. This paper will examine the reasons for a lack of critical thinking skills among Japanese students, and examine in what way the EFL classroom can be utilized to improve these skills.
Key words: EFL, critical thinking, university, culture, language, society 1. Introduction
“Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think.”
This is an abridged version of a quotation by the physicist, Albert Einstein. The full quote is as follows:
“It is not so very important for a person to learn facts. For that he does not really need a college. He can learn them from books. The value of an education in a liberal arts college is not the learning of many facts, but the training of the mind to think, something that cannot be learned from the textbook.” Whichever version of the quote is used, the question it begs is what is the purpose of a university education? Is it to have more facts stored in one`s head than the next person? Or, is it the ability to question, analyze and evaluate these facts, and therefore move learning forward. It is the author`s belief that the latter is of greater value. This kind of thing can be defined as ‘critical thinking’. If the concept of critical thinking could be boiled down to a single word, you could do a lot worse than ‘Why?’. However, for reasons of clarity more detailed definitions are required. Ennis (1996) states that,
“Critical thinking is a process, the goal of which is to make reasonable decisions about to believe and what to do”. Another definition appears in Dunn`s 2013 paper, Critical
Thinking in Japanese Secondary Education: Student and Teacher Perspectives, to which we will be returning:
“Critical thinking skills are procedures that allow for deeper
understanding of information as well as the more complete use of the information presented or gained through critical thinking skills. At its very core, critical thinking is, gaining deeper understanding and perspective through meticulous thought on a subject.”
2. Lack of critical thinking skills among Japanese students
It is this writer`s belief that harnessing critical thinking skills is something lacking among many Japanese university students. There seem to be various reasons for this, discussed in other studies and as observed by this writer. The university English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom may be a suitable place to foster critical thinking skills, as well as provide students with an opportunity to approach thinking and learning in a different way.
Laskar (2007) cites Brian J. McVeigh`s book, Japanese
Higher Education as Myth, where the latter notes that
Japanese students,
“…are not well trained in writing critically, arguing coherently, or expressing their views with conviction or verve…, they have trouble with specific forms of knowledge manipulation and production that some people, with different schooling experiences, might take for granted”.
This observation rings true with the writer`s own experience in the university classroom. When students are asked to give an opinion, question information given to them, or rebut something said by the teacher or another student, they seem at a loss. It can be, and often is claimed that this is because the student lacks the necessary proficiency in English to properly
express their views. However, when they are given the chance to have the same exchange in Japanese, the results are usually not much better. This is in contrast to foreign exchange students, who, even when they have limited English language abilities, on the whole seem better equipped to opine, argue and evaluate. This is something that has not only been observed by the writer, but by teaching colleagues, as well as by exchange students. Indeed, once encountered it is most certainly noticed by the Japanese students themselves. Dunn (2015) discussing the proceedings of the 2015 JALT Pan SIG on the topic related the observations of a 2nd year Japanese
student at a private university in Japan,
“The student… was never asked to think more deeply about the information presented by his teachers. This student also shared that he did not feel prepared for his first year at university because the expectations to think deeper on any given subject, not only his English courses, were much greater than his previous educational experience. He also stated that he had been interested in thinking about topics more deeply in the past, but did not have an opportunity to exercise this way of thinking in almost all of his courses at high school.”
To anyone who is aware of the emphasis put on rote memorization in Japanese high schools, especially in relation to preparation for the university entrance exam, this observation will come as no surprise. The author`s own research on how best to prepare Japanese students for studying in UK universities has unearthed similar grievances. Of the over thirty Japanese students currently studying in the UK, or who have qualified from UK universities, so far interviewed for this longitudinal study, most identified critical thinking/analysis and critical writing as being the biggest challenge they faced while studying in the UK.
There may well be outlying institutions at junior high school and high school levels in Japan, where a real focus is made to encourage students to think critically, however from the literature and previous experience as well as accounts by numerous other teaching professionals, these would seem to be in a minority.
