PRESENT
STATE
OE THE
MO-KAU-KU
CAVE
TEMPLES
AT TUN-HUANG
Taishun Mibu
Yuhkei
Hirai
Traveling from Tun-huang to the east along the An-tun Road towar
for some distance, one comes to a road marker by the the road direc
ting one to Mo-kau-ku, near the place where the protective groves to
against sand storms and the cultivated fields have thinned out to almo
ing. One turns right at the sign to head toward the south. On the west
this road in middle of the desert lie a large number of round earthen
One is told that these are modern-day graves. After a distance, at the point
where mountainous contours begin to appear ahead and sand-screen
both sides of the road again come into view, the caves loom up into
of vision on the right-hand side to the rear stacked one upon another on the
mountainside. Distance from the town of Tun-huang is twenty-five k
a drive requiring thirty minutes by motor vehicle.
The road now swerves sharply to the right and after crossing a brid
es beneath a large two-story gate.1) To the side of the road a short distance
before the bridge lies the grave of the Taoist Wang who made the famous
discovery of a hidden repository of ancient manuscripts in the Tun-h
in 1900 that will be mentioned in more detail later. Beneath the bridg
Dai-kyan River, which flows down from between Mt. Ming-sha and
ki; Mo-kau-ku was hollowed out of cliffs on the Mt. Ming-sha side
created through the erosion of this river. It is said that mud from the
of the Dai-kyan river was used as the raw material for the clay statu
kau-ku.
Two framed tablets on the front of the two-storied gate bear the in
"石 室 宝 蔵"(stone chamber treasure store)and"莫 高 窟"(Mo-kau-ku). TurningPRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu Y. Hirai) (2) around to look back at the gate after passing through it, one sees a framed
tablet inscribed“三 危 撹 勝 ”(viewing the three dangerous peaks), and Mt. San-ki
(the mountain of the three dangerous peaks) can indeed be viewed through the two sides of the gate. Within the gate is a wide open area, and to the left-hand side an elm tree over 200 years old spreads wide its branches. The buildings of the Tun-huang Civilization Research Institute lie to the right of the open area, and directly across the square inside the gate, the caves stand imposingly before one's eyes. Immediately in front of the caves is a small gate, and to the back of the cliffs from which the caves are hollowed rises Mt. Ming-sha, while to the right approximately eighteen kilometers away as the crow flies should lie the town of Tun-huang. Mo-kau-ku was carved running in a north-south direction in the cliffs at the eastern foot of Mt. Ming-sha, and directly to the front of it in an easterly direction Mt. San-ki can be seen in the distance. Both mountains, in a broad sense, are situated at the northern foot of Mt. Ya-ma on the western tip of the Bi-leng mountain range.
Conglomerate, a mixture' of sand and earth with rocks of all different shapes and sizes, forms the rock of the area; and because it is of inconsistent hard-ness, these caves differ somewhat from the stone cave temples at A janta and Ellora in India. For example, most of the statues at Mo-kau-ku are of clay and there are almost no statues carved directly from rock. (There is a stone statue in cave number 324, but such examples are extremely rare.) Wall paintings, likewise, are executed atop a layer of clay and plaster. The clay statues were made by first constructing a basic frame from poplar wood, filling out the frame by using hemp to attach reeds and grass, smearing on clay called cheng-ban-tu in which had been mixed vegetable-based adhesive agents to complete the final shape of the image, and finally painting the statue with pigments to bring the finished product to life.
In all, well over 2,000 clay statues have been discovered at Mo-kau-ku. Of these," 1,400 are in a good state of preservation, 70 are in a poor state of preservation, and 720 have been restored.2) It is said that if all the clay statues at Mo-kau-ku were lined up side-by-side, they would extend for the distance of one kilometer. Caves still existing at present number approximately 600, and
(3) PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai)
492 of those house clay statues and wall paintings (according to the Tun-huang Civilization Research Institute's numbering system). These caves are hollowed in three to four layers from cliffs running in a north-south direction and extend across a distance of 1,600 meters. Assigning an approximate average height of five meters to the wall paintings, they would extend a distance of twenty-five kilometers if placed top-to-bottom, and together they cover an area of 45,000 square meters.
