Greeks and Buddhism: Historical Contacts in the Development of a Universal Religion

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Greeks

and

Buddhism:

Historical

Contacts

in the

Development

of a

Universal

Religion

demetrios th

. V

assiliades

TheBuddhaandthe Greeks

T

HE turyreligiousB.C.E. was movementdividedafter that was foundedhis deathinto manyby the Buddhasub-sects andin theit remained6th cen

for three centuries roughly limited to the Ganges valley, unable to spread

Indian beliefs to foreigners and thus to play any significant role in the in ternational community. Yet,one of theearliest Indianreferences totheGreeks

(Yonas in Pali;Yavanas inSkt.) occurs in Buddhist literature andis attributed to theBuddhahimself. This referenceisfoundin the Assalayana Sutta of the

Majjima Nikaya, the secondbook orcollectionof the SuttaPitaka,contain

ing medium lengthdiscourses.1 On the occasion of a discourse between the Buddhaand a youngBrahmana named Assalayana,theauthor has the Buddha speak about the countriesof the Yonas and Kambojas, who didnotfollowthe

1 The MajjimaNikaya, along with theDlgha, Ahguttara, Sanyutta, and Khuddaka Nikayas, is classified in the firstgroup ofthe Pali Canon (Tipitaka) called the SuttaPitaka (a collection of the teachings of the Buddha).The Pali Canon isgenerally considered tobe theearliest avail ablecollectionof Buddhisttexts.The Sthaviravada(Theravada)Buddhists believe that itcon tains the original teachingsofthe Buddhaandthat it wasfixed during the First Council which took place at Rajagrha immediatelyafterhis death. It was transmittedorally for manycen turies until it was firstreduced to writingin Aloka-Viharain Ceylon, during the reignof Vattagamam(29-17 B.C.E.). Cf.Dictionary of Pali Proper Names (hereafter DPPN),p. 818. However, the Pali Canon continued to develop and must have reachedits completion during the firsttwo centuries C.E.

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VASSILIADES: GREEKS AND BUDDHISM

fourfold caste division, but recognised only two classes, namelyslaves and

free men. This would accurately reflect Greek societies of the classical eras, whichwere relativelyegalitarian. Thetwocountries were mentioned as places

inwhich the master could become a slave andvice versa.This suggests that the Indians knew that the Yonas did not follow the birth-based caste system and that they had a kind of democratic constitution accordingto which all shared alike in riding and being ruled in turn. TheBuddha’s statementis as

follows:

“What doyou think about this, Assalayana? Haveyou heard that

in the countries ofYona (yonaratthan) and Kamboja

(kamboja-ratthan) and other adjacentdistrictsthere are only two castes, the

masterand the slave? And having been a master one becomes a slave; having been a slave one becomes amaster?”—“Yes Ihave heard this, Sir, inYona and Kamboja . . . having been a slave, one becomes a master.”2

2Majjima Nikaya,II, p. 149.The translation is by Homer 1957, p.341. I have, however, translated the word “ratthan” (Skt. rastram) as“country.”

3 Vassiliades 1997. 4 Jain1974, pp. 196-197.

5For a more completeaccount ofthe controversialviews about and argumentsagainst the authenticity of thePali Canon, see Goyal 1987, pp. 117-119. Most of the traditions agree on the authenticityof threeor fourNikayas,whichimplicitlycontain the majorityof theteach ings ofthe Buddha.

If we accept thevalidityof theBuddha’s statementit would prove that Indians knew, or atleast hadheard about, aYona (probably Ionian) state orsettle mentas early as the beginning ofthe sixthcentury B.C.E. But as there isnot sufficient historical or archaeological evidence upon whichto clearly posit

the existence of a Greek settlement in the eastern regions of the Persian Empire in those days, the Buddhist texthas been considered tobea literary

deviceof later times.3 The “Yona” country is not included in thelists of the states (mahajanapadas) given by the early Buddhist and Jain texts. The

Chullaniddesa first substitutes Yona for Gandhara in the list of the sixteen statesgiven in theAnguttaraNikdya.4Manyrecent scholars have doubtedthe

authenticity of the canon and no definite conclusion concerning the original

teachings of the Buddha has been reached.5 Itis,however, remarkable thatan

early Buddhisttexthasobservedandutilised theGreeksocial system inorder

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THE EASTERN BUDDHIST XXXVI, 1 & 2

Brahmanic tradition. A similar observation occursalso in the thirteenth Rock

Edict of Asoka where the country of theYonas is mentioned asthe only place

where theclassesofthe Brahmanas andthe Samanas do not exist.

It is also noticeable that oneof the earliest Greek references to the Indians, suggeststhatthe Greek captain Scylax, whowas a contemporary of theBud dha, alsonoticedthe existing social system oftheIndians. Hisremarks, how

ever, differ as he notices notthe alteration but theunaltered division between the ruling and the ruled classes in India. Scylax’ statement recorded by

Aristotle has as follows:

As we do not find anything correspondingto the great difference

that Scylax states to exist between kingsand subjects in India, it is

clear that for manyreasons it is necessary for all to share alike in

ruling and being ruled in turn. For equality is meaningful for per sons who are of likestatus, and also itis difficult for a constitution

to endure that which isframed in contra-versionof justice.6

6Aristotle, Pol., 7, 13,1,p. 1332b 12; FGrH, No. 709, Fr.5. 7 Herodotos,III, p. 98.

8 Ibid., IV, p. 40.

Aristotle’s knowledge of India and Indians was very incomplete. He must have heard a few things about Indian ascetics and it is said that he asked Alexander, who was on the point of departure forAsia, to bring him an Indian gymnosophist (naked sophist), but thereis noevidence to suggest thathehad any knowledge of the Indian religions and Buddhism. The pre-Alexandrian

Greek writers, Scylax, Ctesias, Hecataios and Herodotos limited theirdescrip tions to the northwestern regionof the Indiansubcontinentup to the border of the RiverIndus. Beyond thatHerodotos believed there to be avast desert

ofsand andthe unknown:

Eastward of India lies a trackwhich isentirelysand. Indeedof all theinhabitants of Asia, aboutwhom anything certain is known, the Indians dwell the nearest to the east, and the rising of the sun. Beyondthem the wholecountryis desert on account of the sand.7

Asia’s frontierin the south is the Red Sea, and in the north are the Caspian Sea andthe River Araxes, which flowstowards the rising

sun.The country isinhabited until youreach India, butfurther east

it is emptyof inhabitants,and no one can saywhat sort ofregion it

is. Suchthen is the shape, and such is the sizeof Asia.8

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Another point ofinadequate information was the Greek knowledge ofthe

ancient Brahmanic and Shramanic traditions that prevailed on the Indian

Peninsula fromthe times of the Vedic Rsi-s andthefirst Tlrthankara-s. The remaining fragments from thelost books ofthe firstGreek writersare full of imaginary descriptions of monstrous people, strange animals and fabulous mountains, springs and rivers. They alsocontain somematerial ofanthropo

logical interest concerning the manners and customs ofthe overpopulated

Indian tribes. However, there exist two important isolated passages from

which we might infer that the peculiar way of life ofthe Indian ascetics had

started appearing in thePersianand thepre-AlexandrianHellenicworlds.The first is a passage of Herodotos9which describes an Indian tribe, apparently

following customs verysimilar to those of the Jain ascetics who killed noth ing and chose to die in an idiosyncratic manner. Herodotos describesthem as follows:

9 Ibid., Ill,p. 100.

10 Photios, LXXII, 48b, pp.5-18. [FGrH, No. 688, fr. 45 (44).] 11 Ibid., LXXII,46a, pp. 14-19. [FGrH, No.688,fr. 45 (17).]

Some Indians never killed nor cultivated anything. They did not have houses andthey lived on herbs.They relied upon agrain the

sizeof millet in a podwhich sprang spontaneouslyfrom the earth. They boiled itand ate it withthe pod. If any one of them became sick then he would leave hiscommunity and go to anuninhabited

placewherehe laiddown todie. No one cared for him during this time or after his death.

