〔Not
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“For
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gn
Ci
t
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ens”
and
Publ
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Spher
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J
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OZAWA
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本研究ノートは，２００９年９月２３日に台湾・新竹市の台湾交通大学において，開催された国際シンポジウ ム『東アジアにおける公共圏と市民社会』において，筆者が報告したものである。この国際シンポジウム には，台湾はもとより中国本土の諸大学・研究機関から多数の研究者が参加した。日本からは，本学から 小澤と国際関係学部松下冽教授，そして文京洙教授が，韓国からは，中央大学から申光栄教授が参加した （なお，国際関係学部文教授は，ペーパー提出のみの参加）。東アジア圏の社会学者が集い，東アジア圏に おける市民社会構築をテーマとする学術研究会は，台湾においても，初めての試みであり，画期的な意味 を持つと言える。 日本においては，新たな政権の登場によって，「東アジア共同体構想」が提起され，国際的な波紋を生ん でいるが，今回の国際シンポジウムは，アカデミックな次元で，そうした動きを先取りするものとなった。 台湾を含めた中国本土，そして，日本，韓国の研究者が，それぞれの歴史的・社会的事情を理解し合いな がら，公共圏形成の実態と問題点を議論していくという試みは，従来のフレームのような２国間の研究交 流以上のインパクトがあった。東アジア圏における複数国家に跨る研究交流のフレームの必要性と重要性 を痛感することができた。東アジア圏における研究交流の活性化は，必ずや，学術的に大きな成果に結び ついていくものと思われる。なかでも，台湾の研究者が，先住民問題や中国本土との関係形成の問題を抱 え，そうした問題群に対して真摯に立ち向かうなかで，広く欧米の学術的な知見を摂取しながらアプロー チしていることが印象的であった。今回の国際シンポジウムの開催意図も，いかに民主的な公共圏形成が 東アジア圏において可能かという強い問題意識に支えられており，東アジア圏における学術的連携におい て，台湾の研究者との交流は，いわば，キー・ストーンともいうべき重要な意味を持つと思われる。 さて，本研究ノートの主旨は，民主党新政権の登場に伴い，現実味が増している「外国人の政治参加」を めぐる動きを背景として，現時点での問題整理と状況把握を行ったものである。本稿の論点は，以下の３ 点にまとめられる。 １）公共圏を議論するとき，そこから排除されている人びとに注目するがことが重要であるが，なかでも， 文化資本・社会関係資本・経済資本において劣位にあり，いわれなき社会的差別によってアイデンティ ティ危機に見舞われている在日外国人の政治社会からの排除の問題はきわめて重要なテーマとなる。 ２）在日外国人に対する参政権付与の議論が，今後，展開していくであろうが，その際，在日外国人を一 枚岩として議論することはできず，彼ら・彼女らが置かれた状況が，政治参加に対する意識やコストに おいて多様であるという点を確認することが大切である。したがって，永住外国人のみに政治参加の道 を開いても，問題の抜本的な解決にはならない。 ３）現在，川崎市や京都市，神戸市など，日本の各地で，「外国人市民 毅 毅 」とも称しうる，従来の運動形態と はまったく質を異にする在日外国人の市民活動が芽生えいる事実に注目することは重要である（本論で は，「FM わいわい」と「モアネット」に注目した）。さまざまな文化的な壁を乗越えて，在日外国人当事 者と多様な市民活動が少しずつではあるが連携し始めている。こうした日本国内の公共圏の有り様の萌 芽的な変化に注目し，こうした変化を確かにしていくことこそ，今後，民主的で創造的な東アジア圏の あらた政治連携を考えていく際において必要不可欠な社会学的な課題と位置づけられるだろう。1.
I
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oduct
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t
he
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pr
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Publ
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Spher
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When we are focusing on the socio-politicalidea,“PublicSphere”,how we think ofthe people excluded from the public sphere becomes very important. This idea of Habermas made usrealize the importance of“process”and “place”through which people can share the information on theirpoliticalissueswith the communication network around them.With such process and place, the Public Mind can be generated, and the people can sustain the democraticsystem.
However, such an idealistic understanding of “Public Sphere” has been criticized from several points of view. The most important criticism is that the communication network postulatesthe ability ofpeople to expresstheirproblem by theirlanguage and the ability to discussthiswith others1.In short,using asociologicalword ofPierre Bourdieu,the public
sphere presumesthatthe people have already achieved acertain levelof“culturalcapital”.As he found out, cultural capital is distributed unequally among people. Therefore, it becomes very difficult for them to communicate well with each other beyond the communication barrier.Whetherthe majority can realize the minority excluded from the society isacrucial pointformaking ademocraticpublicsphere.
