C o m p r e h e n s i v e U r b a n S t u d i e s N o . 6 2 1 9 9 7
P r o v i d i n g Land f o r Urban D e v e l o p m e n t :
I s s u e s ， P o l i c i e s and S t r a t e g i e s f o r I m p r o v i n g A c c e s s ，
Tenure a n d R e g u l a t i o n o f Land D e v e l o p m e n t and Use
David Mammen*
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Thank you f o r t h e i n v i t a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l symposium.
1 would l i k e t o b e g i n by i n t r o d u c i n g t h e work o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( I P A) ， and i n p a r t i c u l a r our r e s e a c h and t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o u r b a r i l a n d u s e . I n a d d i t i o n t o s e r v i n g a s P r e s i d e n t o f I P A 1 am a l s o C h a i r o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i v i s i o n o f t h e American P l a n n i n g A s s o c i a t i o n (APA). I n b o t h c a p a c i t i e s 1 h a v e b e e n d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e H a b i t a t I I d e b a t e . 1 would l i k e t o d i s c u s s s e v e r a l i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o l a n d u s e i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e r e c e n t l y h e l d H a b i t a t I I c o n f e r e n c e . 80me o f t h e s e i s s u e s a r e a l s o on t h e agenda i n t h e U . 8 . ， and 1 w i l l c o n c l u d e w i t h remarks c o n c e r n i n g t h e U . 8 . s i t u a t i o n .
About t h e I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
The I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( I P A) i s an i n d e p e n d e n t n o n p r o f i t r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e h e a d q u a r t e r e d i n New Y ork C i t y and o p e r a t i n g wo r 1 d w i d e . IPA was o r g a n i z e d inNew York C i t y i n 1 9 0 6 a s t h e Bureau o f M u n i c i p a l R e s e r c h w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f i n t r o d u c i n g t o t h e f i e l d o f government t h e t h e n ‑ d e v e l p i n g c o n c e p t s o f s c i e n t i f i c management. The s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d f o r New Y o r k C i t y by t h e Bureau s t a f f s t i m u l a t e d a demand f o r government r e s e a c h w h i c h has expanded u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t d a y . IPA e s t a b l i s h e d t h e T r a i n i n g 8 c h o o l f o r P u b l i c 8 e r v i c e i n 1 9 1 1 and g r a n t e d t h e f i r s t a d v a n c e d d e g r e e s i n P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e n a t i o n . L a t e r ， t h e T r a i n i n g 8 c h o o l was moved t o 8 y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y where i t became t h e Maxwell Graduate 8 c h o o l o f C i t i z e n s h i p and P u b l i c A f f a i r s .
B e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s ， t h e e x p a n s i o n o f o v e r s e a s p r o j e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d I P A ' s i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o l e . IPA h a s o p e r a t e d i n a l l t h e major r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d ， and h a s h e l p e d t o e s t a b l i s h p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n s t i t u t e s i n s e v e r a l o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . Today ，
* P r e s i d e n t ， I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ， New Y o r k C i t y
1 5 4 C o m p r e h e n s i v e U r b a n S t u d i e s N o . 6 2 1 9 9 7
IP A has p r o j e c t s i n A s i a ， L a t i n America ， C e n t r a l and E a s t e r n Europe ， t h e newly i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s o f t h e former S o v i e t Union ， and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
I P A ' s A c t i v i t i e s R e l a t e d t o Urban Land Use
I P A ' s program o f r e s e a r c h ， t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e and t r a i n i n g i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o urban l a n d u s e . With s u p p o r t from t h e Ford F o u n d a t i o n ， an i n t e r n a t i o n a l team d i r e c t e d by IPA worked f o r f o u r y e a r s 0 9 8 7 ‑ 1 9 9 0 ) w i t h s c h o l a r s from t h e C h i n e s e Academy o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e s CCASS) on s t u d i e s r e l a t e d t o urban l a n d u s e and manage‑
ment i n C h i n a . IP A e x p e r t s v i s i t e d C h i n a on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s t o j o i n t l y c o n d u c t f i e l d r e s e a r c h i n s e v e r a l c i t i e s i n C h i n a ， i n c l u d i n g Xiamen ， Guangzhou ， Shenzhen ， W 吐 l a n ， Z h e j i a n g P r o v i n c e ， and c i t i e s and towns i n C h i n a ' s n o r t h w e s t r e g i o n . IPA a l s o h o s t e d s t u d i e s i n t h e U . S . by C h i n e s e s c h o l a r s and o r g a n i z e d s t u d y t o u r s t o Japan ， Hong Kong ， S i n g a p o r e ， and Sweden f o r c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y . The p r o j e c t was g u i d e d by an a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e V i c e M i n i s t e r o f C o n s t r u c t i o n ， t h e D i r e c t o r C M i n i s t e r ) o f t h e S t a t e Land A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ， t h e V i c e P r e s i d e n t o f CASS ， and two l e a d i n g reform e c o n o m i s t s from t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l . The f i n a l r e p o r t o f t h e s t u d y ， w i t h recommendations t o g u i d e f u t u r e r e f o r m s ， was p r e s e n t e d a t an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e h e l d i n B e i j i n g and p u b l i s h e d i n C h i n e s e and E n g l i s h ; t h e book i s a v a i l a b l e from I P A .
