Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies Vol. 68, No. 3, March 2020 （14）
― 1120 ―
Mystical Union between a Meditating Subject and
Meditational Objects in Tantric Meditation
in Jainism:
The Meditation Engaged in Forms in Jñānārṇava by Śubhacandra
of Digambara
KOREMATSU
Hiroaki
1. Introduction
This paper discusses tantric meditation in Jñānārṇava (JA) which is yoga text in Jainism written by Śubhacandra (11th century) of Digambara in order to posi-tion Tantrism in Jainism. Shramanic religion represented by Jainism and early Buddhism regards our phenomenological world as impure to be thrown away in order to be enlight-ened. On the other hand, Tantrism tries to purify the world of reincarnation and our materi-al body by its own particular practices. Although Tantrism has a large influence on the Mahāyāna Buddhism practice systems and studies of Buddhist tantrism are highly popular but studies on Tantrism in Jainism are insufficient.1) Research on meditation systems in JA is important to make this problem clear because JA has various tantric concepts. This essay discusses the difference between Tantric meditation in JA, particularly about the medita-tion engaged in forms (as stated below), and canonical meditamedita-tion2) in Tattvārthasūtra (TAS) of Umāsvāmin (2nd–5th century) an authoritative treatise on the essential principle of Jain-ism before the inflow of TantrJain-ism to JainJain-ism.2.
Canonical Meditation in TAS
TAS categorizes meditation as one of an internal asceticism (ābhyantaratapas)3) for the stoppage (saṃvara) and the release (nirjarā) of kar-man4) and defined meditation as the controlling over one s mind toward one point (ekāgracintānirodha).5) TAS has four different types of meditation which are afflicted meditation (ārtadhyāna), wrathful meditation (raudradhyāna), virtuous meditation (dharmyadhyāna, or dharmadhyāna), and pure meditation (śukladhyāna).6) The former two are regarded as bad forms of meditation as they cause reincarnation and the latter two are regarded as good forms of meditation as they cause liberation. Virtuous meditation isdi-（15）
― 1121 ―
Mystical Union between a Meditating Subject and Meditational Objects in Tantric Meditation in Jainism (Korematsu)
vided into four subdivisions, concretely, the examination of the instruction of the Jinas (ājñāvicaya), the examination of the calamity of avoidance of taking the right path (apāyavicaya), the examination of the results of acts (vipākavicaya), and the examination of the formation of the world (saṃsthānavicaya).7)
3.
Tantric Virtuous Meditation in JA
JA followed the above categories of medita-tion in TAS, but JA added four different kinds of tantric meditamedita-tions that were not in TAS. These are called the meditation engaged in material objects (piṇḍasthadhyāna in JA ch. 34) which is the process of purification of oneself by concentrating (dhāraṇā) on elements (earth, fire, wind and water), the meditation engaged in words (padasthadhyāna in JA ch. 35) which is not one method, but various practices of using mantras, the meditation en-gaged in forms (rūpasthadhyāna in JA ch. 36) whose objects are characteristics of omni-scient beings (sarvajña), and the meditation beyond forms (rūpātītadhyāna in JA ch. 37) which is to contemplate oneself without any forms.Tantric virtuous meditation in JA has different factors than canonical virtuous medita-tion in TAS, for example, tantric virtuous meditamedita-tion emphasizes the effectiveness of the visualizing tantric symbolical objects which are elements, lotuses inside one s navel or heart (namely, cakras in Buddhist-tantra and Hindu-tantra, Haṭhayoga), letters of mantras, and so forth. In contrast, canonical meditational objects were just tenets of Jainism in TAS.
4.
Union between meditating subject and the meditational objects in the
medi-tation engaged in forms
The topic of chapter 36 in JA is the meditation engaged in forms which is the third tantric virtuous meditation to contemplate who has omniscience, therefore most contents of this chapter use various adjectives as below.ārhantyamahimopetaṃ sarvajñaṃ parameśvaram /
dhyāyed devendracandrārkasabhāntaḥsthaṃ svayaṃbhuvam // JA 36.1
You have to meditate in an omniscient, having glory of the state of arhats, the supreme Lord, and is the self-existing in the midst of the Palace of the god of gods, moon and sun.