Putting the voice ofthe minority into the politicaldecision making processisan essential condition for Social Justice. If somebody in the society is excluded from such process, the socialrulescan notdepend on publicconsensus2.By thiscondition,the socialruleswillbe
guaranteed to be fullofdiversity,and consequently the security ofsociety willbe improved, getting rid ofcrimesand conflicts3.
In thisreport,we focuson the foreign residentsand discussthe problem ofthe public sphere in Japan.Because many foreign residentshave alack ofeconomiccapitaland social capital as well as cultural capital, and moreover they are suffering from identity crisis, the problem ofthe foreign residentsismostimportantamong minority problems.
To analyze this problem, we will focus on the change of the voluntary sector in Japan from the 1990s.We willunderstand the possibility to build anew publicsphere.Moreover,we willunderstand how to approach anew politicalalliance in Asia,justlike in the EU,which willserve forworldwide peace.
2.
The
pol
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Japan
More than 2 millionsforeign residentsare now living in Japan.One in fourofthem are Korean residentswho are referred to as“old comers”,and mostofthe othersare referred to as“new comers”.Many new comersbegan to come to Japan from the end ofthe 1980s.Even though allofthem pay consumption tax and income tax,they can notformally puttheirvoice into the politicaldecision making processin theircommunity4.
Figure 1 showsusthe rapid increase ofpopulation offoreign residentsin Japan.On the otherhand,the totalpopulation beginsto decrease.Figure 2 showsusthe rate ofeach group offoreign residentsatthe end ofeach year,focusing on where they come from.The firstpart
ofeach barfrom the bottom meansthe rate ofKorean residentsin Japan,mostofthem are “old comers”.The second partisthe rate ofChinese residents.Itbecomesthe highestone from 2007 among the ratesofethnicgroupsin Japan.
In recent years, a big change has been occurring in this situation. A new word, “TABUNKA KYOSEI (多文化共生)” has become very popular in Japan, especially since the 1990s.Thisisanew ideato make much ofculturaldiversity in Japan5.
As you know, there is a new government organized by the Democratic Party of Japan
Figure 1 The numberofforeign residents & totalpopulation in Japan
(Data ofpopulation offoreign residentsin Japan,Immigration Bureau ofJapan,2008)
Figure 2 The rates ofeach ethnic group offoreign residents in Japan
(DPJ),and the DPJisvery eagerto give the franchise to foreign residentswho have obtained the rightofpermanentresidence and have lived in Japan formore than 5 yearssince then. Soonerorlater,the new electorallaw willbe established atthe Dietin Japan6.
Thisleadsto the question:willthe problem ofthe absence offoreign residents’voice in the politicalpublicsphere in Japan be solved by such areformation?The answershould be “No”.Regarding thisquestion properly,we mustanalyze the following two points:
1. First of all, we must deliberate the system for foreign residents to participate in the political decision making process in Japan, especially the result of “Kawasaki City Representative Assembly forForeign Residents”.
2. Secondly,we willsee achange ofthe volunteersectorin Japan from the 1990s,mainly the change in the Kansaiareain Japan.
In the Public Office Election Law and the Law of Local Government, the franchise is limited to the residentswho have Japanese nationality.Korean residentswho have the right ofpermanentresidence in Japan took alegalproceeding againstsuch apoliticalsituation. In 1995,the Supreme Courtjudgmentdismissed theirappealforregistering theirnames in the electoral roll. However, the Supreme Court judges also admitted, in its additional comment, the possibility to give the franchise to foreign residents in the local government, even within the limit of the Constitution. Since then, some local governments tried to introduce an assembly which wasdesigned forforeign residentsto participate in the political decision making process.Among them,“KawasakiCity Representative Assembly forForeign Residents”ismostexcellently designed7.Itwasestablished asan advisory committee forthe
mayorwithin limitsofpresentlaws.
3.
The
change
of
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l
soci
et
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Japan:
t
he
emer
gence
of
“
For
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gn
Ci
t
i
zens”
!
3―1.On the system forforeign residents to participate in the politicaldecision making process in Japan
“Kawasaki City Representative Assembly for Foreign Residents” was introduced into Kawasakicity from 1996.Thisassembly waswelldesigned forforeign residentsto participate in the political decision making process in the local government, being within limits of the presentlaw system.