The second fragmentbelongs to Ctesias,10who referstoanotherIndian tribe

living inthe mountains that ateand dranknothing except milk. This descrip tion corresponds also to reality and illustrates the custom of certain Hindu

ascetics tolimit thevarietyof their food and to exercise lifelong fasting. Ctesias11 also mentions a sacred village existing in the midstof an unin habitedregion (desert) about fifteen days distancefrom Mount Sardo. The

village was dedicated to the Sun and the Moon. Every year, when the Sun

cooled down, peoplegathered in this village to perform sacred rites for thir ty-fivedays andthen returned to theirhomes. Thisis perhaps the earliest ref erence tothe existence of a Sun andMoon cult in ancient India. This cult is not knownin Brahmanical literature where there isonly an incidental refer

ence to the Sun and Moon in the Prasna Upanisad. This mentions that Prajapati (the lord ofcreation), desirous of offspring, performed austerities

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(tapas) andproduced thepair, life(prana) andmatter (rayi), which are inter

preted as Sun and Moon.12 They are the masculine and feminine, thebright

and darkprincipleswhichpenetratetheentire creation. Thesesymbols were

worked out to a greater extent in later Tantric art and literature, wherethetwo

principles are identified withthe forms of Siva andSaktirespectively. Also,

in BuddhistliteraturetheSunand Moon appeared asdeities worshippedbya large number of people.13

We might accept that an abstract diffusion of ideas had been possible

through themovement of legends andmyths,which may later have inspired

the development of certain philosophical ideas. However, such tales must have lost and gained many nuances as they passed through many mouths and miles on theirlong journeyfrom one nationto the other. Such an example might be seen in the folk tales ofthe Phrygian slave, Aesop (middle of the

sixth century B.C.E.) and their counterparts found in Indian myths of

Pancatantra, Hitopadesa, and the Buddhist Jatakas. Some scholars14have

proposed an Indian origin inAesop’s tales particularly forthose describing monkeys, crocodiles, andothertropical animals. But thisconclusion involves

chronological impossibilities. The Indian texts, intheirpresent form, are a date later than Aesop, yetthereis always thepossibilitythat they might have

beenderived from earlier sources. The dogs’ satireonpriestly rituals found in the Chandogya Upanisad}5for instance, suggests thatthe idea of portray ing animals parleying in human tonguewas not alien tothe ancient Indians.

As Halliday rightly suggests the stories werea collective creation of people belonging to differentnationsand differentgenerations.16

Alexander, Megasthenes and theIndian Religions

A newerainthe relations of theIndianandGreek peoples began in 327B.C.E.

with the campaign of King Alexander IIIof Macedonia (Alexander theGreat)

in India. His exploits and his worldwide conquests have been well docu

mented by historians all over the world. However, it is less known that Alexander, apart frombeing a great warrior, was also veryinterested in phi

losophy. Along with his vast army, he also brought several philosophers,

namelyKallisthenes (the nephew of Aristotle),Anaxarchos, Onesicritos (the

12 “adityo havai pranah, rayirevacandramah.” Prasna Upanisad,I, p. 5.

13 Therighatha, p. 87; Vinaya Pinaka, I, p.263; Devadhamma Jataka,(No. 6). 14 See Pawate1986and Arora 1981.

15 I, 13, 1-5.

16 Cf.Halliday 1933, pp. 46-48.

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disciple of Diogenes), and perhaps theCynic Sicritos and the Sceptic Pyrrho. Several other scholars and writersjoined the king’s entourage, met with

Indian ascetics and notedsimilaritiesbetween early Greekand Indian philoso phies. Onesicritos17 informs usthatin his dialoguewithDandamis, an Indian gymnosophist, he pointed out various correspondences between his own philosophical understanding andthose of Pythagoras, Socrates, andDiogenes

of Sinope. He also notedthatDandamisin his turn criticised the Greeks for

replacing the natural law(physis) with social conventions (pornos).

17 Strabo,XV.

18 See Yalouris 1980, pp.24-31;and Modi 1928.

19 It was only later, after theMohammedaninvasions, that Indian Muslims were deeply influ enced byPersian poetry and became familiar with the nameof Alexander (Sikander),who, as a symbol of worldly power, was often contrasted with the povertyof the mystics of Islam. See Vassiliades 2000, pp. 89-90, n.4.

Though Alexander’s stay in India was brief,his adventures and his meet ings with Indian sages became, overthe centuries, a popular subject in the epicsoftheWesternworld.18 The traditionsurrounding his figure was codi fied in a popular mythico-historical saga known as Bios Alexandrou ton Makedonos kai Praxes, written by an anonymousAlexandrian(now known as pseudo-Kallisthenes), whoprobably lived sometime between the firstand

the thirdcentury C.E. His third book sketches the meetingof the Macedonian

king withthe Oxydracae (or Sudracae) Brahmanas and the gymnosophists.

Further,itdescribes the prophesy of his own death which hereceived during hisvisit to the Sun and Moon sanctuaries. Also included in this book isthe

story in which Aristotle asked Alexander to bring him an Indian gym

nosophist, plus a long lettersentby Alexander to his teacherAristotle that

describes various marvels in India.

The meeting between Alexander and the ascetics of India, especially

Dandamis and Calanos has provided the perfect canvas on which are illus trated the differencesin each culture’s basic viewof life. In this first meeting ofEast and West, the king of kings,representingpower andwealth, iscon trasted with the naked ascetics, whohave renounced all worldly values. This

contrast becamethe source of inspiration for theHellenisticwriters to express their philosophical ideas about religion, renunciation, death and life. How ever, Alexander’sadventures left no impressions on theIndianmind and his

name isnot foundinearly Indian literature.19

After Alexander’s death, the Greeks established kingdoms in Bactria and

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Although the Indo-Greeks were foreign to India,they seem to have beenin

the background of several important events in ancient Indian history. The

interaction they had with Indians was often inthe contextof war, butthe eth

nocentric tendency(of certainhistorians) to isolate and underestimatethem wasnot always present. There were timeswhen ethnic tribes,under threat of

extinction, had to assert their identity by proclaiming the uniquenessoftheir ideology and thesuperiority of their race. Therewere also times whenfriendly

relations and alliances developed and Greek and Indian peopletook the oppor

tunity to increase their standardof living by exchanging wisdom and inven tions.

Battles and enmitiesapart,this was, undoubtedly therichestand most vital period in the intercultural relations of the two peoples. Classical and Hellenistic Greek writers described India as a country of marvels and ideal

landscapes and also as a land where foreigners were well cared for,where

truth and virtue were honoured, and where the people were honest,20 just, long-lived, truth-loving and peaceful.21 Contactstook placein various fields, suchas medicine, science, numismatics, art, literature, astronomy and phi

losophy.22

20 Clement, Stromateis, III, p. 194.

21 For a collection of references, see Arora 1991 and Arora 1996, pp. 177-185.

22 I have already presented extensivecomparisons betweenGreek and Indian philosophies in my papers: Vassiliades 2005a; Vassiliades 2005b; and Vassiliades2006. For further philo sophical comparisons, see McEvilley 2002; Dahlquist 1962; West 1971; Ingalls 1952-53; Garbe 1980, pp. 36-55; and Keith 1909, pp. 569-572. Forthe firstcomparative attempts in India (viz. J.R. Ballantyne, H.N. Rande, J.G. Jennings, R.D. Ranade, A.E. Gough, and Beninmadhab Barua), seePandey 1994; and Barua 1970 (1921). For moregeneral compar isons, seeMacDonell 1990(1925); Nakamura 1992; Raju 1992; Saher1969; Scharfstein 1978; Masson-Oursel 1926; Radhakrishnan 1982(1939); Keith 1976 (onlythe last chapter);and Halbfass 1990 (onlythe first chapter). A detailed account of the Hellenistic influence on archi tecture, sculpture,painting, coinage, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, art of writing,liter ature, drama, religion, philosophy, mythology, fables and folklore of India isfound in Banerjee 1961. For further studiesin the cultural contacts between India and Greece, seeArora 1991; Doshi 1985; Sedlar 1980; Chapekar 1977; Gupt1993; Candra 1979; Singhal 1972; Chaturvedi 1985; and Kartunen 1997.For comparisonsbetween Greek and Indian medicine,see Filliozat 1964.

How much religious interaction was there, and to what extent did the

Greeks and Indians influence each other? In the early stages, Greeks and Indians were not interested in conversion andindeed retained their polythe

istic religions.As their relationship strengthened,however, a mutual interest in learning about each other’s religious beliefs developed.