IPA has a l s o o r g a n i z e d s t u d y t o u r s t o Japan and t h e U . S . f o r C h i n e s e urban p l a n n e r s a s p a r t o f an o n ‑ g o i n g p r o j e c t r e l a t e d t o C h i n a ' s t r a n s i t i o n t o a s o c i a l i s t market economy." The s t u d y t o u r s h a v e examined i s s u e s o f l a n d u s e ， i n f r a s t r u c t u r e d e v e l o p ‑ ment ， and l o c a l economic d e v e l o p m e n t . I n t h e U . S . ， t h e C h i n e s e h a v e s t u d i e d growth management programs i n s e v e r a l s t a t e s ， i n c l u d i n g O r e g o n . The p r o j e c t i s s u p p o r t e d by a g r a n t t o IPA from Japan F o u n d a t i o n C e n t e r f o r G l o b a l P a r t n e r s h i p .
I n September 1 9 9 5 ， t h e C h i n e s e S t a t e Land A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s e n t a h i g h ‑ l e v e l d e l e g a t i o n o f p r o v i n c i a l o f f i c i a l s t o IP A a s p a r t o f a t w o ‑week s t u d y t o u r t o t h e U . S . and C a n a d a . IPA o r g a n i z e d p r e s e n t a t i o n s ， d i s c u s s i o n s ， and s i t e v i s i t s c o n c e r n e d w i t h urban l a n d u s e and d e v e l o p m e n t . P a r t i c i p a n t s r e p r e s e n t e d s u c h p r o v i n c e s a s Yunnan ， N i n g x i a ， S h a a n x i ， Guangdong ， and Hainan among o t h e r s .
IPA has a l s o b e e n a s s i s t i n g t h e R u s s i a n F e d e r a t i o n i n t r a i n i n g r e l a t e d t o t h e i n t r o d u c ‑
t i o n o f urban l a n d u s e and r e a l e s t a t e m a r k e t s . During 1 9 9 6 ， IPA has managed t h r e e
s t u d y t o u r s f o r government o f f i c i a l s and r e a l e s t a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l s from s e v e r a l c i t i e s i n
R u s s i a ， w i t h f u n d i n g from t h e U . S . governmen t ' s f o r e i g n a i d program. The p a r t i c i p a n t s
s t u d i e d urban l a n d u s e and d e v e l o p m e n t i n a m a r k e t ‑ b a s e d economy and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
o f l o c a l government w i t h t h e p r i v a t e r e a l e s t a t e market i n t h e U . S . To compare t h r e e
d i f f e r e n t r e a l e s t a t e markets ， t h e groups t r a v e l e d t o New York ， Washington ， DC ， and
Denver ， C o l o r a d o . We a n t i c i p a t e b e i n g a s k e d t o o r g a n i z e more o f t h e s e s t u d y t o u r s i n
t h e coming m o n t h s .
IPA i s a l s o a c t i v e i n L a t i n America ， and a member o f our s e n i o r s t a f f p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a r e g i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e on Urban Land Markets and Land I n f o r m a t i o n Systems i n L a t i n America and t h e C a r i b b e a n i n November 1 9 9 4 . More t h a n 6 0 p a r t i c i p a n t s from 1 2 L a t i n America c o u n t r i e s a t t e n d e d t h e s e m i n a r c o n v e n e d by t h e L i n c o l n I n s t i t u r e o f Land P o l i c y ， and c o ‑ s p o n s o r e d by t h e Havana‑based Group f o r t h e I n t e g r a l Development o f t h e C a p i t a l (GDIC) ， t h e L a t i n America r e g i o n a l o f f i c e o f t h e Urban Managment Program ， and I n t e r ‑ A m e r i c a n P l a n n i n g S o c i e t y ( S I A P ) .