Referring to the collaborative research on thisAssembly by ProfessorTakashiMiyajima and others8,there are severalstrong pointsin KawasakiCity’ssystem asfollows:
1. The opportunity to be arepresentative isequally provided to the foreign residents. 2. The independentmanagementofthisassembly isensured by the ordinance.
3. The mayor must respect the proposal of this assembly. This is also ensured by the ordinance.
Figure 3 on the next page shows the diversity of foreign residents according to their costsforpoliticalparticipation and theirintentto stay in Japan.The verticalaxismeanstheir
intentto stay in Japan.The horizontalaxismeanstheircostsforpoliticalparticipation.Ifthey do not have enough money and time as well as education level, the cost for political participation willbecome higher.
The diversity of interests of foreign residents is so large according to their costs for politicalparticipation and theirintentto stay in Japan.The foreign residents,who have high costsforpoliticalparticipation,are faced with much trouble in theirdaily lives.They do not usually have both the supportsystem and the mutualaid system.
It is very important that NGOs or volunteer groups help and empower the distressed foreign residents for their daily lives9. The voluntary sector has the important mission to
convey the minorities’voice to the publicsphere.We can confirm the importantrole ofthe voluntary associations in helping the foreign minority to express themselves to the public sphere.
Recently,Korean old comershave become key people in thisaction.We can say thatitis really the emergence of“Foreign Citizens”.
Table 1 isachronologicaltable to show the new movementstowardsTabunka-Kyoseiin Kansai& Kyoto areaofJapan.From thistable Iwould like to pick two examplesunderlined, namely FMYY and MORE-NET, to explain the change that can be seen in the voluntary sectorin Japan.
3―2.On the change ofthe volunteersectorin Japan from 1990’s
Atfirst,Iwould like to explain aboutthe Community FM Radio:FMYY.Thiscommunity
Figure 3 Category offoreign residents concerning the attitudes toward politicalparticipation
radio began in 1995,with the assistance ofKorean residents,to cheerup the foreign victims of the great earthquake in Hanshin area10. In 1996, this radio was officially established to
convey the voice ofthe minority in theirlanguage forbuilding the multiculturalcommunity. Ibelieve the greatearthquake thatoccurred in 1995 in Hanshin areamade abig change in the voluntary sectorin Japan.During thisdisaster,FMYY distributed portable radio setsto victims,receiving donationsfrom Korean residents.By such effortsofFMYY,multi-linguistic information wasconveyed to the victimsand the voice offoreign victimswasalso conveyed to the publicsphere.
Afterthe disaster,FMYY began to work asthe core station forbuilding amulti-cultural community.Forexample,they worked hard to make multi-linguisticpublicnotice boardsfor their community, collaborating with civic associations. For example, some of the multi -linguistic public notice boards were set to explain how to take out the garbage. They also promoted alotofthe multi-culturaleventsto cheerup the foreign residents.
Figure 4 explainsthe function ofFMYY in itscommunity.When the NGO endeavorsto supportthe minority,Community Radio facilitatessuch achallenge with theirbroadcasting.It also activates the association between the minority and other residents with their broadcasting.Itworksjustasamedium forcommunity building!We can say thisorganization worksas“CulturalApparatus”to build amulti-culturalcommunity and to generate the Public Mind.Through such actions,people obtain the abilitiesto sustain the democraticsystem. At the earthquake in Niigata, 2006, FMYY supported the Radio stations by translation and conveyed the translated voice file to them viathe internet.FMYY distributed 900 radio setsto foreign victims.FMYY have started to make anetwork around the world,and recently they have begun to help the Indonesian community radio.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
The nextexample isacase ofMORE-NET in Kyoto.Thisisanew project:counseling and supportto foreign aged and disabled personsin Kyoto,which began in 200611.Itdepends
on the collaboration oftwo ofthe Korean residents’organizations:Souren and Mindan aswell
Table 1 New movements to Tabunka-Kyoseiin KansaiorKyoto area ofJapan
• Kyoto internationalcommunity house (1989~) • YWCA’sproject:Asian People Together(1991~) • Kyoto City Internationalization Promotion Office (1995~) • NGO:CenterforMulticulturalInformation & Assistance (1995~) • Radio FMYY:Multi-lingualbroadcasting (1995~)
• The FirstScheme ofKyoto City forInternationalization Promotion (1997~) • ELFA:Day Care Centre forthe aged Koreans(2001~)
• Interpretation projectformedicalservice (2003~)
• MORE-NET:network to supportthe foreign aged & disabled persons(2006~) • NGO network to provide supportforforeign residents(2006~)
• The Second Scheme ofKyoto City forInternationalization Promotion (2008~) (W.Ozawaed.,TheReporton More-NetPart2,MORE-NET,2009)
as specialists and scholars12. It is partially supported financially by Kyoto city and Kyoto
prefecture. MORE-NET is beginning to support other ethnic gropes, especially Returnees from China,who are Japanese orphansleftbehind in Chinaduring World WarII13.