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Megasthenes (early third century B.C.E.), who served as ambassador for King Seleucos Nicator at the court of Candragupta Mauryan, showed an intense interest in describing the disciplines and ideas ofIndian ascetics, whom he called philosophers (philosophoi or sophistai), but not gym-

nosophists. He distinguishedbetweenthe followers of Dionysos (Siva), who

lived in the mountains,and of the followers ofHercules (Indra orKrsna), who

lived on the plains. He described extensively the existing Brahmanic and Shramanic traditions. Megasthenes noticed that the Sarmanae were subdi vided into several sects buthe did not mention the Buddhists. The Hylobioi andthe physiciansappear to beJain ascetics and yogiswhileathird sect of

the Sarmanae consisted of specialists in rites and customs concerning the

dead.

Asokaand the Expansionof Buddhism

Buddhism began its transformation to a world religion two generations later underthevigorous patronageof Asoka,whoestablished Buddhism asthe offi cial religion ofthe MauryanEmpire. Asoka grew up in a society that had close contacts withthe Greeks. Woodcockgoes asfaras to imagine apossible de scent of Asoka from Greekblood,because his grandfather Candragupta was given the Greek princess, Helen, formamage by Seleucos Nicator. Woodcock writes:

The treaty between the two kings was settled with a marriage agreement by which a daughter of Seleucos entered the house of

Candragupta. Since shehardly hadbecome the wife of any lesser person than the Indian emperor himself or his son and heir

Bindusara, thefascinating possibility arises that Ashoka, the great

estof theMauryan emperors,may infact, have been half or at least aquarterGreek.23

23Woodcock 1966, p. 17.

24Strabo, XV, 1, 12; II, 1, 10,and 19; and Athenaeos,IX,p. 394.

Both Candraguptaand his son and successor, Bindusara, had Greek ambas sadors intheir courts: Megasthenes to Candragupta’scourt and Deimachos

fromthe court of Antiochos I, thesuccessor ofKing Seleucos, to Bindusara’s.24 Another ambassador, Dionysios from Ptolemaios Philadelphos II of Egypt

was sent to an unnamed Indian king who might have been either Bindusara

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or Asoka.25Deimachos and Dionysios areknownto have contributed to the

West’s knowledge ofIndian life.

25 Pliny, N. W, VI, 17 (21). 26 Strabo, XV, 1,51.

27 The Brhatkalpabhasya (III, 4214) andAvasyaka Tikci (p. 399) refer to a shop called “Kuttiyavana” where everything living and non-living was available.It is said that there were nine such shops in Ujjenl during the reign of Chandapajjoya. See Jain 1974, pp. 194-195.

28 DPPN,II, p. 699.

29 Thisisthe first inscription in the Greek language and script discoveredinIndia. The Greek text consists of thirteen andone half linesand theAramaic, whichisa paraphrase ofthe Greek text, covers seven andone half lines. The paucity ofGreek inscriptions might be due toa pos sible destruction of Greek temples and monuments by later invaders and thefact that the archae ologyin theseareas is still in itsinfancy.

In the course of historical development, severalGreeks became subjects of

the expanded Mauryan Empire, particularly after the signing of the peace

treaty between Seleucos andCandragupta.The presenceof foreigners inIndia

was noted byMegasthenes who tells us of theexistence of a separate depart

ment in Candragupta’s government which looked after foreigners.26 Greek mercenaries mightalso have been employed by Indiankings during this era, as is suggested byIndianreferencesto the Greek armiesparticipating in Indian civil wars. It is also likely that Greek artists, medicine men,astrologers and tradersestablished themselves in major Indian commercialcentres.27

The effect of Greek influence on Indian art becomes evidentonly later in the Graeco-Buddhist sculptures of Gandharaand Mathura, butthereis noth ing to supportthe suppositionthat Greek artistscould havebeen employed in India at an earlierdate. Stonesculpture, little used in India before the timeof Asoka, might be attributed to the Greeks. The certainty that Greekart was wellknown to Indians is attested by the factthat Greek (Yonaka) statues hold ing lamps were used as decoration by the Sakyas in Kapilavatthu (Skt.

Kapilavastu), thehome town of Gotama Buddha.28

The close associationof the Indo-Greekswiththe MauryanIndians is fur

ther testified in the rock inscriptions (Rock Edicts) of Asoka. A bilingual inscriptioninboth Greek and Aramaicbrought to light in 1958 during exca vations in Kandhahar, Afghanistan (Fig. I)29 suggeststhat the Greeks who

settledthere had good knowledgeof Asoka’s dharmic (ethicaland religious) instructions. TheRockEdict has been ascribed to Asoka, whois called in the

inscription “Piodasses” (friendly-looking). It demonstrates his sovereign capacity asa ruler of all thingsof the earth, his decree that no manshall harm living beings, andthe instruction that his subjects must be obedient totheir parents and old people. The Greek part oftheinscription reads:

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AEKA ETQN ITAHPH [. (,)..]QN BA2IAEYE

niOAASSHS EYSEBEIAN EAEIEEN TOIS AN-

©PQriOIS KAI AnO TOYTOY EY2EBESTEPOYS

TOYS ANOPQnOYS EnOIHSEN KAI nANTA

EYOHNEI KATA II AT AN THN KAI AnEXETAI

BASIAEYS TON EMT'YnQN KAI OI AOinOI AE

ANOPQnOI KAI OSOI OHPEYTAI H AAIEIS

BASIAEQS nEnAYNTAI 0HPEYONTES KAI

El TINES AKPATEIS nEnAYNTAI THS AKPA-

SIAS KATA AYNAMIN KAI ENHKOOI HATPI

KAI MHTPI KAI TON nPESBYTEPQN HAP A TA nPOTEPON KAI TOY AOinOY AQION KAI AMEINON KATA nANTA TAYTA

nOIOYNTES AIAEOYSIN.

In translationthis reads:

Afterten full yearsKing Piodassehadthe Text of Mercy published to men and fromthis momenthe made men merciful, and every

thingprospering allover the earth.

And the king abstainsfrom (eating) livingcreatures, andlikewise

do the people; and those who are hunters and fishers of the king cease from hunting; and if there are people who are intemperate

they cease from intemperanceby exerting every effort, and they obeytheirfathers, mothers and elders, too.

Inthepresent life andfuture time, theywill find themselves in bet

ter and preferable conditions from every point of view, ifthey

behave in that way.30

30 Gallavotti1959,pp. 185-189. The first short announcementofthe discovery was made by theeditor ofthejournal, Scerrato 1958, pp. 4-6. Seealso, Altheim and Stiehl 1959, pp. 243 ff.

31 See Sen 1956,p. 66.

Similar proclamations, demonstrating Asoka’s compassionate attitude to wards living beings and his associationwithIndo-Greeks are found insome

of his other Rock Edicts. The secondRock Edict describes the provision of

medical treatment, shade and water forpeople and animals throughout his dominion and also in neighbouring countries. In this edict, the Yona King Antiochos(Aritiyako Yonaraja) is mentioned by name.31 The fifthandninth Rock Edicts mentionYonas as the king’s subjects devoted tothe Dharma.

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The thirteenth Rock Edict proclaimsthat there is no country-except the Yonas’-where classes of the Brahmanas and ascetics donotexist.32 At theend

of thesameinscription, we read that theking’s dominion expandedto include

different groups ofpeople as well as the Yonas. Everywhere the Dharma

instructions of the “devananpiyasa” were prevalent. Even in countrieswhere envoys of Asokadid not go, people having heard about the Dharma practices

and prescriptions, and his instructions, followed the Dharma and would con tinue to follow itin the future. The names of Greek kings were mentioned in the contextof the conquest of the Dharma, in the dominion of KingAsoka

andall hisborders, stretching as far as sixhundredyojanas where the Yonaraja

Antiyoko (Antiochos II Theos of Syria, 260-246 B.C.E.) ruled and beyond that, where the other four kings-Tulamaye (Ptolemaios II Philadelphos of

Egypt, 283-246 B.C.E.), Antekine (Antigonas Gonatas of Macedonia278- 239 B.C.E.), Maka (Magas ofCyrene, 300-250 B.C.E.), and Alikyasudale (Alexander ofEpiros or Corinth, 272-258B.C.E.)-ruled.

32 “Nathi ca se janapade yata nathi imenikaya-anata Yonesu-banhmane ca, samaneca,” (Kalsi version), ibid.,p.98. The inscription in Prakrit writteninKharosthiscript was foundat Shahbazgarhi near Peshawar(in present-day Pakistan). Also “Nastica se janapadeya(tra) nasti ime nikayaa[natra] Yonesu (bramane casrama),” (Manshehra version); and “[ya](ta) [najst ime nikaya anatra Yone(su)” (Gimar version). See Woolner 1993, p. 264.