To the front of the caves across the road is planted another protective grove and amongst the trees are interspersed a number of cultivated fields. The fields, appear to be worked by the families of those assigned to the research institute. Over seventy researchers are-said to staff the institute, and many of them are accompanied by families. In addition, those working in a variety of other sup portive posts also live here, bringing the number of people living on-site at Mo-kau-ku to a surprisingly high total. A consideration of the problems invol-ved in supplying food to this group causes one to feel keenly in these modern residents cultivating their fields the weight of the one thousand years of Mo-kau-ku's history. When Mo-kau-ku was functioning as a living Buddhist center, there were undoubtedly people living and working there just as those who live and work there today, and for them the problem of self-supply of all daily needs was the chief element in their struggle to survive. It may be that one source of the need and desire of these desert dwellers to ' rely on the divine protection of the Buddha lies in this very element.
At present, those parts of-the caves that were beginning to collapse have been strengthened by the application of a hardening agent, corridors and rail-ings have been attached to each level, and caves that were buried have been,
dug out. A conglomerate-type material was used for reinforcement operations to harmonize with the natural rock that forms the caves. Through these opera tions the external appearance of the caves has undergone a complete change, and laborious and minute preservation operations continue to be carried out in the cave interiors. Operations range from the repair of cracks, fissures, and places where the walls have peeled to the use of coagulation agents to fortify the actual rock from which the cave temples were dug, the reproduction of wall
PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai) (4) paintings, the duplication of clay statues (there are also some instances of res-toration to the precise form of the original, using original materials and so forth, but these are few), and the preservation of and research on old graves and ancient manuscripts found in the vicinity of the caves.
The work of the research institute also includes introducing the caves at Tun-huang and their contents to scholarly circles, conducting research, and making arrangements for scholars and other visitors to see the caves. Many of the caves are equipped with wooden doors that lock; and in order-to inspect the caves, one must have these doors opened for him. This step was taken because of the need to enforce stronger preservation measures. Decisions on when to open and shut the cave doors are the province of the research institute and this is an important duty from the point of view of guarding and preserving the caves. Visitors to the caves appear to include a surprisingly large number of the Chinese themselves and passing Chinese would stare at our group from Japan with obvious curiosity as they went by.
A division of the 492 caves of Mo-kau-ku by period of construction is ex-tremely difficult, but one possibility is as follows: 3)
Sixteen Kingdoms, 9; Northern Wei, 23; Western Wei, 2; Sui, 97; T'ang, 225; Five Dynasties, 34; Sung, 70; Hsi Hsia, 25; Yiian, 7;
It was explained to us that the caves of the priest Le-zun and of the Zen master Fa-lian that were constructed in the very earliest period of Tun-huang
are no longer in existence. The oldest, cave still in existence is cave number 275. This is thought to be a cave of the Northern Liang period, and if this is the case, the Sixteen Kingdoms mentioned in the list above must refer to the Northern Liang.
According to a recent announcement by the research institute,4) the caves in Mo-kau-ku can be divided into three major periods.
There are:
1) Early Period: the development period
Northern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Chou 2) Middle Period: the period of peak prosperity
(5) PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai) 3) Late Period: the period of decline
Five Dynasties, Sung, Hsi Hsia, Yiian
Under this breakdown the Sixteen Kingdoms period would be included in the Northern Wei period, but according to the explanation we received on-site at Mo-kau-ku, cave 275 belongs to the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Incidentally, with regard to the year the cave was opened, the second year of Gian-yan (366A. D.) is the theory accepted by the research institute. Research on the chronology of the caves is being carried out in Japan also5); but in spite of the news that new caves are being excavated,6) there has been no detailed announcement revising the figure on the total number of caves since it was officially placed at 492.