As you know, the relationship between these two organizations is not good because of the difference oftheirpoliticalstance.Itcould be referred to asthe “north-south problem”. How issuch aconflictovercome in the collaboration ofMORE-NET?
I think it is very important that they had the “successful experience” to collaborate during the legalproceedingsagainstthe pension problem.The pension isnotpaid to aged foreign residents over 83 years old, because of lack of transitional measures for the policy change14.Theirappealwasnotadmitted atthe court.However,the localgovernmentrealized
theirappealand began to pay acertain amountofmoney to the aged foreign residentson behalf of the national government. The Korean residents have begun to understand their meritofcollaboration towardsthe struggle to obtain fullhuman rightsin Japan.
Secondly,Ithink itisvery importantthatthey are focusing on the problem ofthe least fortunate, the aged and disabled foreign individuals. Through voluntary activities, they can confirm the importance oftheircollaboration everyday.
Thisnetwork issupported by severalKorean associations.ELFA,aDay Care Centre for the aged Koreans, is one of the Key organizations. Dropping in this Day Care Centre, the elderly are playing and learning cheerfully.They say unanimously thatitisthe happiesttime for their lives. ELFA is also challenging to have Multi-cultural events, to convey the information of the minority to the public sphere. Getting the support from such a vital organization,MORE-NET isable to begin itsmission step by step.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
By analyzing these examples,we can understand thatthere are some notable pointson
Figure 4 Medium forcommunity building:the functions ofFMYY
the change ofthe voluntary sectorin Japan.
At first, even though there are big differences of political interests between ethnic groups, they have begun to collaborate in community activities, from when they could understand the efficacy of their collaboration through the successful experience in overcoming their common unhappiness. The peoples who participate in FMYY had experienced the great disaster, on the other hand the people of MORE-NET had common difficultiesduring alegalproceeding againstthe pension problem.
Secondly,foreign residentsare beginning to make networkswith othercivicgroupsfor their community activities. The idea: “Tabunka-Kyosei” has become their motto to build a multiculturalsociety.
My third pointisthatforeign residentsare focusing on the leastfortunate residents,the foreign aged and disabled, their daily collaboration can become fruitful beyond their difference ofpoliticalstance.The ideologicaldifferencesbetween the two groupsofKorean residentscan be overcome by theirdaily collaboration.
My fourth pointisthatthe Korean residentsgroups,which had been focusing on their own interests, have become aware of the problems of other foreign residents and support them by volunteeractivities.A Korean activistsaid asfollows:“Aftersetting outto support the Returneesfrom Chinawho are Japanese orphansleftbehind in Chinaduring World War II. I became able to realize our own problems more than before as well as other people’s problems”.
Lastly, the local government has begun to support such a new movement in the voluntary sectorand iseagerto make akeen network with them.Forexample,“Thesecond schemeofinternationalization promotion in Kyoto(2008)”isproduced with the assistance of the representativesfrom NGOsatthistime15.
We should be surprised to find outthatthe foreign residentsbegin to actas“Citizens”. Moreover,Korean old comershave become aware ofthe problem ofnew comersand have started to help them through voluntary activities. These volunteers can be referred to as “Foreign Citizens”in Japan.
4.
Concl
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I
mpor
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cul
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i
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he
publ
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spher
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Itisworth while to notice the emergence of“Foreign Citizens”in civilsociety in Japan. Ofcourse,such achange isnotmainstream in CivilSociety in Japan.Many Japanese don’t know such achange isoccurring.However,Ithink itisan essentialchange on the levelof quality in CivilSociety in Japan.
Such anew movementin the voluntary sectorwillsurely improve the opennessofthe public sphere in Japan in the near future. Inclusiveness of cultural minorities in the public sphere isnecessary to build apeacefulworld fullofdiversity.Recently,anew politicalalliance in Asia,justlike the EU,hasstarted to be discussed.Diversifying the publicsphere in each country willbe avitalstep to realize such agoal.