33 “Etoi 6ercov IvSdrvor roigBourra Kfiidoirevoi.Kapayyskpaoiv, ov 6i’ vTteppo/jjv oei.rv6vr|Toc cog 0eov Tenip.'qxaoi.” Clement, Stromateis, I, 15, 5.

34 Ibid.,Ill,194.

Fromthe descriptions above, wemight presumethat Asoka, like his pre

decessors Candragupta and Bindusara, had received Greek ambassadors in

his court and that hehad sent his envoys in return. Yet, no Greek literature of thatperiod remains which can help usverifythe arrival of these missions. The

Buddha andBuddhismwere unknown in Greektexts until theearly Christian era. The name of theBuddhawasmentioned for thefirsttime by the Christian

author Clementof Alexandria (154-222 C.E.). Hesaid: “Among theIndians

are those philosophersalso who followthe precepts ofVouta (Buddha), whom they honour as a godon account of his extraordinarysanctity.”33 In another passage, Clement mentions that the Semnoi (Samanas) worship a kind of

“pyramid”beneath which they thinkthe bones of some divinitylie buried.34 These “pyramids” couldbe identified as Buddhist stupas, whichusually are

bell-shapedpiles of earth erected overthe bones or ashes of a Buddhist saint (arahant) or onspots consecrated as scenes ofhis acts. Also, Clement referred

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to the belief of the Brahmanas in rebirth (paligenesisy- and described the dress and disciplines of the Brahmana and Samana philosophers. The

Buddha’s name and the story ofhis birth fromthe side ofa virgin were also

mentioned bySaint Jerome (c. 340-420 C.E.).3536 37

35 Ibid.,Ill, 7.

36 Contr. Jovin.,Epis. pt.I, tr. 2, 26.

37 “Maharakkhitathero pi Yonakalokan pasadayi kalakara masuttanta-kathaya ca

mahiddhiko.” Dipavamsa, 8, 9, translatedby Hermann Oldenberg.Ihavetranslated,however, the “Yonakalokan” as theYona region.

38 Mahavamsa,XII,5; and Dipavamsa,VII, 58 andVIII, 9.

39 Mahavamsa., XII, 39-40, translated fromPali into German by WilhelmGeiger and from German into Englishby M.H. Bode.

40 DPPN, vol.2, p.698.

41 “Yonakadhammarakkhitathero nama mahamati aggikkhandopama-suttakathaya

aparantakanpasadayi.” Dipavamsa,VIII, 7, translated by HermannOldenberg.

References about missionaries(Dharmamahamatras)sent topropagatethe

principles oftheDharma to aliennations, includingthe Yonas’ occuronlyin

Buddhist inscriptions,texts and records. Thisindicates that the conversion of a significant number of Greeks to Buddhismtookplaceon the Indian sub continent and was not expanded further. The Dipavamsa31 recordsthat the TheraMaharakkhita who possessed great magical powers,converted the Yona region by preaching the Kalakarama Suttanta. He was sent there after the Third Buddhist Council38 which tookplace atPataliputra (modem Patna) dur ing the reignof KingAsokain 241 B.C.E. More details about his mission occur

in the Mahavamsa39where weread:

The wise Maharakkhita wentto the countryof the Yona delivered

in themidstofthe people theKalakarama Suttanta. A hundred and

seventy thousand living beings attainedthe reward of the path(of

salvation);tenthousandreceivedthe pabbajja (ordination orenter ing theBuddha’s order).

Most of the Greeks who lived under Indian influence were converted to Buddhism, and to some extent their contribution to the spread of this reli

gion was important. TheIndianisednamesofmany Yonaka monksfound in the Pali texts and inscriptions attest to this process. The wise Thera called Yonaka Dhammarakkhita (who is remembered as the teacher of Punabba- sukutumbikaputta-Tissa40) converted theAparantaka country41 *(Skt. Aparanta

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MenanderandtheAdoptionofBuddhism

Thebestillustrationof the conversion ofseveral Yonas to Buddhism is found in the Buddhisttext Milindapanha (Questions of King Milinda), which re

cords conversations between King Milinda (supposedly King Menander)and

theBuddhist elder monkNagasena.48 Accordingto thetext, Milinda careful ly listens to Nagasena’s teachings andat theend ofeach discoursereplies with the stereotypical, “very good, Nagasena.” The author finally presents King

Milinda’s conversion to Buddhism and his enlightenment:

48Topics under discussion are concerned with individuality,renunciation, intelligence and wisdom, goodconduct, faith, perseverance, mindfulness (suti), identity, salvation, suicide, rebirth, karma, time, causation, the first beginnings, becoming, formation of qualities, the soul, sensation and ideas, perception, conditions, purgatory,Nirvana, Buddhaand Buddhas, body, passion,memory, sorrow and peace. Other topics include such thingsassnoring,the ideal teacher,gifts andhonours, trees, thinkingpowers,thelives of various kingsand outstanding Buddhistpersonages, meditation, the abolition of regulations, esotericteachings,fear of death, Dharma, schism of the cult,preaching,foolishness,kindnessand punishment,dismissal, false hood, love, women, omniscience, variousdilemmas in solving social problems and explana tions of the life and characterofthe Buddha, problems of inference, voluntary extra vows, and similes of Arahantship.

49 Milindapanha, VII,7,21. 50 SeeSrivastava 1969, fig. 30.

And afterwards, taking delight in thewisdom of the elder, he (King

Milinda) bequeathed his kingdom to his son and abandoning the

household life for the houselessstate,developed great insight and

attained Arahantship.49

There is, however,no historical evidence thatthe Bactrian KingMenander (supposedly KingMilinda) embraced Buddhism.Noneofthe twenty-two dif

ferent coins bearing his name shows any sign of his conversion. Although

somescholars have triedto identify the sign of the wheel depictedon a few

of Menander’scoins (Fig.2) with the Buddhist Dharma Calera (the Wheel of

the Doctrine). The originalform ofthe Dharma Cakra (found on the Asoka pillars) has twenty-four spokes (representing the Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths andthe Twelve Limbs of the Four NobleTruths), their pointed ends touch, but do not cross therim, whichis as thick as that of a wheel. The cakra depicted on the coins ofMenanderconsists of eight spokes whose point

ed ends protrude slightly overthe linear rim.50 Its design reminds us of the

golden disk embossedwiththestar emblem of the Macedonian dynasty. On coins of the Indo-Greek kings it occurs only on those of Menander, butthe

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Kachchh and Sind)42 by preaching theAggikkhandopama Sutta. More details about the mission of this Yona Thera are given in the Mahavamsa, which

records:

42Fleet, JRAS,1910, p. 427.

43 Mahavamsa, XII, 34-36, translated by Wilhelm Geiger and M.H. Bode. See also,

Mahavamsa, XII, 4.

44Mahavamsa, XXIX, 39; and Dlpavamsa, XIX,6. 45See Arrian, III, 28 and IV, 22.

46DPPN, vol. 2,p. 699.

47Yan nammadaya nadiya puline ca tire, Yan saccabhadda girike sumana ca lagge, Yan tatta yonaka puremuninocapadan, Tanpada lancanamahansirasa namami.