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e e v e n t was t o f u r t h e r t h i n k i n g and d i a l o g u e a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l r e g a r d i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n g o f l a n d markets ， t o r e v i e w r e s e a r c h on how market f o r c e s e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s i n d i v e r s e c o n t e x t s ， and t o axamine a v a i l a b l e p o l i c y o p t i o n s f o r urban l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and management. I n t h e L a t i n American c o n t e x t ， l a n d market mechanisms a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e v e l o p e d e c o n o m i e s a r e h i g h l y d e f i c i e n t : l a r g e l a n d o w n e r s ， and o f t e n s t a t e a g e n c i e s ， c o n t r o l o r e v e n m o n o p o l i z e l o c a l l a n d markets ， and s q u a t t e r c o m m u n i t i e s p r e d o m i n a t e . I n t h e c a s e o f Cuba ， t h e l a n d market i s a l t o g e t h e r a b s e n t . As Cuba s t r u g g l e s e c o n o m i c a l l y i n t h e wake o f t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l i s t b l o c ， l a n d managers and p o l i c y
岨makersa r e e x a m i n i n g how market mechanisms might be u s e d t o e n s u r e a more e f f i c i e n t and e q u i t a b l e a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s . T h i s s e m i n a r p r o v i d e d a forum f o r t h e e x c h a n g e o f e x p e r i e n c e s and l e s s o n s from w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n .
During t h e w e e k ‑ l o n g e v e n t ， t h e f o c u s o f d i s c u s s i o n and d e b a t e was how t o make l a n d markets more e q u i t a b l e and t r a n p a r e n t ， and how t h e s e c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o b e t t e r urban management i n g e n e r a l . P a r t i c i p a n t s r e v i e w e d a l t e r n a t i v e Land I n f o r m a t i o n Systems f o r l o c a l and r e g i o n a l governments ， e x p l o r i n g v a r i o u s o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o h e l p d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f d i f f e r e n t l a n d u s e s t r a t e g i e s and t a x p o l i c i e s . S p e c i f i c t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d i n c l u d e d : how t o d e t e r m i n e r e a s o n a b l e p r o p e r t y v a l u e s ， how t h e s e c o u l d be m o n i t o r e d and u p d a t e d o v e r t i m e ; how c h a n g e s i n l a n d u s e and l a n d o w n e r s h i p c o u l d b e r e c o r d e d and amply s h a r e d ; and how p r o p e r t y markets c o u l d o r shoud be r e g u l a t e d t o c a p t u r e f i s c a l b e n e f i t s f o r g o v e r n m e n t .
Emerging P r i n c i p l e s and P o l i c i e s from Vancouver t o I s t a n b u l
For t h e p a s t two y e a r s IPA has b e e n a c t i v e i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r H a b i t a t H ， The
Second U . N . C o n f e r e n c e on Human S e t t l e m e n t s ， which was h e l d i n I s t a n b u l i n June 1 9 9 6 .
H a b i t a t I I was c o n v e n e d w i t h two o b j e c t i v e s i n m i n d . F i r s t ， i n t h e l o n g term ， t o a r r e s t
t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f g l o b a l human s e t t l e m e n t c o n d i t i o n s and u l t i m a t e l y c r e a t e t h e
c o n d i t i o n s f o r a c h i e v i n g improvements i n t h e l i v i n g e n v i r o n m e n t o f a l l p e o p l e on a
s u s t a i n a b l e b a s i s ; s e c o n d ， t o a d o p t a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t o f p r i n c i p l e s and commitments
1 5 6
Comprehensive Urban Studies No.62 1997and f o r m u l a t e a r e l a t e d G l o b a l P l a n o f A c t i o n c a p a b l e o f g u i d i n g n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l e f f o r t s t h r o u g h t h e f i r s t two d e c a d e s o f t h e n e x t c e n t u r y .