3. Reasons for lack of critical thinking skills among Japanese students
The reasons for the lack of critical thinking skills among so many Japanese students seem to be varied. From questioning of students who do display competence in critical thinking, the stimulus seems to have come from their parents, a
particular teacher or themselves. This points to the overall educational system being at fault, as opposed to individuals. As mentioned above, Japanese junior and senior high schools put much weight on rote memorization. Coupled with this however, is a hierarchical form of teaching, where pupils are not encouraged to question their teachers or the knowledge being handed down to them. Morikawa, Harrington and Shiina (2012) observe that:
“Students in Japanese junior high or high schools are not usually taught to question what they are told or what they hear from “authority” sources such as television news or to challenge other`s opinions directly in a discussion.”
Laskar (2007) concurs:
“Interactions amongst students and instructors adhere to a hierarchical structure in which knowledge is passed down and rarely challenged.”
If young people are not encouraged to question what they hear, or to challenge ‘authority’ figures or sources, then their chances of developing critical thinking skills are going to be severely hampered.
It could be argued however that the roadblocks to critical thinking skills do not stop with a hierarchical teaching system, which places more importance on memorization than on questioning. There are well-documented cultural forces at play here as well. The importance of maintaining harmony in public life is one of the bedrocks of the Japanese way of thinking. This is most evident in the concept of ‘honne’ (private face) and ‘tatemae’ (public face), which pervades Japanese life. To question one in authority, to argue, to express contrary opinions in public tends to go against societal norms in Japan.
Okada (2017) surveyed high school and university students about asking questions and expressing opinions and came to the following conclusion:
“Students in Japan have difficulties expressing questions and ideas verbally because these activities do not agree with the values with which they have been raised.”
The proverb, ‘The nail that sticks up gets hammered down’, is so often quoted for a single reason; when it comes to Japanese society it is so often true, especially in the world of education. Language is very much connected to culture, and when it
comes to critical thinking the Japanese language could be seen as a further barrier. Laskar (2007) argues that Japanese is “vague and pragmatically speaking often rife with ambiguity and suggestion.” He continues,
“…the lack of a singular, plural, the definite and indefinite contribute to this ambiguity. Even one`s conception of self is made indistinct and malleable as how a speaker self-references changes depending on the status of the listener.” A culture and a language that both go out of their way to avoid confrontation, will always be at odds with being critical. Laskar (ibid) again:
“Being direct and forthright is frequently considered rude – it being rare to hear an outright refusal or negation. Hesitation is substituted and pressure is put on the listener to infer meaning.”
Some students and educators may of course be aware that indulging in too much critical thought could be detrimental to young people`s future careers. Is the system actually looking for critical thinkers? One Masters student interviewed by the writer was asked why there seemed to be fewer Japanese choosing to take overseas degree courses. He suggested that, the monetary costs aside, many Japanese companies do not want people who have been educated abroad and will therefore be more prone to questioning authority and generally being disruptive. Safer to keep one`s head down and stay within the Japanese system. It is pure speculation, however it could be that the powers that be in Japan do not particularly want a nation of critical thinkers.
Finally, when considering the apparent lack of critical thinking skills amongst Japanese students, the question of meaningful input must be considered. When the teacher asks for questions and is met with a wall of blank faces, the reasons could be varied: lack of language ability, a reluctance to stand out, or a total lack of interest. This lack of interest can be because the student has had no input on the subject or issue up to that point. If one has had no input on the subject it becomes that much harder to discuss or confront the subject. Although on the surface a comparatively open and free country, Japanese society, and particularly Japanese schools seem to be riven with taboos. This can sometimes be in direct contrast to what is actually going on in society. Japan, for example has a huge pornographic industry, yet words like ‘intercourse’ are deemed unfit for use in school sex education classes. Therefore, unless the subjects have been discussed at home, areas such as, politics, religion, sex, drugs, race and
rights are not ones with which students seem particularly familiar, or are able to form opinions on. At school, and often in the popular mass media, the mantra seems to be, ‘play it safe’ and stick to uncontentious issues.