The Thera DhammarakkhitatheYona, having gone to Aparantaka

andhaving preached in themidst of the peopletheAggikkhandopama Sutta (the discourse on the parableof the flames of fire), gave to

drink ofthe nectar of truth to thirty-seven thousand living beings

who had come together there, he who perfectly understoodtruth

anduntruth. A thousand men andyet more womenwentforth from

noble families andreceivedthe pabbajja.43

Another Greek Buddhist, the Yona Mahadhammarakkhita Thera, is saidto

havecome along with thirty thousand monks, from Alasanda to the founda

tion ceremony of the Maha Thupa.44 Fromtheexaggerated numberof monks, we might infer that during this time Buddhism was popular in the city of

Alasanda, which is generally identified with Alexandria founded by King

Alexander in Paropamisadae near Kabul.45 The converted Yonas preserved certainrituals and beliefs from their original religion. Thisis indicatedin the

Ahguttaracommentary, wheretheYonakas arespoken of asmoving around, cladinwhiterobes,in memory of the religion which was onceprevalent in their country.46

The expansion of Buddhism to theYona country has been well preserved

in thememory of the CeyloneseTheravada Buddhists, who even today recite

in their daily prayers the following stanza, “I bow my headto the footprints of the silent saint (Buddha) which are spread on the sandy bank of the Narmada River, on the Mountain Saccabhadda, on the Mountain Sumana, and

inthe city of the Yonakas.”47

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Menander and theAdoption of Buddhism

Thebestillustration of theconversion ofseveral Yonasto Buddhism is found

in the BuddhisttextMilindapahha (Questions of King Milinda), whichre cords conversations between King Milinda (supposedly King Menander) and theBuddhist elder monk Nagasena.48According to thetext,Milindacareful

lylistens toNagasena’s teachings andat theend of each discourse replies with the stereotypical, “very good, Nagasena.” The authorfinally presents King

Milinda’s conversion to Buddhism and hisenlightenment:

48Topicsunder discussion are concerned withindividuality, renunciation, intelligence and wisdom, good conduct, faith,perseverance, mindfulness (suti), identity, salvation, suicide, rebirth, karma, time,causation, the first beginnings, becoming, formation of qualities, the soul, sensation andideas, perception, conditions,purgatory, Nirvana, Buddha and Buddhas, body, passion, memory, sorrow and peace. Other topics include such things assnoring, the ideal teacher,gifts and honours, trees,thinking powers, the livesof various kings andoutstanding Buddhistpersonages, meditation, the abolition of regulations, esoteric teachings, fearof death, Dharma, schismof the cult,preaching,foolishness, kindness and punishment,dismissal,false hood, love, women, omniscience,various dilemmas in solving social problems and explana tions of the life and character of the Buddha, problems of inference,voluntaryextra vows,and similesof Arahantship.

49Milindapafiha, VII, 7,21. 50 See Srivastava 1969, fig. 30.

And afterwards, taking delight inthewisdomof the elder, he (King

Milinda) bequeathed his kingdom to hisson and abandoning the household lifefor the houseless state,developed greatinsight and attained Arahantship.49

There is, however, no historical evidence that the BactrianKing Menander (supposedly KingMilinda) embracedBuddhism. None of the twenty-twodif ferent coins bearing his nameshows any sign of his conversion. Although

some scholars have tried to identify the sign of the wheeldepictedon a few

of Menander’s coins (Fig. 2) withthe Buddhist Dharma Calera (the Wheel of

the Doctrine). The original formof the Dharma Calera (found on the Asoka pillars) has twenty-four spokes (representing the Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths andthe Twelve Limbs of the Four NobleTruths), their pointed ends touch, but do notcross the rim, which isas thick as that of a wheel. The calcra depicted on the coins of Menander consists of eightspokeswhose point

ed ends protrude slightly over the linear rim.50 Its design reminds us ofthe

golden diskembossed with the star emblemoftheMacedonian dynasty. On coins ofthe Indo-Greek kings it occurs only on those of Menander, but the

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symbolism of thewheelwasused in Greek tradition. Anaximander, like the

Jains and Buddhists, perceived both the Sun51 and the Cosmic Order52 as wheels. Inthe Orphic tradition, the cycle of reincarnationwasknown as the “wheel of birth” and in the Dionysian cult it wasrepresented by the circular

dance. The epithet“dikaios” (dhramikasa) following the name of Menander on some of hiscoins is notexclusively Buddhist.

51 Aetios, II, 20, 1;21, 1; and 24, 2. 52 Ibid., II, 2, 4.

53 De Republicae GerendctePraecepta, p.821.

54 Maliaparinibbana Sutta, pp. 236-240 [Bibliothetica Indo-Tibetica Series (hereafter BITS) XII.], and Davids 1992, pp. 49-63.

Most of his coins portray the GoddessAthena (Pallas) hurling a thunder bolt, whichsuggests that hekept his Greek religion.Plutarch’s statement that

King Menander died in a militarycampindicatesalso that he did notrenounce

his kingdom and army to become a Buddhist monk, as it hasbeen recorded in theMilindapanha. Plutarch’sdescription is as follows:

A certain Menander ruled with equanimity and died in a military

camp.The cities in other respects joined together in celebrating his obsequies,but over his relics a dispute arose among them, which was settled upon byagreeing thateach onewas to take back anequal

share of hisashes so that memorialsmight be set up among them

all.53

The above descriptionof the funeral and the distribution of the ashes of the king indifferent cities has striking similarities with that of the ashes ofthe Buddha inthe Mahaparinibbcina Sutta ofthe Digha Nikclya,where itis said

that after the body of theBuddha hadbeen cremated, a dispute aroseamongst the representatives of eight different states (viz. Ajatasattu of Magadha, Licchavi ofVessali, the Sakyas of Kapilavatthu, the Buli of Allakappa, the

Koliya of Ramagama, the Brahmana of Vetthadipa, the Malla ofPava, and theMalla of Kusinara), all of whom consideredthemselvesworthyto receive

a portion oftherelics of the Blessed One. Originally,the Malla of Kusinara

refused the others’ claims by saying: “The Blessed One died in our village domain, therefore,we willnot give away any part of theremainsof theBlessed

One.” The dispute wasfinally resolved by coming to an agreement thatthey

should divide the remains ofthe Buddha into eight equal parts andthat each one would erect a mound(thiipa)over them inhis country, so that mankind could trust in the EnlightenedOne.54 Although, the Buddha and Menander

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were cremated ina similarmanner, thisshould not be taken as an indication that Menander became a Buddhist. On the contrary, the similarity occurs because the body of theBuddha was treated like that of aking. TheVenerable

Ananda stated that the bodyof the Tathagata should betreated in the same way as the remains of a universalmonarch.55 It isalso possiblethatPlutarch

had heard the popular story ofthe Buddha andapplied it to the personage of

Menander.

55 MahaparinibbcinaSuttci,p. 230 (BITS,XII).

56 The originalversion of the Milindapanha, which mighthavebeen written inSanskrit or Prakrit in Northern India, has been lost. It was preserved in Ceylon, where ithad been trans latedinto Pali.From its Pali form, it was translated intoSinhalese in the eighteenth centuryby amonk named Sumangala,andis called theSaddharmadasaya; it contains a few additions. The text occupies aunique position, second in importanceonlyto the Tipitaka.From Ceylon itwas transferred, initsPali form, to BurmaandSiamandin these countries itis alsohighly reputed. See Davids 1993, vol. 1, p. xi.Cf.DPPN, vol. 2, p. 637.

57 Cf. SamannaphalaSutta, pp. 165-181 (BITS, XII).

58 Milindapanha, I, pp.11-14, trans. Davids 1993, vol. 1, p. 8.

59 For example, “There is, in the country of theYonakas,a great centre oftrade, a city that is called Sagala, situated in a delightfulcountry, abounding in parks and gardensandgroves andlakesand tanks, a paradiseofrivers andmountains andwoods” (trans. Davids 1993, vol.

1, p. 2). Sagala (also Sagala),the city inwhichKing Milinda met Nagasena, hasbeen identi fiedwith SialkotinRecha Doad.See Narain 1980, p. 172. In various Jatakas, Sagalais men tioned asthecapital of theMadda kings. Itwas evidently calledSakala. Cf. DPPN,II,p. 1089.