Cave 275 is regarded as the oldest extant cave.?) It is in the shape of a rectangular Buddha hall with an inverted V-shaped ceiling. The cross-ankled (kokyaku) statue of Miroku is very famous and this figure is thought to be patterned after the mode of life in the North China (Hu) cultural tradition. Two shishi-type lions repose on either side of the principal image, and in the upper left and right walls are roofed wall niches (with elaborate gates in the style of Han period palace gates), in which sit statues in the cross-ankled (ko-kyaku) pose and in the reflective pose. Jataka tales form the main stream of the wall paintings, and the vividness of the line drawings is as described earlier. In summary, this is a cave in which the Central Asian cultural mode and the Chinese tradition became fused together into one.
The neighboring cave number 272 is a product of the Northern Wei dynasty and is the second oldest cave after cave number 275. It is in the square Bud-dha hall style and the ceiling of the fukushoshiki (square inverted-dipper) type rounds gently. Enshrined in the cave is an enthroned Buddha, his garments decorated with a transparent wave pattern, and an outer robe draped over one shoulder leaving the other shoulder bare. The "Thousand Buddhas" motif is featured in the wall paintings and flying angels adorn the ceiling. The influence of Central Asia in this cave is strong.
Cave number 259 is a representative product of the Northern Wei dynasty, characterized by an inverted V-shaped ceiling, a statue of Sakyamuni and
Prab-PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai) (6) hutaratna seated together in the stupa, red outer robes in the wave pattern covering both shoulders, flowing white lines, elegant countenances, and slight smiles playing about the lips. The square pillars retain vestiges of the stupa form. The statues feature broad shoulders, high nose bridges, and wide fore-heads., These characteristics point to a close relationship to the early Yiin-kang
caves. Caves number 254 and 257 are of the same period. From this point on-ward the Central Asian influence begins gradually to recede. On the north wall
of cave 285 is the inscription; "大 代 大 魏 大 統 四 年 歳 次 戊 午 八 月 中 旬 造."From
this we are able to calculate 538 A. D. as the date of the cave's construction. In the center of the cave there is an earthen dais upon which the etching of a mandala pattern can be faintly discerned. This is said to be a repair made in the Yiian dynasty and is the only example of its kind. This cave is in the form of a square Buddha hall and features a fukushoshiki (inverted-dipper type) ceiling as well as one large wall niche and two small wall niches in the front of the cave. Two wall niches each are built into the right and left walls. These are thought to be viharas for the purpose of meditation by monks. The prin-cipal image is an enthroned Buddha and in the small wall niches are statues of meditating monks. The Buddhist images tend, on the whole to, become more slender, with angular shoulders and flat chests. The tied sash of the inner garment can be seen beneath the formal Chinese-style outer robe which has collars on both sides. Elements of the early period remain in the form of wave patterns, but the Chinese tradition enters strongly into the wall paintings. In other words, while the subjects for the wall paintings originate in the Indian Buddhist tradition, the customs and manners portrayed are those of Northern Dynasty peoples. Cave number 249 is of the same period.
Cave number 428 is a representative example of the Northern Chou period. It features the inverted V-shaped ceiling and a square pillar in the center. The faces of the Buddhist images begin to become more rounded and give the im-pression of tidiness and gentleness. The outer robes on the statues feature high collars on both sides and are in the Chinese style of layered garments. The wall paintings feature a long, narrow rendition in picture scroll style of the Jataka tale in which Prince Sudana offers his own body to save the hungry
(7) PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai)
mother tiger and her cubs from starvation. The trend toward the picture scroll style typifies one stylistic change that took place in the caves as the centuries progressed. In the wall paintings of the early period, colors were applied to a reddish-brown background, but a white background took its place from around the Western Wei period.