With i t s f o c u s on urban p r o b l e m s ， H a b i t a t I I was c a l l e d The C i t y Summit" by U . N . S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l B o u t r o s G h a l i . But H a b i t a t I I was a l s o s e e n a s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f UN c o n f e r e n c e s ， i n c l u d i n g Rio ， C a i r o ， B e i j i n g ， Copenhagen ， which t r i e d t o weave t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l t h e m e s r e l a t e d t o s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t . To b e t t e r u n d e r ‑ s t a n d t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ， i n 1 9 9 5 t h e UN C e n t r e f o r Human S e t t l e m e n t s a s k e d IPA t o u n d e r t a k e a s t u d y o f a l l o f t h e major c o n f e r e n c e s h e l d s i n c e H a b i t a t n ( i n Vancouver i n 1 9 7 6 ) ， t o examine how t h e m e e t i n g s had a d d r e s s e d H a b i t a t ‑ r e l a t e d t h e m e s . Our r e p o r t was t i t l e d From Vancouver t o I s t a n b u l : P e r s i s t e n t Problems ， Common G o a l s ， and S h i f t i n g A p p r o a c h e s " . The UN Ce n t r e f o r Human S e t t l e m e n t s p r a i s e d t h e r e p o r t ， n o t h i n g t h a t The i m p l i c a t i o n o f your f i n d i n g s has b e e n t h a t H a b i t a t n became a c o n f e r e n c e t h a t i n t e g r a t e d many o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s and commitments made a t o t h e r UN c o n f e r e n c e s . " The r e p o r t n o t e d t h a t J u s t a s t h e w o r l d has changed s i n c e 1 9 7 6 ， e x p e r i e n c e has b r o u g h t a b o u t c h a n g e s i n i d e a s and a p p r o a c h e s t o i m p r o v i n g l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n human s e t t l e m e n t s . The c h a n g e s i n human s e t t l e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s a r e i n many ways a r e s p o n s e t o demographic ， economic ， t e c h n o l o g i c a l ， p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l e h a n g e s t h a t h a v e o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e p a s t 2 0 y e a r s :
‑ W o r l d p o p u l a t i o n has d o u b l e d from 3 t o 6 b i l l i o n ;
‑Urban p o p u l a t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d e v e n more r a p i d l y ， a t a r a t e 2 . 5 t i m e s f a s t e r t h a n r u r a l a r e a s ;
‑ D e s p i t e v a s t i n c r e a s e s i n w e a l t h and n a t i o n a l GDPs i n some c o u n t r i e s ， t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f p e o p l e b e l o w p o v e r t y l e v e l s has c o n t i n u e d t o i n c r e a s e . The World Bank e s t i m a t e s t h a t ， t o d a y a t l e a s t 6 0 0 m i l l i o n p e o p l e i n human s e t t l e m e n t s l i v e i n h e a l t h and l i f e
旬t h r e a t e n i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Up t o o n e ‑ t h i r d o r more o f urban p o p u l a t i o n s l i v e i n s u b s t a n d a r d h o u s i n g ;
‑ E n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n has i n c r e a s e d and r e c e i v e d w o r l d w i d e c o n c e r n and a c t i o n s t o m i t i g a t e i m p a c t s ;
‑ T r a n s p o r t a c c o u n t s f o r more t h a n 5 0 p e r s e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s f o s s i l f u e l consumption ， c a u s i n g g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t s and t r a f f i c c o n g e s t i o n and h e a l t h p r o b l e m s i n urban a r e a s ;
‑ T h e b l o s s o m i n g o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a g e has i n f o r m e d t h e w o r l d o f p r o b l e m s and
p o t e n t i a l s f o r i m p r o v i n g l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s ;
‑ M e g a ‑ c i t i e s h a v e become major economic c e n t e r s o f t r a d e and commerce ， n e g o t i a t i n g d i r e c t l y w i t h e a c h o t h e r . > >
Problems and O b s t a c l e s t o Appropriate Urban Development
Responding t o t h e s e c h a n g e s ， d e l e g a t e s and NGOs g a t h e r e d i n I s t a n b u l had a complex agenda o f i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e x p e r i e n c e d p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e urban poor i n g a i n i n g a c c e s s t o l a n d f o r s h e l t e r and i n g a i n i n g s e c u r e t o l a n d t h e y h a v e managed t o a c q u i r e ; t o f i n a n c e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d w e l l i n g s ; and t o s e c u r e e s s e n t i a l p u b l i c s e r v i c e s . IPA c a t e g o r i z e d t h e s e i s s u e s a s f o l l o w s :
a ) A c c e s s t o l a n d : Although o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f n a t i o n a l l a n d r e s o u r c e s a r e n e e d e d f o r u r b . a n d e v e l o p m e n t ， t h e s u p p l y n e a r and a c c e s s i b l e t o urban a r e a s i s v e r y l i m i t e d i n most d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . B e c a u s e much o f t h e a c c e s s i b l e and b u i l d a b l e l a n d w i t h i n and a d j a c e n t t o urban a r e a s i s p r i v a t e l y owned ， i t i s f r e q u e n t l y h e l d by w e a l t h y i n v e s t o r s and i s o n l y a v a i l a b l e a t s p e c u l a t i v e p r i c e s . As a r e s u l t ， t h e urban l a n d market d o e s n o t f u n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e s e e k i n g home s i t e s . As a r e s u l t ， most o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g f l o w o f poor m i g r a n t s t o urban a r e a s h a v e o n l y two a l t e r n a t i v e s : t o move i n t o o v e r ‑ c r o w d e d s l u m s or i n v a d e p r i v a t e o r p u b l i c l a n d s and b u i l d t h e i r own s h e l t e r s .