When this writer surveyed students on what they talk about with each other, gossip, friends, TV, family, music and food were the most common topics. Subjects like politics did not feature. Indeed, one student who had spent a holiday with a friend who was studying in a Swedish university, reported how he had been surprised that the students there had often discussed ‘global issues’, such as climate change and world politics. He lamented the fact that his Japanese peers never discussed anything serious. Whether this is the norm or not is difficult to ascertain with any accuracy without countrywide surveys, currently beyond the bounds of this paper. However, it seems from the author`s observations, the experience of colleagues and the literature, that a high number of Japanese university students are not engaging with issues in a critical way at the very time when they would be most expected to – in the university setting.
4. Teaching critical thinking skills in the EFL classroom
It could be argued that with information being so freely available and often in such an unregulated way online that critical thinking skills have never been so important. If one is to successfully navigate through the social, cultural, political and economic issues thrown up by the modern age, some degree of critical analysis is required and indeed is desirable. In the context of the Japanese university setting, and for all the reasons highlighted above, it is in the EFL classroom that the opportunity to explore and experiment with critical thinking skills becomes possible.
Okada`s (2017) research focused on the conflict between critical thinking and cultural values. As noted above, she observed that “expressing questions and ideas verbally” was difficult for Japanese students as that was in conflict with the “values with which they have been raised”. She went on to argue that:
“…very few Japanese teachers are able to teach values of which they have little direct experiences themselves, nor can they encourage students to practice these activities. Evidence suggests that classes in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) offer the best opportunity for students to overcome these barriers and gain experience in asking questions and expressing opinions.”
The EFL class, especially when taught by a competent, native teacher can be an intimidating place for the Japanese student, especially if the class contains non-Japanese students. In one recent elective Oral Communication class that focuses on discussing issues, the author had four Japanese students, two Germans, one Chinese and one Thai. It quickly became evident that the Japanese students were somewhat out of their depth and two quit the class within a couple of weeks. Some may argue that this was because of a lack of English language skills, however, in terms of basic English ability; grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, the Japanese students were comparable to their Asian classmates. The problem for the Japanese students was that their foreign classmates were able to express themselves much more easily, to ask questions without being prompted, to have and give opinions, to disagree and in the case of the Germans, to challenge the teacher. While the gap between Japanese and non-Japanese students is laid bare in this kind of setting, the EFL classroom does nevertheless provide an opportunity to slowly foster critical thinking skills.
To begin with, students must be encouraged to engage with issues where critical analysis is actually possible. This means moving away from the ‘safe’ topics, for example shopping, holidays, hobbies, family, etc., so often used in textbooks and by teachers in Japanese English classes. While fine for younger school pupils, after 7-8 years of English teaching, and in a university setting, students really need to be engaging with more meaty issues.
Meaningful input is also necessary, whether in the form of data and statistics or the opinions of experts and scholars. Ideas and opinions cannot be formed in a vacuum; students need something to work with. Armed with knowledge and information, students need to be encouraged to then form opinions and discuss these issues based on the knowledge in pairs or small groups, and then to discuss these further with the teacher and class as a whole. Although challenging, the process will often be enjoyable for the student, as they find themselves engaging with new ideas and issues. They may also be surprised that they actually find themselves forming opinions on issues that they had never really engaged with properly, or had, up to that point, held only hand me down views or the accepted dogma.