Middle Period
The majority of caves from the middle period are of the square Buddha hall style. The principal image is located in the center and is flanked on either side by disciples of the Buddha (Kasyapa and Ananda) or by bodhisattvas (Kan-non/Avalokitesvara and Seishi/Mahasthamaprapta). In addition, the Heavenly Kings (Tenno) and the Vajra Guardians (Kongo Rikishi) are arranged about the Bud-dhist image dais to form groupings of from three to eleven images. Above the dais is a canopy ceiling of the fukushoshiki (square inverted-dipper) type featur-ing a pattern of swirlfeatur-ing "seaweed." On the floor of the cave is a lotus flow-er pattflow-ern and on the four walls are painted pictoral renditions of sutras (kyohen, literally "pictoral transformations of sutras"). Paintings of a Buddha figure preaching under a tree increase in number while stories of the life of the Bud-dha and the Jataka tales show a marked decline. The significance of the square pillars as stupas is lost entirely. The clay statues are characterized by large faces and a feeling of volume. A period of Buddhist revival occurred in the Sui period, possibly as a reaction to the Buddhist persecutions of the Emperor Bu of the Northern Chou dynasy, and large numbers of new caves were added at the Mo-kau-ku site. To the front of the square pillars in these new caves is located a standing trinity of images, and a transition occurs to a position of central importance for the statues. The features of the images are large, with boyish looks and a slight feeling of rigidity.
Around the Northern Chou period, the Ch'i-Chou style of interior China becomes prominent in the caves' art. Pictoral renditions (kyohen) of the Yuima-gyo (Vimalakirti-nirdesa-sutra) appear in the wall paintings, and animal patterns and lotus fruit designs adorn the ceilings and clothing. The T'ang period is characterized by the appearance of colossal cave temples in which are enshrined huge statues of the Buddha in clay. The gigantic Buddha occupies the central
PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu Y. Hirai) (8) position, surrounded, in descending order by Kannon (Avalokitesvara) and Seishi
(Mahasthamaprapta), the Heavenly Kings (Tenno), Kasyapa and Ananda, bodhi-sattvas making offerings to the Buddha, and a variety of demon figures. The Buddhist image as an object of worship now assumes a position of central im-portance. Buddhist images in groupings of five became popular in this period. The statues of disciples of the Buddha are decorated with embroidered inner garments, brocade skirts, and outer robes painted with landscape designs, or purple surplices the style of dress of Buddhist priests in the T'ang dynasty. Bodhisattva images of both the male and female types occur, the male bodhi-sattvas belonging to the earlier period and bodhibodhi-sattvas embodying feminine characteristics appearing in Sui and T'ang. This transition was in response to the secular demands of the time. The statues of the Heavenly Kings (Tenno; lokapala) and the Door Guardians (rikishi; dvarapala) begin to appear in the Sui period in the concrete form of the Four Quarter Kings (Shitenno). The Four Quarter Kings of this period are asymmetrical, and while their external form is courageous, they are lacking in a sense of inner strength.
The clay statues can be divided into two types, the Hu (North China) statues and the Han statues. Hu merchants and Indian priests of the Sui and Tang were portrayed in the form of Hu statues. The fact that the deep-set eyes and high-bridged noses of Central Asia were added in this period to the traditional Chinese realism in artistic depictions reflects the international character of the dynasty, which unified a number of different races into one nation. The clay statues of T'ang show a wide diversity, but corpulent figures adorned with numerous ornamental articles characterize this period. Caves with a central square pillar disappear, a basic dais appears instead, and the caves take on a similarity to the sanctuaries of wooden temple structures. The realism of the clay statues reaches its peak in the high T'ang and at the same time the wall paintings reach their highest level in both quality and quantity. Pictoral rendi-tions (kyohen) of sutras form the overwhelming majority of wall paintings, with renditions of the Yuimagyo (Vimalakirti-nirdesa-sutra), the Hokekyo (Saddharma-puzzdarika-sutra; the Lotus Sutra), the Kegongyo (Avatamsaka-sutra), the Hoongyo, and others; and as time passes renditions of the Pure Land sutras come to
com-(9) PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu Y. HirXai)Z prise the majority.