I n p r a c t i c e ， t h e i n v a s i o n p r o c e s s i s h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d i n v o l v i n g c r i m i n a l e l e m e n t s who ( p e r h a p s w i t h t h e o w n e r s ' s a n c t i o n ) c h a r g e m i g r a n t s f o r p e r m l s s l o n and p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r i l l e g a l o c c u p a t i o n o f s u c h s i t e s . Although i n t i m e t h e b u i l d i n g s b u i l t by s q u a t t e r s become q u i t e s u b s t a n t i a l ， t h e i r s i t e s u s u a l l y h a v e i n a d e q u a t e a c c e s s ， and no u t i l i t i e s o r p u b l i c s e r v i c e s i n c l u d i n g p o l i c e or f i r e p r o t e c t i o n . L o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s e f f o r t s t o p r e v e n t i n v a s i o n s or c l e a r s u c h a r e a s h a v e b e e n u n s u c c e s s f u l and c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e f a v o r s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r permanence and r e g u l a r i z a t i o n o f l a y o u t s and g r a d u a l p r o v i s i o n o f a c c e s s and u t i l i t i e s s u p p o r t e d by u s e r c h a r g e s .
b ) S e c u r i t y o f t e n u r e : L e g a l s y s t e m s i n most d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s were d e v e l o p e d i n c o l o n i a l t i m e s and a r e d e s i g n e d f o r w e a l t h i e r s o c i e t i e s . As a r e s u l t ， e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c l e a r t i t l e and f e e o w n e r s h i p i s beyond t h e f i n a n c i a l c a p a c i t y o f most p e o p l e ， and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e poor o c c u p a n t s o f i n f o r m a l s e t t l e m e n t s . They a r e t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t t o e v i c t i o n by p r o p e r t y owners or t h e government a t any t i m e . P r o c e d u r e s f o r s e c u r i n g t i t l e a r e a l s o complex ， c o s t l y ， t i m e consuming and s u b j e c t t o c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s .
c ) I n a p p r o p r i a t e norms and s t a n d a r d s : L e g a l r e q u i r e m e n t s i n d e v e l o p m e n t
c o n t r o l s and r e g u l a t i o n s s u c h a s z o n i n g ， l a n d s u b d i v i s i o n and b u i l d i n g c o d e s a r e
f r e q u e n t l y t o o s t r i c t or e x c e s s i v e i n r e l a t i o n t o r e a l i s t i c n e e d s and c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n ; making l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t and c o n s t r u c t i o n t o o e x p e n s i v e .
1 5 8 C o m p r e h e n s i v e U r b a n S t u d i e s N o .
62 1997F e e s f o r p e r m i t s may be e x c e s s i v e ， i n v i t i n g c o r r u p t i o n ( N o t e : t h e New D e l h i D e c l a r a t i o n c o n t a i n s s p e c i f i c p o s i t i v e recommendations on l a n d p l a n n i n g p o l i c i e s and r e g u l a t i o n s )
d ) Government r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ， r e s o u r c e s and management:
‑ O v e r ‑ c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f government powers and r e s o u r c e s : I n many c o u n t r i e s t h e n a t i o n a l government i s t h e o n l y e f f e c t i v e government which c o l l e c t s t a x e s ， a d o p t s l a w s ， a d m i n i s t e r s programs and e v e n a p p o i n t s mayors and o t h e r l o c a l o f f i c i a l s . C i t i e s and o t h e r l o c a l u n i t s o f government h a v e l i t t l e power and v e r y l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s .
‑ I n e f f i c i e n t government management o f l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t and o c c u p a n c y : Lack o f ， o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e p o l i c i e s ; Lack o f t r a n s p a r e n c y i n r e g u l a t i o n s and a d m i n i s t r a ‑ t i o n ; Time consuming and c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s by r e s p o n s i b l e o f f i c i a l s .
‑ I n a d e q u a t e t e c h n o l o g y : No ， o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e l a n d p l a n n i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t c o n t r o l s . No l a n d t i t i l e r e g i s t r y or c a d a s t r a l s y s t e m s . No l a n d t a x a t i o n or c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m s . I n a d e q u a t e l y t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e . l
e ) Lack o f community p a r t i c i p a t i o n : P e o p l e ， and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n poor commu‑
n i t i e s a r e g i v e n l i t t l e o r no o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n government p l a n n i n g a f f e c t i n g t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s ， o r i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f improvement p r o g r a m s .
。 Lacko f c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h p r i v a t e s e c t o r : Few o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e o f f e r e d by
government f o r p r i v a t e d e v e l o p e r s and b u i l d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t i n g p u b l i c d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s .
g ) F i n a n c i a l s y s t e m s and i n s t i t u t i o n s d e f i c i e n t i n s u p p o r t o f urban d e v e l o p m e n t : C r e d i t f o r l a n d p u r c h a s e o r d w e l l i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i s u n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e poor who l a c k t e n u r e ; and where i t i s a v a i l a b l e ， down‑payments and i n t e r e s t r a t e s a r e e x c e s s i v e .
h ) I n e q u i t a b l e t r e a t m e n t o f woman ， m i n o r i t i e s and v u l n e r a b l e g r o u p s : I n many c o u n t r i e s ， women may n o t h o l d t i t l e t o l a n d o r p a r t i c i p a t e i n p o l i t i c a l ， s o c i a l economic l i f e d e s p i t e t h e i r dominant r o l e i n home‑making and t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f communi‑
t i e s . Problems a l s o e x i s t i n e x c l u d i n g and d i s c r i m i n a t i n g a g a i n s t m i n o r i t i e s ， t h e e l d e r l y and d i s a b l e d ， r e f u g e e s and i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e .