Śubhacandra said those who practice this meditation can achieve omniscience. yadābhyāsavaśāt tasya tanmayatvaṃ prajāyate /
tadātmānam asau dhyānī sarvajñībhūtam īkṣate // JA 36.42 eṣa devaḥ sarvajñaḥ so haṃ tadrūpatāṃ gataḥ /
（16）
― 1122 ―
Mystical Union between a Meditating Subject and Meditational Objects in Tantric Meditation in Jainism (Korematsu) When by means of [this] practice the identicalness with that (tanmayatva) arises, this meditator considers himself as the omniscient. this god is the omniscient, I am He (so haṃ) and approached this state. Therefore, it is considered that He is indeed anyone but me, and the universe-seer.
This concept of the union of one s meditating subject and the meditational object was not in canonical virtuous meditation in TAS. Further, JA ch. 36.43 shows the word so ham, one of The Great Sayings (Mahāvākya) in Brahmanical philosophy. This word which is based on non-dualism between souls as microcosm and the one universal Soul as macro-cosm, is incompatible with Jainism because it is based on pluralism of individual souls. However, tantric practice is dependence on the identity between meditator and meditation-al objects, therefore it is possible that Śubhacandra chose this word upon understanding the ideological background of tantric practice.
5. Conclusion
In Jainism, meditation is concerned with one of internal asceticism to stop and release karman and defined as the controlling over the mind to concentrate to-ward one point. TAS has four types of meditations JA followed, on the other hand, JA added other four kinds of meditations which are not in TAS as other four kind of tantric virtuous meditation, the meditation engaged in material objects which is the process of pu-rification of oneself by concentrating on elements, the meditation engaged in words which is not one method, but various practices of using mantras, the meditation engaged in forms whose object is omniscience, the meditation beyond forms which is to contemplate oneself without any forms. Canonical virtuous meditational objects were no more than doctrines of Jainism in TAS, on the other hand, Tantric virtuous meditation uses mystical symbolism ef-fectively.Most contents of chapter 36 in JA about the meditation engaged in forms are various adjectives about who has omniscience. Śubhacandra said this meditation enables a medita-tor to achieve omniscience and he used the Brahmanical word so ham. This word is incom-patible with Jainism because it is based on pluralism, but it is possible that he chose this word upon understanding it is an important concept of tantric practice.
Notes
1) About previous research on the influence of tantrism into Jainism, in particularly by Śaiva tradition, see Sanderson 2009, 243–249. 2) This paper borrowed concepts of tantric meditation and canoni-cal meditation from Qvarnström 2012, 242. 3) prāyaścittavinayavaiyāvṛttyasvādhyāyavyutsargad hyānāy uttaram // TAS 9.19. 4) tapasā nirjarā ca // TAS 9.3. 5) uttamasaṃhananasyaikāgrac
（17）
― 1123 ―
Mystical Union between a Meditating Subject and Meditational Objects in Tantric Meditation in Jainism (Korematsu)
intānirodho dhyānam āntarmuhūrtāt // TAS 9.27. 6) ārtaraudradharmyaśuklāni // TAS 9.28. 7) ājñāpāyavipākasaṃsthānavicayāya dharmyam // TAS 9.36. About history of meditation in earlier Jain-ism, see Bronkhorst 2016, 93–97.
Abbreviations
JA Jñānārṇava of Śubhacandra. Jñānārṇava. Ed. Bālacandra Siddhānta Śāstrī. Jīvarāja Jaina
Granthamālā, Hindī Vibhāga 30. Solāpūra: Jaina Saṃskṛti Saṃrakṣaka Sangha, 1977. TAS Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra of Umāsvāmin. Sarvārthasiddhi Śrīmadācāryagddhapicchapraṇītasya Tattvārthasūtrasya Vttiḥ. Ed. Siddhāntācārya Phūlacandra Śāstrī. Naī Dillī: Bhāratīya Jñānapīṭha Prakāśana, 1989.
Bibliography
Bronkhorst, Johannes. 2016. Discontinuity and Innovation in the History of Jaina Meditation. In Asian
Traditions of Meditation, ed. Halvor Eifring, 93–102. Honolulu: University of Hawai i Press.
Qvarnström, Olle, trans. 2012. A Handbook on the Three Jewels of Jainism: The Yogaśāstra of Hemacan-dra. Mumbaī: Hindī Grantha Kāryālaya. Sanderson, Alexis. 2009. The Śaiva Age: The Rise and
Dominance of Śaivism. In Genesis and Development of Tantrism, ed. Einō Shingo, 41–349. Tokyo: Insti-tute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo.
Key words Jainism, Jñānārṇava, Digambara, rūpasthadhyāna, Meditation, Tantrism, Śubhacandra,
Yoga