Notes
1 In Japan,such acriticism can be seen in Jun-ichiSaito’swork (On Publicity,IwanamiPress, 2000)and YasushiYamaguchi’swork (On theTheoryofCivilSociety,Yuuhikaku Press,2004). Such atheoreticalstudy isvery important.However,Ibelieve itismore importantto think of aspecificway to make the publicsphere more democratic,creative and fullofdiversity in the realisticdevelopmentofcivilsociety in each country.
2 Looking back to the history ofdevelopmentofthe Theory ofSocialContract,two key ideas become very important.The Generalization ofmembership (in otherword,universalsuffrage) and the Reciprocity between all members of social contract are crucial conditions for Social Justice.
3 Ofcourse,there are many objectionsto asociety fullofdiversity.AsDr.WillKymlickasaid in his writings, diversifying society is inevitable to any society because of the dynamism of Globalization (please see his book: Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights,Oxford University Press,1995).To overcome the difficultiesfrom culturaldiversity,I think the reconstruction ofthe theory ofsocialcontactwillbe needed.We mustreflecton the system ofmodern Nation State.
4 We must understand the situation of foreign residents in Japan from the historical study of policies toward them after World WarⅡ. The first congress after the war to make a new Constitution was famous for its election with universal suffrage. This fact is written in the school textbook as the symbol of new democratic society. However before the election, the people who came from KoreaorTaiwan,who obtained citizenship in Japan,had been unlisted from the electoral roll. I believe this historical fact is of great important to understand the problem of the public sphere in Japan. Please refer to Hiroshi Tanaka’s work (Foreign Residentsin Japan,IwanamiPress,1995)to find outmore.
5 The Japanese word, “Tabunka-Kyosei” has been translated into English, for example, as “MulticulturalSymbiosis”,“Socio-culturalSymbiosis”,“MulticulturalCoexistence”,“Multicultural Diversity”,“Living togetherin amulticulturalsociety”.In thispaper,Idare to use the Japanese word asitis,because Ithink the implication ofthisword istoo difficultto be translated into English. Please refer to my short paper: “Towards the Multi-cultural Society”, Naoki Kato (ed.),Welfareand ContemporaryJapan,MinervaPress,2005.
6 Thispolicy waslisted in the grand platform ofDJP in 1998.Howeveritisnotwritten atthe campaign promise:Manifest2009.There are,ofcourse,objectionsto the electoralreformation to admit the foreign resident’s political participation. Reflecting on these reasons, most of them emphasize the family base of the state, the difference of Nationality and hostility to foreign residentsbecause ofdeclining the leveloflife.
7 Please refer to the internet site of Kawasaki City as below, http://www.city.kawasaki.jp/25/ 25zinken/home/gaikoku/kaigi/index.htm.
Ifthe name ofthe assembly istranslated literally,itcan be called “KawasakiForeign Citizens Representative Assembly”.Atthe officialexplanation in English,the word “Foreign Citizens” isavoided.
Press,2000
9 The same opinion isseen in HiroshiKomai’swork:TheJapaneseTypeofMulti-culturalSociety in theEra ofGlobalization,AkashiPress,2006.
10 Please referto the internetsite ofFMYY:http://www.tcc117.org/fmyy/.
11 Please refer to the internet site of MORE-NET as below: http://blog.livedoor.jp/oseyo815/ archives/cat_50018068.html and the internetsite ofELFA:http://lfa-kyoto.org/.Iam one of the advisersforMORE-NET.
12 The Soren (総連)and Mindan (民団)tried to reconcile each otherin 2006,buttheirattempt failed because ofthe difference ofpoliticalstance to the nuclearmissile problem.
13 The problem ofReturneesfrom Chinaisvery complicated.Returneesare supported by law, because most of them could again obtain the nationality in Japan. However most of their relationswho come from Chinadon’thave such right.There ismuch difference between their interests.There isalso much difference ofinterestbetween Korean residentsand Returnees from China.These days,acollaboration hasbegun among them beyond such adifference. 14 In 1986,the Japanese governmentintroduced new welfare lawswhich unlisted the nationality
restriction.Howeveritwasdecided thatthe pension should notbe paid to the aged foreign residentsover60 yearsold atthattime.Because oflack oftransitionalmeasuresforthe policy change,more than 5000 people were taken from the pension system.
15 Afterthe planning ofThefirstschemeofinternationalization promotion in Kyoto(1997)”,there wasthe protestfrom NGO thatNGOs’opinion were neglected by the government.Please see
TheReporton More-NetPart2,MORE-NET,2009 edited by W.Ozawa. ＊ Alloflisted books& paperbutWillKymlicka’sare written in Japanese.