Preparing f o r t h e Debate i n I s t a n b u l
Major e m p h a s i s was g i v e n t o t h e i s s u e o f a c c e s s t o l a n d and s e c u r i t y o f t e n u r e i n t h e
G l o b a l P l a n o f A c t i o n (GPA) a d o p t e d a t t h e H a b i t a t n C o n f e r e n c e i n I s t a n b u l ， June
1 9 9 6 . I n i n t r o d u c i n g p r o p o s e d a c t i o n s f o r E n s u r i n g a c c e s s t o l a n d " t h e GPA s t a t e s t h a t A c c e s s t o l a n d and s e c u r i t y o f t e n u r e a r e s t r a t e g i c p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a d e q u a t e s h e l t e r f o r a l l and f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u s t a i n a b l e s e t t l e m e n t s "
・‑ t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e s o f t h e e n t i r e c o n f e r e n c e .
The v a r i e t y and c o m p l e x i t y o f l a n d i s s u e s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e 3 9 a c t i o n s p r o p o s e d i n t h e GPA w h i c h c a l l f o r r e f o r m s a f f e c t i n g b a s i c e c o n o m i c and l e g a l s y s t e m s ， c h a n g e s i n government r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ， i m p r o v e d management ， and new a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f s o c i a l c o m m u n i t i e s and t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r . The GPA p r o p o s a l s r e f l e c t t h e i n t r a c t a b i l i t i y o f t h e i s s u e s and t h e l a c k o f p r o g r e s s d e s p i t e many p a s t e f f o r t s s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e S t o c k h o l m C o n f e r e n c e i n 1 9 7 2 ， f o l l o w e d by t h e Vancouver d e c l a r a t i o n i n 1 9 7 6 and t h e r e f o r m s c a l l e d f o r i n C h a p t e r 7 o f Agenda 2 1 i s s u e d a t t h e World E n v i r o n m e n t C o n f e r e n c e i n R i o 1 9 9 2 .
R e p o r t i n g on p r o g r e s s towards t h e aims f o r human s e t t l e m e n t s e x p r e s s e d i n Agenda 2 1 ， t h e UN C e n t e r f o r Human S e t t l e m e n t s (UNCHS) r e p o r t e d t o t h e Commission on S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t (CSD) i n March 1 9 9 4 t h a t t h e r e i s n o t v e r y much movement i n t h e a r e a o f l a n d m a n a g e m e n t . . . t h e p r o c e s s o f urban e x p a n s i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a o t i c ， and o f t e n t a k e s p l a c e o u t s i d e any l e g a l framework and j u r i s d i c t i o n ， w i t h immense n e g a t i v e e c o l o g i c a l ， s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s . . . Wh a t h a s h i n d e r e d i t s o f a r i s t h e p o l i t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e l a n d i s s u e . C o n t r o l o v e r l a n d t e n u r e i s ， a f t e r aU ， s t i l l t h e b a s i s o f power i n many s o c i e t i e s . " N e v e r t h e l e s s ， t h e UNCHS r e p o r t e d t o t h e CSD t h a t t h e UN s y s t e m c o n t i n u e s t o a s s i s t g o v e r n m e n t s o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n i n s t i t u t i n g measures t o i n c r e a s e t h e s u p p l y o f l a n d ， i m p r o v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and t e c h n i c a l c a p a c i t i e s f o r l a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n ， and l e g a l r e f o r m s t o promote t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f l a n d m a r k e t s " .