To illustrate this it may be worth considering a class done each year by the author on capital punishment. The students are usually 2nd or 3rd years and the class is an elective
with mixed English ability. During the preceding week`s class students are told that they will be discussing capital
punishment, and to think about whether they agree or disagree with the death penalty in the Japanese context and to consider reasons for their opinion. Usually, anything from 40% to 80% of students agree with the death penalty. Pro and anti students are grouped together and asked to share their reasons for their views. We then examine data and statistics from Japan and other countries around the world and consider the history of capital punishment and various methods of execution. Students are then asked to give reasons for and against, which go on the board. Those are examined and discussed in an objective way. At the end of the class the students are asked how they would vote if Japan were to have a referendum on abolishing the death penalty. In almost every case, the vast majority of students who were in favour of capital punishment have changed their mind. When asked why, they say that they had never really thought about it before, but rather had just accepted the cultural status quo, where most Japanese are ostensibly in favour of capital punishment. The following week the students give presentations on the topic, and one or two have usually changed back to a pro death penalty stance, having done more research and thinking on the topic. From a critical thinking standpoint this is a success, as the objective of the class was not to try and persuade the students out of their view, but rather to get them to think about the topic deeply, reflect on the evidence and come to a considered opinion.
Finally, for all this to work, The EFL class needs to be conducted in English. This may seem to go without saying, however rather surprisingly, some Japanese university English departments do not insist on English being the language of instruction in English language classes. Reasons for this vary, from the rather redundant “This is Japan.” argument, to the fact that many teachers in Japan still favour the Grammar Translation method of teaching English, to the inconvenient truth that some Japanese English teachers may worry that they will have students whose spoken English ability is superior to their own, especially exchange students.
This misses the fundamental truth that language and culture are intertwined. As Okada (2017) observes:
“… being encouraged not to use Japanese in the EFL classroom, students may feel freer to ask questions and voice opinions than in classes given in Japanese. Since language and behavior are strongly connected, students may be able to behave differently in (the) EFL class, using English, than in other classes taught in Japanese.”
that they find themselves becoming more direct and less ambiguous when using the latter language. Laskar (2007) concurs:
“… one might question the validity of attempting to develop critical thinking in EFL students when there is the added difficulty of a language barrier. Despite the inherent complexity, in the specific case of the Japanese with English, it could be argued the second language is more of a facilitator than a barrier to critical thinking as the English language can offer the Japanese an opportunity to be more direct and critical both linguistically and culturally than they might otherwise be able to be in their native tongue.”
5. Conclusion
There seems to be little doubt that for linguistic, cultural and teaching reasons many Japanese university students have underdeveloped critical thinking skills. As well as plenty of evidence of this in the literature, it has been the author`s experience that when stacked against students from other countries the Japanese often fall short in this most important area of learning development. Furthermore, it should be noted that critical thought is not just important as an intellectual pursuit among university students. Having a sufficient number of graduates with critical thinking skills will benefit the country of Japan going forward. Okada (2017) cites Ichimura (2013) who notes that Japan needs large numbers of workers who are able to operate on the international stage and work cross-culturally:
“We urgently need to train students to be globally competent. EFL teachers must take a leading role in teaching students to think independently, to ask questions, and to express themselves by including opportunities for these activities in class.”
Teachers in Japanese university EFL classrooms are uniquely placed to help to achieve this, and it can best be accomplished by using English as the language of instruction and by inviting students to grapple with challenging ideas and issues in a critical way.
References:
1) Dunn, J.D. (2015) Critical Thinking in Japanese Secondary Education: Student and Teacher Perspectives.
Critical Thinking and Language Learning Vol. 2
2) Ennis, R.H. (1996a) Critical thinking. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice-Hall
3) Ichimura, Y. (2013) Development of Globally Competent People and what is being done in Schools. Eigo tembou, No. 120, pp42-49
4) Laskar, B. (2007) Critical thought and literature in the Japanese university EFL classroom. The Journal of
Kanda University of International Studies Vol. 19,
pp159-169
5) McVeigh, B.J. (2002) Japanese Higher Education as
Myth. East Gate Book: New York
6) Morikawa, S. Harrington, L. & Shiina, K. (2012) Critical Thinking in a Japanese University Current Affairs Course. Language and Culture Theory/Chiba University
Language Education Center Vol. 6, pp117-133
7) Okada, R. (2017) Conflict between Critical Thinking and Cultural Values: Difficulty Asking Questions and Expressing Opinions in Japan. Asian Education Studies Vol. 2, No. 1, pp91-98