60 Zimmer 1951, p. 505. Quotedalsoby Woodcock 1966,p. 114.

The Milindapanhawas compiledat a later time than that ofMenanderand it is believed that many parts of the textare spurious.56The meeting anddis cussion of Milinda with the six heretical teachers,for example, is a clear pla

giarismoftheSilakkhandha Vagga ofthe Samannaphala Suttci, where King

Ajatasattu of Magadha is said to havevisited the same sophists.57 The inclu

sion ofNiganthaNataputta (Mahavira) and Makkhali Gosala (leader of the

Ajivakas) ascontemporariesof Milinda58 adds to the scepticism concerning

thehistorical accuracy of the text. Both these teachers areknown to havebeen

contemporaries of the Buddha. What can be saidwith greater certainty is that Menander,whohad expanded his kingdom into the Gangetic plains, where

Buddhism was flourishing, was a secular leader, who recognised and pro

tected both thebeliefs of his Greek and Buddhist subjects. Moreover, regard ing the positive description of theYonacountrygiven in Buddhisttexts,59 we

mightinfer that the Greek king sympathisedwithBuddhist causes and forthis

reason became popularwithinthe Buddhist communities. “Ifthe Greek king wasnot himselfactually a member of theBuddhist Order, hewas at leastsuch

a great benefactor that the community looked upon him as one oftheirown.”60

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A similarfriendly attitude towards Buddhists seems to have been heldby the predecessorofMenander, Agathocles. On a unique coin issued by him,

there is adepictionofa Buddhist stupa andthelegend “Akathukreyasa”; on

thereverse is atree inside a railing withthe legend“Hiranasame.” The coin,

like others issued by the same king,is monolingual and inscribed exclusive ly inKharosthi. From this coin, it is evident that some Greeks were familiar with Buddhist symbols and that Agathocles favoured communalism in his dominion. No theory of conversion to Buddhism or otherreligions, however, can be establishedon the basisofnumismatic evidence alone. Several rulers

areknown to have issued coins with local deities not belonging totheirper

sonal religion. Kaniska, a Buddhist emperor, forinstance, issued coins with

Iranian, Greek, Hindu and Buddhist deities and Akbar, a Muslim emperor, issued coins with thepopularIndiandeities Sitaand Rama depicted on them. From the observations above, we might conclude that Agathocles, like

Menanderafter him,was well-acquainted with thepredominant Buddhistreli

gion oftheIndians towhich severalIndo-Greekshadalso been converted. Despite the broad claimsof mass conversions by AsokaandBuddhisttexts, thereis no substantial evidence to prove that Buddhism spread with any great

speed or that it hadreached the Greeks living outside the Indian states. The

majority of the BactrianGreeks maintained their religion as itis indicated,a)

by the recorded descriptions in thePeriplus of theErythraean Seaandin the book of PhilostatosLife of Apollonios ofTvana, b) by the Greek statues, mon

uments and the namesofGreekgodswrittenin theinscriptionsdiscoveredin the ruins of the capital of Eukratides (170-145 B.C.E.) near the village of Ai-Khanum;in the royal cemetery “Tilia Tepe” in northern Afghanistan;and

also in other regionssuch asthe Peshawar valley, Taxila, and Kashmir, and

c)bythe Greek deities depicted on the coins not only of theGraeco-Bactrian

kings, but also on coins of many foreign rulers in post-Bactrian times.

Gandhara-theRise of Graeco-Buddhist Art

Therepresentation of the Buddhaandother Indian deitiesin human form has been ascribed toa Greek artisticinfluence, as early Buddhism did notencour

agetheworship ofthe Buddhaas a god. However, wedonot have a single image of him belonging to theIndo-Greek period. Theearliestrepresentation ofthe Buddha in human form is found in the sculptures of the Hellenistic Gandhara School that flourished inthePeshawarvalley (knownas Gandhara

in the Rg Veda) from the first to the fifthcenturies C.E. (Figs. 3-7) This was

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a major era of Hellenistic culture, and Alexander himself stopped there for three yearsuntil326 B.C.E.,whenhe started his campaign towards theIndus plain. Upon hisdeath, his empirewasdivided. Seleucos tookthe eastern part of the empire, including the provinces of Bactria and India. Gradually, the

Seleucid kingdombegan to declineand from the thirdcenturyC.E.a new inde

pendent kingdomwas establishedinBactria. For three centuries, this region

wasruled by the descendants of the Greeks who had settledthere. TheGreeks

in Bactriaremained free, albeitcut off, while the rest of the Greek worldfell

to the Romans. In the extreme east, from the River Oxus to the Indian Pentapotamia, the Bactrian Greeks establishedbustling Greek cities suchas Taxila, Sagala (Euthymedia), Alexandria-Bucephalia, Nicaea, Demetria in

Patalene, Dionysopolis and Peukolaitis in Gandhara andthe two Alexandrians

on the River Indus, in which the Greek language and arts were taught and achieved great glory. This is testified by recent excavations, especially in

Taxila, and the discovery of many coins, sculptures, metallurgy, jewellery, ceramics, terracotta, Ionic and Corinthian capitals as well as otherarchitec tural features that are attributed to the Greeks who lived there.61

61 Karamanou 2004.

62 Cf.Shanna 1995, pp. 141 ff.

63For references, seeDoshi 1985, pp. 18-19. 64 See Sharma 1995, p. 125.

Theart of Gandhara was developed after the fallof the Indo-Greekking

doms (c. 25B.C.E.) by theParthians,Sakas and Kusanas conquerorsthatsuc

ceededtheGreeks and adopted their language and art (Figs. 8 and 9).62The

Greek influence asattested on the statuesof the BuddhaandIndian deities is

quite evident. Theserene expression andthe curly hair of theBuddha reflect the luminous form of Apollo, and histunic, withits rippling folds, is similar

tothe tunic wornbyGreek and Roman philosophers. Zeus (Jupiter)holding thunderbolts in the form of Vajrapani, is often depicted beside the Buddha

(Fig. 10).63 Some statues of the Buddha are decorated with ivy leaves and

acanthus motifs suggesting a strong influence from the Dionysian repertory,

which prevailed in the art of the region for many centuries. Several other

themesand symbolsfrom Greek religion and mythology aredepicted on seals, soft stone, medals, andterracotta. They wereused asdecorationsin Buddhist art, which developed in various regions of the Indian Peninsula and Afghanistan. These include deities such asHercules, Dionysos, a variety of figures of Silenoi and Maenads from the entourage of Dionysos, as well as scenesfrom Greekmythology, such as Bacchanalianscenes,64 marine subjects,

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Atlas, Tritons fighting with gods,centaurs,65 and so on (Figs. 11-13).A pre dominantfemale figure is depicted in the statues ofthe Hellenistic goddess Tyche (goddess ofluck) of each city who eventually becamepopular in the

form of the Hindu goddess,Laksmi. Another predominantfemalefigure in Gandhara Hellenistic art is Hariti, who appears frequentlywith a male com panion anda child (Fig. 14).Most of the Indian sculptures cany a narrative,

depicting various scenes from the life of the Buddha, his teachings, death and attainment of Nirvana. Theart of Gandhara flourished fromthe first up to the fifth century C.E. The Hellenistic representation of theBuddha’sformin stat

ues and terracotta was spreadby the Kusanasfurthersouth in Mathura and

India,whereit adopted a moreIndian art style. Through theSilkRoad, amajor thoroughfare for tradeand travel betweenByzantine, CentralAsiaand theFar Eastin ancient andmedieval times, Gandhara art crossed a widerange ofcli

matesandcultures and reached the Buddhist monasteries ofCentral Asia and China, which, in tum, influenced the arts of Korea and Japan.

65 See Srivastava1991, pp. 14-25. 66 See Shastri 1993, pp.58-66.

67 Discovered in 1957by Bombaci and Scerrato, members of the ItalianArchaeological A few Greeks(Yavanas) also appear onthe listof pious donorsinthe Bud dhist caves of Karie (seven records), Nasik (one record), and Junnar (three records), in the Stateof Maharashtra which werecreated during the firstand

second century C.E. (Figs. 15 and 16).66 As the places of the donors’ origin havenot yet been identified, it is notcertain whether they were membersof

existingGreek Buddhist communities ofSouthIndiaor not.The existence of Greekcommunitiesin South India andCeylonhasbeenrecorded in contem porary Tamilliterature anda few centuries laterintheChristian Topography

of theAlexandriangeographer, Cosmas Indicopleustes (first half of the sixth centuiy C.E.).