To p r o v i d e background on l a n d i s s u e s f o r t h e H a b i t a t I I C o n f e r e n c e ， a G l o b a l C o n f e r e n c e on A c c e s s t o Land and S e c u r i t y o f T e n u r e " was h e l d i n New D e l h i i n January 1 9 9 6 s p o n s o r e d by a number o f g o v e r n m e n t s and i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i g t h e p u b l i c ， n o n ‑ g o v e r n m e n t and p r i v a t e s e c t o r s . T h i s c o n f e r e n c e drew on t h e f i n d i n g s o f s i x r e g i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e s on l a n d i s s u e s h e l d d u r i n g 1 9 9 5 and a d o p t e d t h e New D e l h i D e c l a r a t i o n " c o n t a i n i n g 6 0 recommendations grouped u n d e r t h e f o l l o w o n g f i v e t o p i c s ， c h o s e n b e c a u s e o f t h e p l a c e t h e y h o l d i n t h e f o r e f r o n t o f c o n c e r n s a b o u t urban l a n d " :
1 . D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and L o c a l Government 2 . I n f o r m a l Land D e v e l o p m e n t
3 . Community S e c t o r P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n T e n u r e R e g u l a r i z a t i o n and Land D e v e l o p m e n t
4 . Formal P r i v a t e S e c t o r P a r t i c i p a t i o n I n c l u d i n g P u b l i c ‑ P r i v a t e P a r t n e r s h i p s
5 . Norms ， S t a n d a r d s and P r o c e d u r e s f o r F a c i l i t a t i n g I m p l e m e n t a t i o n and F i n a n c i n g
1 6 0 C o m p r e h e n s i v e U r b a n S t u d i e s N o . 6 2 1 9 9 7
The New D e l h i D e c l a r a t i o n i s v e r y w e l l o r g a n i z e d and c o m p l e t e l y a d d r e s s e s t h e r e a l l a n d i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i g urban government i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . I t was c l e a r l y p r e p a r e d by p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e f i e l d ， w h i l e t h e H a b i t a t I I GPA i s t h e work o f a l a r g e c o m m i t t e e composed m a i n l y o f d i p l o m a t s w i t h l i t t l e d i r e c t knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e i n urban d e v e l o p m e n t . For example ， t h e GPA s e c t i o n on l a n d i s s u e s c o n t a i n s h a r d l y any m e n t i o n o f how t o d e a l w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s and p o t e n t i a l s o f i n f o r m a l l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t which i s t h e predominant t y p e o f l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n most LDCs. The recommenda‑
t i o n s i n t h e GPA do n o t r e p r e s e n t a b a l a n c e d r e s p o n s e t o a l l l a n d i s s u e s and a r e n o t o r g a n i z e d o r grouped by s u b j e c t a s i n New D e l h i . Many a r e v e r y c r y p t i c ， sometimes n o t c l e a r ， and a r e f u l l o f r e p e t i t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s ， t h e y do c o n t a i n much g u i d a n c e f o r LDCs i f s u p p l e m e n t e d by t h e New D e l h i D e c l a r a t i o n .
The h a b i t a t n G l o b a l Plan o f A c t i o n
The G l o b a l P l a n o f A c t i o n e n a c t e d i n I s t a n b u l proposed a s e r i e s o f 3 9 a c t i o n s f o r n a t i o n a l and l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s b a s e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p l e s and p o l i c i e s . . COne might o b s e r v e t h a t most o f t h e s e do n o t c a l l f o r r a d i c a l r e f o r m s and ， f o r t h e most p a r t ， s u g g e s t more e f f i c i e n t and e q u i t a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g l a w s and p r o c e d u r e s ) :
1 . Rather t h a n p r o p o s i n g l i m i t a t i o n s on p r i v a t e l a n d o w n e r s h i p a s a d o p t e d i n Vancouver ， GPA c a l l s f o r making t h e l a n d market more e f f i c i e n t and p r o p o s e s p a r t n e r s h i p s w i t h t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n urban d e v e l o p m e n t programs.
2 . A s t r o n g e r and more u r g e n t c a l l f o r i n v o l v i n g p e o p l e i n poor c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p r o j e c t s f o r s h e l t e r and community e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t .
3 . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t s h a v e n o t a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s e d urban problems ， t h e GP A recommends d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n powers t o l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s ， and t h e a s s i g n m e n t o f a d e q u a t e r e s o u r c e s t o c a r r y o u t t h e s e management f u n c t i o n s .
4 . A new approach r e c o g n i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r i n p r o v i d i n g b o t h s h e l t e r and e m p l o y m e n t . I n s t e a d o f e v i c t i n g s q u a t t e r s and d e m o l i s h i n g t h e i r homes ， g o v e r n m e n t s a r e u r g e d t o s e e t h e i r v a l u e and t o a s s i s t i n making them permanent by p r o v i d i n g l a n d t e n u r e and p u b l i c s e r v i c e s .
5 . The n e e d f o r i m p r o v e d s k i l l s ， c a p a c i t i e s and t e c h n o l o g y f o r l a n d management i s r e c o g n i z e d .
6 . Major e m p h a s i s i s g i v e n t o a c h i e v e m e n t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l s u s t a i n a b i l i t y i n urban
d e v e l o p m e n t and management.
7 . I n c r e a s e d c o n c e r n f o r e q u i t y ， p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e empowerment o f women i n urban d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s e s .