Cave number 427 is the largest cave of the Sui period. It is divided into a front and a rear chamber, and while it features the central square pillar of earlier ages, a trinity of Buddhist statues stands to the front of the pillar, with wall niches holding Buddha figures preaching the law hollowed out on the re-maining three sides. Other trinities of Buddhist statues adorn the left and right walls of the front and rear chambers. The statues have large faces, sturdy physiques, and short thighs all characteristics of the Sui period. Two colossal caves representative of the T'ang period are cave number 96 and cave number
130. The former houses a great Buddha 33 meters in height (the northern great image) and the latter houses a great Buddha 26 meters in height (the southern great image). Both of these statues portray the future Buddha Miroku (Maitreya) in the full cross-legged position (each foot resting sole upward on the thigh of the opposite leg). Faces of the statues are round, the cheeks are abundant, brow ridges are sharp, and the eyes are long and narrow. The overall impression is one of fullness and completion. The creation of tidy, harmonious, and magnificent
images through an extremely refined technique characterizes this period. The Tang dynasty can be divided into the early Tang, high T'ang, middle Tang, and late Tang, and the colossal Buddha caves just mentioned belong to the high
Tang period.
Of course both artistic technique and composition reach their zenith in the high T'ang and an ideal in religious art is attained through the perfection of a harmony in which the sculpture and wall paintings blend into a single whole. The painting renditions of the Pure Land likewise reached their zenith in this period. Nor can the economic resources that made possible the construction of these mammoth Buddha caves be forgotten.
Tun-huang came under the domination of Tibet during one portion of the middle T'ang (781-848 A. D.). The delicate artistic realism perfected in the high Tang period continues in much the same pattern in the middle T'ang with, however, a slight trend toward stylization. The figures of people of non-Chinese races which appear in the wall paintings are also a reflection of the age in which the paintings were made. It was this period which saw the construction
PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai) (10) of the caves containing huge images of the Buddha entering final Nirvana, in-cluding caves number 148 (built in 776 A. D.) and 158. Caves number 16, 114, 158, 359, and 420 were constructed in the period when Tun-huang was under Tibetan domination. Cave number 16 is famous because of the discovery of a great store of ancient manuscripts in cave number 17 on the north wall of its corridor. There are two theories on the purpose for constructing the cave manuscript repository: one, to protect the writings from destruction at the time of the Hsi Hsia invasion, and two, as a storehouse to deposit and arrange no-longer-needed manuscripts. When one actually views cave number 17 on-site, it seems unexpectedly small. Against the north wall is a clay image of a per-sonage in priestly robes seated beneath two trees painted on the wall behind. Under the trees are paintings of a Buddhist nun (bhiksuni) and a maid servant attendant on the priest. Could this person speak, he would surely reveal the secret of the cave and the reason for the ancient library hidden in it.
Late T'ang refers to the period from Tun-huang's return to Chinese domina-tion to the fall of the T'ang, and trends from the middle T'ang continued basically uninterrupted. In the final analysis, however, the superior artistic techniques of the high T'ang could not be maintained, and a decline in the quality of the art was unavoidable. The same criticism applies to the hand-written manuscripts that remain from the period, as a definite retrogression occurs beginning at this time. In the Chinese interior, the severe Buddhist
per-secutions of the Emperor Bu-zung took place, undoubtedly exerting a significant influence on the Tun-huang Buddhist world whether for good or for ill. Late Period
During the Five Dynasties and early Sung period, a large number of dynasties rose and fell in interior China, but the Cau tribe maintained a firm grasp on Tun-huang throughout this period, and the work of constructing new caves and ornamenting them with sculpture continued forward under their stable rule. Be-cause large numbers of these caves were constructed on the lower level, however, many of them no longer exist. The trend in this period was to preserve the artistic conventions of the T'ang, and there are examples that exceed works of the T'ang period in scale. Cave number 61 is a creation of the Sung period,
(11) PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai)
and the graphic rendition of Wu-tai Shan painted on the west wall of the cave is a precious piece of material for studying both the topography and the man-ners and customs of the period.