A few rock inscriptions inGreek script (called Bactrian Greek orHephthalite) have been discovered inrecent times in Afghanistan.Theirstyle is later than that of the Kusano-Sasanian coins and is similar to the style which was

employed by the Hephthalites and the Turkl Sahis of Kabul. One of them reads

inGreek: vapco o 6obo

vapco o bouappo (u hasthe phonetic value of h)

vaiioi o oayyo67

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This corresponds to the Buddhist formula “Namo Buddhasya, Namo

Dharmasya, Namo Sangasya” (Ibow to the Buddha, the Dharma, and the

Buddhistcommunity), suggesting that in later times Buddhism waspresent in this region andits followerswere using the Greek script.However, as this scriptwasused by several foreignpeople after the fall of the Indo-Greekking doms in Bactria, it isnot certain whetherthe authors of these inscriptionswere ethnicGreeks or not.68

Philosophical Influences and Parallelisms

There is now tangible evidence indicating that after the campaign of Alexander,certain educated Indians became familiar with the Hellenic epics, poetry,mythology, and drama, which inspired them to introduceGreek reli

giousideas into their own. One such example waspresentedbyDerpett,who

compared the Third Homeric Hymn of Apollo with the story of the birth of

the Buddha and concluded: “At anyrate we can posit the Homeric hymns as asource of Buddhistinspiration and embellishment.”69 A similar view was shared byArora who, quoting the Greek authorities, stated that certain Indians werefamiliar with the Greek language, the Homeric epics and the tragedies

of Euripides and Sophocles, thus concluding that some Greek impact on

Indian legends actuallytook place. He also compared the episode of Vijaya in the Ceylonese text Mahavamsa with the tale of Odysseus on the islandof Circe.70

Nakamura71 has drawnparallels inpost-Christian times by showing that the parableof the prodigal son72 is similar to the Lotus Sutra of Mahayana Buddhism (first or second century C.E.) and to the story found in sixth-cen

tury Vedantic literature. He has also pointed out the similaritybetween the

Buddhist tradition andtheteachings of Asclepios, who ashealer and saviour

MissioninJagatu (Gagatu) in Afghanistan.See Humbach 1967, pp. 25-26; and also Scerrato 1967, p. 11.Thesecond inscription is incomplete and no precise meaning can be drawn from it.

68 See also,the useof the Greek script on thecoinsand inscriptions of Kusanas and other nomads of Bactria as well as on a well-preserved inscription found at Surkh Kotal (Afghanistan).Cf.Bulletin of theSchool of Oriental and African Studies, XXIII (1960),pp. 47-55; and Journal Asiatique, 1958, pp. 345-440.

69 Derpett 1992, p. 57.

70 Arora 1985,pp.48-52; and Arora 1981. 71 Nakamura 1992, p. 376.

72 Luke, 15: 11-32.

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calledall mankind to himself,andthe deification of wisdom (Gr. sophia, Skt.

prajndparcimita) inboth Greekand Buddhist traditions.73

73 Nakamura 1992, p. 381. 74 Allen 2005.

Another comparativist, N.J. Allen, realizes notablesimilaritiesin the nar

ratives of the lives of the Buddha and Odysseus as they arefound in early Buddhist scriptures and Homer’s Odyssey. Inhis conclusive remarks,Allen points out: “Agreat deal in theBuddha’s biographyhas Indo-Europeanroots, but atthisstage Icannot offer any clear account of thepaths along which this

ancient tradition reached Buddhism.”74 However, he continues with his ini

tialhypothesis, suggesting a hidden “proto-hero,” which bringsus back to the

Proto-Indo-European Theory. As Allen himselfadmits in the introductionof hispaper, many teachings and narratives about the Buddha’s life are later additions and notactual historical events. It will therefore be much easier to

explainthe existing similarities inthe two traditions by looking at the post Buddhist rather than the pre-Buddhist era. It remains, however, a challenging option to expand ourvisionary search in mythological realms and long-lost

prehistoric archetypes sharedall overthe Indo-European world from India, through Iran andGreece to the Balkans and Eastern Europe.

We cannot failto notice the remarkablesimilarities that existbetween the Hellenic-Christian and MahayanaBuddhistconcepts of the Trinity. Unlike theOrthodox Hindu tradition that perceives the divine Trinity on the grounds

ofthetriple empirical function oftheworld, i.e., creation (Brahma), preser

vation (Visnu)and destruction (Siva), the Buddhists like the Greeks concen trate onan existential and metaphysical differentiation.Theso-calledtrikaya

theoryof theMahayanadefinestheBuddha by three bodies ofenlightenment.

These are the dharmakaya, the bodyof ultimate reality thatcorresponds to the Pure Spiritof theHellenic and the Father of the ChristianHoly Trinity; the sambhogakaya, the body of experience (or joy) that correspondsto the

mind of the Hellenic and the Holy Spirit in the Christian Trinity; and the

nirmanakaya,the Buddha’s conditioned, human bodyof fleshandblood that correspondsto the physical historical body in the Hellenic and theSonof God, the Christ in the Christian theology. The three rather abstract and remote

aspects, faces or persons of the divine Trinityare based on our human exis

tence andare present inevery moment of our dailyexperience.

Themajority of the Indianphilosophicalsystems developed in areas and

times closely associated with thepresence of the Indo-Greeks, whohad come

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fromtheirfatherland with a rich philosophical anddialecticalheritage. This

historical association gives rise to questions concerning a possible Greek influence on the systematisation and development ofthe Indian philosophi cal traditions. Burnet in his short reference to Indian philosophy admits that the Indians were the only ancient people, besides the Greeks, who everhad

anything that deservedthe nameof philosophy. He, however, suggests that

Indianphilosophy arose underGreek influence:

No one now will suggest that Greek philosophy came from India,

and indeed everythingpoints to the conclusionthat Indian philos ophy arose under Greek influence. Thechronology of Sanskrit lit

erature is an extremely difficult subject; but, so far aswecan see, the great Indian systems are later in date than the Greek philoso phies they most nearly resemble. Ofcourse the mysticism of the

Upanishads and of Buddhism was of native growth; but, though

these influenced philosophy in the strict sense profoundly, they were related to it only as Hesiod andthe Orphics wererelated to Greek scientific thought.75

75 Burnet 1963, p. 18.

76 Vidyabhushana 1918, pp. 469-88. In this paper,Vidyabhushanaexamines the historical development of the four distinct subjectsof Nyya philosophy and comparesAristotle’s logic with its counterparts found inthe Caraka-Samhitci(78 C.E.), Aksapada (c. 150 C.E.), Nagarjuna (c.2nd century C.E.), Maitreya(400 C.E.), Vasubandhu (c. 450 C.E.), Dignaga(c. 500 C.E.), Dharmaklrti (7th century C.E.), and Uddhyotakara (7th centuryC.E.).

77 SeeHalbfass 1990, p.28.Alberuni(vol.I,p. 34) probably mentions the same person under thename “Galenos.” He says that the Greek philosopher wrote a book called Exhortative to theArtsin whichhe said:“Excellentmen have obtained the honourof beingreckonedamong the deifiedbeings only forthe noble spirit in whichthey cultivated the arts, not fortheirprowess inwrestling and discus-throwing.”Alberuni (vol. I, p.33) also said that the ancient Greeks

(viz. Solon ofAthens, Bias ofPriene, Periander of Corinth, Thales of Miletos, Chilon of

Vidyabhushana held similar views when he compared the Aristoteliansyllo gismwith its Indian counterparts and concluded that the logical theories of Aristotle migrated from Greece to India between the second century B.C.E.

and seventh century C.E.76An earlier version of Greek influence on Indian philosophy was presented byShahrastani (1086-1153), anArabphilosopher

who claimed that two disciples of Pythagoras, one of whom was Qalanus,

came to India to spread the teachings of his master. An Indian disciple of Qalanus, named Brahmanan, became the founder of theBrahmanic philoso

phy.77

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While the depth and the deep rootsof the Indianphilosophical traditions

make one feel that such a thesis may be propounding extremist views, the

observations above do lendfuel to the enquiry regarding whether, orto what

extent, the Indian philosophical systems were influenced by Greek thought or not. Certaininfluences seem to havetakenplace andthe whole topic will

be a rewardingareaof future research. Parallels canbe drawn(i) between the

theoryofatoms, as wasexpounded byLeukippos and Democritos and appears

in the laterBuddhist, Jain and Vaisesika atomic theories; (ii) the Greek and Mahayana metaphysical and dialectical speculations; and (iii) between the democratic institutions sharedby the Greekstates and Buddhistsanghas.

The Buddha’s main concern was the emancipation from suffering. He did not encourage discussions on metaphysical problems thathe considered self

deceptions. The fact,however, that he did not affirmthe existence of aneter

nal substance, spiritual or material (pudgala-nairatmya), led his successors

to develop a substantialist and pluralistic cosmology.Amongst the early Bud dhist schools, Theravada recognised twenty-eight material elements (rupa- dhamma) thatmade up thetotalityof worldly existence.They were classified into two groups: primary (maliabhutas) and secondary (upadarupas). The atomictheory isa post-canonical development. The Vaibhasikas recognised two kinds of atoms: unitary atom {dravva-paramanu) and aggregate atom

(sanghatci-paramanu). The former isthe smallest unit ofmatter; it is partless

and has no spatial dimensions. The latter is a combination of unitaryatoms that originates andceases simultaneously. Thedravya-paramanuresembles

the atoms of Democritos, butthe Vaibhasikas,like other Buddhists, did not admitpermanentexistence.78 They developed the doctrine of momentariness (ksanabhangavada) according to which everything in the world, including matterandmind,is ina continuous flow. One after the othertheatoms come Lacedaemonia,Pittacos of Lesbos, Cleobulos ofLindos, and theirsuccessors) heldnearly the sameview as the Hindus inmatters concerning the unity ofthe world,thefirstcause, and the dream-likenatureof transitory objects.He, however, doesnotseem to believeinthediffusion of ideas.