The 3 9 proposed a c t i o n s f o r e n s u r i n g a c c e s s t o l a n d i n t h e GP A can be summarized under t h e f o l l o w i n g s e v e n s u b j e c t s :
Development P o l i c i e s L e g a l Frameworks Land Markets
Management and Technology P a r t n e r s h i p s and P a r t i c i p a t i o n F i n a n c i a l R e s o u r c e s
E q u i t y I s s u e s
a . Development p o l i c i e s
‑ R e d u c e p r e s s u r e s f o r urban s p r a w l by p e r m i t t i n g i n c r e a s e d d e v e l o p m e n t d e n s i t i e s i n a r e a s s e r v e d by i n f r a s t r u c t u r e .
‑Promote r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t t o r e d u c e urban m i g r a t i o n by i n c r e a s i n g a c c e s s t o l a n d ， e n c o u r a g i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e m e n t and s m a l l and medium urban c e n t e r s .
‑Adopt s u s t a i n a b l e l a n d u s e p o l i c i e s ， b a l a n c i n g t h e n e e d f o r urban d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n .
‑ R e s e r v e open s p a c e s f o r p u b l i c parks ， r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s and p r i v a t e g a r d e n s . b . L e g a l Frameworks
‑ E n a c t c l e a r and e q u i t a b l e p r o p e r t y l a w s ， s p e c i f y i n g l a n d o w n e r s h i p r i g h t s and l i m i t a t i o n s ， and d e f i n i n g v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f t e n u r e .
‑Adopt l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s and b u i l d i n g c o d e s a p p r o p r a i t e t o i n d i g e n o u s s o c i e t i e s ， i n c l u d i n g s i m p l e and c l e a r p r o c e d u r e s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t and b u i l d i n g approva l .
‑ E n s u r e s i m p l e p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r o f o w n e r s h i p and c o n v e r s i o n o f l a n d u s e .
c . Land Markets
‑Promote t h e e f f i c i e n t and e q u i t a b l e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e market f o r v a c a n t l a n d i n
1 6 2 C o m p r e h e n s i v e U r b a n S t u d i e s N o . 6 2 1 9 9 7
and around urban a r e a s by e m p l o y i n g f i s c a l i n c e n t i v e s and o t h e r measures ， and l e g i t i m i z i n g d i v e r s e l a n d d e l i v e r y m e c h a n i s m s . C I m p l i e d ， b u t n o t s t a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y i s t h e f a c i l i t a t i n g and l e g i t i m i z i n g o f i n f o r m a l o r s q u a t t e r s e t t l e m e n t on p r i v a t e l a n d s )
‑ A d o p t i n s t r u m e n t s t o c a p t u r e g a i n s i n l a n d v a l u e due t o p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t i n
泊 f r a s t r u c t u r e .
d . Management and T e c h n o l o g y
‑ D e c e n t r a l i z e l a n d management r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s ， p r o v i d i n g a d e q u a t e r e s o u r c e s t o a s s u r e e f f i c i e n t and e q u i t a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
‑ P r e p a r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n v e n t o r i e s o f l a n d u s e and o w n e r s h i p w i t h c a d a s t r a l and r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m s t o s u p p o r t and r e g u l a r i z e p r o p e r t y v a l u e a s s e s s m e n t s and t a x s y s t e m s .
e . P a r t n e r s h i p s and P a r t i c i p a t i o n
‑Form and o r g a n i z e p a r t n e r s h i p s w i t h t h e p r i v a t e f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l s e c t o r s and n o n ‑ g o v e r n m e n t a l community g r o u p s f o r c o o p e r a t i n g i n s h e l t e r improvement p r o J e c t s .
‑ D e v e l o p and i m p l e m e n t measures t o e n h a n c e n o n ‑ g o v e r n m e n t a l and community c a p a b i l i t i e s i n o r d e r f o r them t o a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n l a n d and a f f o r d a b l e s h e l t e r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s .
f . F i n a n c e
‑ P r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e s t o l e n d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s t o i n c r e a s e s a v i n g s by t h e poor and t o o f f e r c r e d i t t o low and moderate income i n d i v i d u a l s and community c o l l e c t i v e s a t a f f o r d a b l e r a t e s f o r l a n d p u r c h a s e and s h e l t e r i m p r o v e m e n t s .
g . E q u i t y I s s u e s
C N o t e : e q u i t y i s s u e s a r e s t r e s s e d i n a l l a c t i o n p r o p o s a l s )
事
E r a d i c a t el e g a l and s o c i a l b a r r i e r s t o e q u i t a b l e l a n d a c c e s s and t e n u r e by a d o p t i n g measures e n s u r i n g t h a t women and o t h e r v u l n e r a b l e groups h a v e e q u a l t e n u r e r i g h t s and a c c e s s t o c r e d i t f o r b u y i n g ， l e a s i n g o r r e n t i n g l a n d and s h e l t e r .
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