Work on the caves in the Hsi Hsia and Yilan periods consists entirely of repairs and restoration work, but the structure and technique is identical to that of the Sung period. The wall-painting figures of heavenly maidens (tennyo) making offerings to the Buddha in the newly discovered caves of the Hsi Hsia period, however, might be regarded as representative of Hsi Hsia art, with the drooping hair of the maidens, their broad, flat foreheads, their small chins and flat nose bridges, and their adornment in the formal ceremonial dress of the women aristocracy of that period. In the Yuan period, wall paintings character-istic of esoteric Buddhism increase in number. In this period communications with interior China became essentially nil, bringing such problems as difficulty
in procuring paints. One result is that the use of bright pigments on the images and wall paintings becomes rarer. In general terms, the life-giving force that powered the work of cave temple construction for a thousand years entered its final phases at this time.
What problems yet remain to us in attempting to unravel the mysteries of the Mo-kau-ku cave temples? There are many. Significant progress has occurred in recent times in the study of Tun-huang. As a result of this vigorous research effort, the society of ancient Tun-huang together with the various aspects of its Buddhism are in the process of being brought to light. An important area for future research concerns the relationship of the society and Buddhism of Tun-huang to the existence of the stone cave temples at Mo-kau-ku. This is the problem of how the functional aspect of Mo-kau-ku relates to the literature of Tun-huang, and the point of view from which Tun-huang's Buddhism should be viewed. In slightly more concrete terms, it refers to the rela-tionship between the Buddhism of interior China and the Buddhism of Tun-huang. At the same time, the relationship of Tun-huang to such foreign nations as the Tibetans must not be forgotten. To research such problems with only the existence of the stone cave temples themselves and the Tun-huang literature as materials is far from easy, but these are problems the solution of which is a
PRESENT STATE OF THE MO-KAU-KU (T. Mibu-Y. Hirai) (12) vital task. Many researchers and scholars in Japan are studying Tun-huang, but there are severe difficulties involved in any attempt to conduct on-site research. Nor, apparently, are the existing on-site research facilities equipped to carry out research on the content of Tun-huang Buddhism itself. How to overcome such real obstacles to the furthering of research on Tun-huang is another im-portant concern. The mutual and continuing efforts of both Chinese and Japa-nese researchers will be required.
In 1944, 367 ancient sutra scrolls from the Northern Dynasty were discov-ered inside some Ch'ing dynasty clay statues in a mausoleum in front of
Mo-kau-ku.8) These are presently in storage at the Tun-huang Civilization Research Institute, and the possibility for such new discoveries in the future is still very
real. In Japan, Tun-huang has been glamorized as an infinite world of romance, but this view has also been criticized a s overlooking the harsh realities of history. Whatever might be the case, Tun-huang has exerted a considerable
influence on the world of East Asia of which Japan is a part. We anxiously await the results of further research by numerous scholars in the future.
1) Chin Shunsin captured it perfectly when he compared this gate to the shurei
no mzo, a famous gate in Okinawa. (『敦 煙 の 旅 』107頁)。 2) 常 沙 郷 「敦 煙 の 石 窟 芸 術 」 人 民 中 国 創 刊 二 十 五 周 年 別 冊。 3) 常 沙 郷 氏 前 掲 論 文。
4) 『敦 煙 彩 塑 』 文 物 出 版 社, 北 京, 1978。
5) 福 山 敏 男 「敦 煙 石 窟 編 年 試 論 」 仏 教 芸 術19。 ペ リ オ 番 号 を 使 用。 港 黎 絃 「敦 煙 莫
高 窟 芸 術 」 上 海 人 民 出 版 社1957。
6)According to岡 崎 敬in 「中 国 の 塑 像 と敦 燵 千 仏 洞 」 仏 教 芸 術34,"The number of
stone caves of which we are aware at present is 480." This figure represents
discoveries made previous to the Communist takeover. See: 敦 焼 文 物 研 究 所 編 『敦 煙 莫 高 窟 』 甘 粛 人 民 出 版 社。
7) Japanese scholars also agree on this point. 水 野 清 「敦 焼 石 窟 ノ ー ト」 仏 教 芸 術 34。