78 Democritos is closer to the Jains, whowere perhaps the first in India to proclaim thatmate rialobjects including the senses, mind, andbreathconsist ofindependentatoms(paramanu).

Like Democritos,they did not maintain any qualitativedifference inthe original natureof atoms, but differentiated them in a secondary stage by developing the qualities ofsavour, colour, odourand tangibility. The Jain atoms are the smallest partsof matter that cannot be further divided. They are invisible, qualitatively alike, and infinitein number. When theycome together,they formthe compound bodies(sanghata orskandha) ofthe material world includ ing the senses, mind and breath.

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into beinganddisappearthe next moment.The succeeding atom is nota trans

formationofthe old,but something new that comes into being depending on

the impressions (vdsands, samskaras) left by the old. The Theravadins did notrecognise the dravya-paramdnu. Their atoms (rupa kaldpa) correspond

to the sanghdta-paramdnu of theVaibhasikaswhich find strikingsimilarities withthe “seeds” of Anaxagoras. Like Anaxagoras, theBuddhists maintained that the four primary elements were present in every material object, but unlike him, they did not admit aquantitative difference amongstthem. The

opposite qualities in the “seeds” were united in different proportions; the

Theravadins held that they existed equally. The distinction between different

nzpcz kaldpasandcompound objects wasdue to the difference in intensity.79

79 See Karunadasa 1991, pp. 44-53.

80 See Vassiliades 2004.Cf. Pande 1974, where the Buddhist doctrine of reincarnation is treated not as afloating mythicalor speculativeidea but asalogical complex derived from yogic experience.

81 Diogenes Laertios, VIII, 4.(DK, 14 A 8.)

ThePythagorean doctrine of rebirth (paligenesia) finds parallels in India, particularly in Sankhya and Jain philosophies,which accept theplurality of souls and recognise human effort (discriminative knowledge according to

Sankhya) as a necessary condition for the purification (realisationof the unde

filed purity accordingto Sankhya)ofthe soul. Pythagoras’ beliefin the regres

sion of human soulsinto animalbodiesis similarly found inIndiantexts.The

Indian philosophers, likePlato inGreece,80 regarded future life as a result of

present actions. The doctrine of transmigration and its association with the Law of Karma was further developed and elaborated upon in Jainism,

Buddhism andlater philosophical schools.

The most striking resemblance to Pythagoras’ explanation that he had knowledge of his previous lives due to the graceof god(Hermes)81 occursin

the MahdpadanaSutta ofthe Dlgha Nikaya,wheretheBuddha recalls his past seven incarnations and gives details abouttheirsocial ranks, names, attain ments andemancipation. The Buddha explains that his ability to recallallthe

facts of his past lives was due to his own penetrating discernment and the

(graceof) the deities (ctevas) who made these matters known tohim. Memories from previous lives are also revealed in theJdtaka Pali, which containsfive hundred andforty-seven stories ofprevious lives of the Buddha as recountedby the Buddha himself. Here, the Buddha, like Pythagoras’ as

sociate Empedocles, includes amongsthis former births animals, such as a monkey (vdnara-jdtaka and kunidesaka-jdtaka'y hare (sasa-jdtaka), parrot

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(kalabahu-jataka), jackal (Jambuka-jataka), heron (kuntani-jataka), and so

on. In thesestories, however, we findmoral principlescloser to the didactic

teachings of Aesop and Pancatantrathan to any metaphysical theory about

the evolution of the soul.

In the Buddhavansa of the Khuddaka Nikaya, the Buddha gives details abouteachone of thetwenty-five Buddhas(including himself)andendswith the prophesy thatMetteyya Buddha would come intothis world in the future. This concept of the reappearance of thesaviour lord is unknownto theGreeks. However, we do find several stories with arepeated incarnation context, espe

cially that of the unusual life of Persephone, the daughter of the goddess

Demeter, who lived alternatelyaboveand below the earth, i.e.,she was peri

odically reincarnated; and of the life of Aristeas of Proconnesus.82

82 Herodotos, IV, pp. 14-15. 83Plato, Theaetetos, 176b-d.

84 Material rewards after death were alsopromised byMuseuswhoadvocatedfeasting and everlasting drunkenness of thejust in“the symposium of the saints”in Hades. Plato, Republic,

363c.

The transmigration of the soul through all possible lives finally leads to self-realisation and salvation from the cycle ofrebirths. Both Indian and Greek believers in transmigration holdthe view that man could realise the

divinenature ofhis soul andthusliberate himselffrom the passions that had

bound him in the physical body. In Greece, the ideal of salvationwas taught

inthe Orphic communities andwas associated with theworship of Dionysos. Pythagoras,however, endeavoured to differentiate his theory fromthepurely mythical explanation of the Orphic religion and explained the union of divine

and human existence as the harmony of the soul or psyche with the cosmic music caused by the movements of the stars and planets. Thepurified psy

che, leaving behind the three-dimensional objects of the physical world, is

absorbed in a constant ecstasy asit revolves with thecosmic music in the ether

and contemplates the gods andthe divine numbers which formed thereality

in the realmsof pure thought.

The aim ofthetrue philosopher was to become like(omoiosis)a godand to become righteous with the help of wisdom.83 An experience of the divine nature of the soul could be obtained by thefinal release from the earthly ele

ments. The soul released from the “wheel of birth” becomes once more an

immortal god andenjoys everlastingbliss. Atthis stage, the soul attains an abundanceof what it desires as suggestedby the Orphic formula “I have fallen as akid intomilk.”84Almost all the Indian philosophers expressedparallel

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soteriological beliefs. They unanimously held that spiritual emancipation

enables man to free himselffrom the shackles of ignorance and from the

bondage ofworldly misery. Closer to the Indian concepts of liberation and

bliss {ananda) is the following saying attributedto Pythagoras by the Arab

philosopher, Alberuni:

Let your desireand exertion in thisworld be directed towards the

union with the First Cause,which is the cause of the cause ofthe cause of your existencethat you may endure forever. You willbe saved from destruction and from beingwiped out; you will goto

theworldof thetruesense, of thetrue joy,of thetineglory, in ever

lastingjoyand pleasures.85

85Alberuni, vol. I,p. 88. Compare withEuripides,who identifies the happy man with the philosopher: “Happy is hewho has learned to search into causes, who discerns the deathless and ageless orderof nature, whenceit arose, the how and thewhy.” Likewise, Anaxagorasand Democritos defined happiness occurring as a result of freedomthatemerges from abstract thought.

The later Pythagoreans considered theirteacher as aperfect example of the purifiedsoul, who could realisehis divine status during his lifetime. His teach

ings were indisputable and the saying “autos efa” (he said)wasuttered when ever there was aneed to establish the authority of arule or theory. Numerous

miracles were attributedto Pythagoras, which served as models for laterbio

graphies of philosophers andsages. The citizens of Croton wentso far asto

consider him an incarnation oftheHyperborean Apollo. Pythagoras,however, didnot say hewas a god, at least in the Indian sense ofavatdra.Unlike the Indians, theGreeks in generaldidnot deifytheirteachers. They built statues for thepreservation of the memory oftheirgreat philosophers, butno temple

was dedicatedto Pythagorasor anyother distinguished mortal.

The Pythagorean initiations also resembled the Shramanic traditions in India. The Buddha and Mahavira, like Pythagoras, dismissed birthand sex

distinctions. The initiation into their monastic orders was based solely on

ideological and ethical grounds. Greek and Indian orderswere aristocratic, based not on birth or wealth but on the Rile of the noble.Their societies were open to all without discrimination as to gender and social status. In certain cases, slaves could also be initiated into the mysteries andbecomeeminent

teachers. The only condition for admission was that the candidate shouldbe

sincereinhis desire to learn andpossess a good character. This exclusivity, however, causedfinally the destniction of the Pythagorean schoolknown as