01生涯スポーツ-論文.indd

＜日本生涯スポーツ学会第20回大会特別寄稿＞

Research, Lifelong Sport, and Travel:

Sustainable Sport Tourism in the Prefecture of Okinawa

Tom Hinch

_{and Eiji Ito}

1）Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of Alberta 2）Center for Tourism Research, Wakayama University

3）Faculty of Tourism, Wakayama University

研究，生涯スポーツ，旅行：

沖縄県における持続可能なスポーツツーリズム

トム・ヒンチ

_{，伊藤央二}

＊ This paper is based on the keynote presentation delivered at the 20th conference of the Japanese Society of Lifelong Sports.

Correspondence concerning this manuscript should be addressed to Tom Hinch, Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H9. E-mail: [email protected]

抄録 ラグビーワールドカップ2019，東京2020オリンピック・パラリンピック競技大会，ワールドマスターズゲーム ズ関西2021の開催を控え，国内ではスポーツツーリズムが脚光を浴びている．しかしながら，スポーツツーリズ ムはメガイベントのみに限られるものではない．スポーツツーリズムはメガイベントとは異なる規模や種類の スポーツの文脈でも見受けられ，大都市圏外での持続可能な地域発展の手段になる可能性を秘めている．本研 究では沖縄の現状を考察しながら，持続可能な地域発展の手段としてのスポーツツーリズムの活用について探索 する．最初に，スポーツツーリズムの概要を真正性といった利点と生涯を通したスポーツツーリズムの変化に 対する理解不足といった欠点から論じる．次に，スポーツツーリズムを持続可能な地域発展の手段として活用 する事例として，「スポーツアイランド沖縄」という観光キャンペーンを実施している沖縄県を取り上げる． 本研究では，半構造化インタビューをスポーツコミッション沖縄（SCO），沖縄観光コンベンションビューロ ー（OCVB），沖縄空手会館（OKK）の担当者に実施するとともに，各組織のホームページのレビューを行っ た．調査結果から，スポーツツーリズムの発展に関する戦略は，沖縄の持続可能な地域発展に繋がっていること が示唆された．本研究結果から示唆された沖縄県への提言として，（a）スポーツ経歴の異なるライフステージ をターゲットとした意識的なポートフォリオの作成，（b）SCO，OCVB，OKKの組織間を超えたマーケティン グや開発努力の調整，（c）プロスポーツ春季キャンプ等の際に指摘される地域スポーツ資源の飽和状態の解決 に向けた戦略開発，の3点が挙げられる． キーワード：生涯スポーツ，沖縄，スポーツツーリズム，持続可能な開発目標

1．Introduction

Sport tourism is a major story in Japan with sporting events like the 2019 Rugby World Cup, the Tokyo 2020 Olympics and Paralympics, and the World Masters Games 2021 Kansai scheduled to begin shortly (Hinch & Ito, 2018; Ito & Hinch, 2017). These global events position the country as a premier international sport tourism destination with the promise of increased destination awareness and visitation in the global tourism market. While the ultimate impacts of these events remain to be determined, it is clear that they have generated much excitement in Japan and abroad. However, these events are only part of the picture as sport tourism is manifest in many different ways across a broad range of regions and communities throughout the country. Just as major sporting events require substantial investments and generate much debate about sustainable development, other types and scales of sport tourism merit similar attention. This paper considers these other dimensions of sport tourism and is meant to generate discussion about the sport tourism as an agent for sustainable regional development by considering it in the context of Okinawa prefecture.

The paper opens with an overview of the relationship between sport and tourism. It then shifts to a reflection of sport tourism in the context of sustainability. Finally, a case study of Okinawa is presented to illustrate the reality of sport tourism development in one of the more attractive but peripheral regions of Japan. The intent of the Okinawa case is to highlight the current practices and potential strategies that can be used to foster sustainable sport tourism at a regional level rather than to provide a definitive empirical assessment of sport tourism as an agent for regional development.

2．Tourism and Sport

Tourism and sport are both major global phenomena in their own right. In economic terms tourism is often described as one of the world’s largest industries (Statista, n.d.). Similarly, sport is a ubiquitous activity that has substantial impacts on economies throughout the world (Westerbeek, 2011). As its name suggests, sport tourism lies at the intersection of these two phenomena. For example, in a sporting context, as competitive athletes

become more skilled they have to travel further and further away from their home environment to find appropriate competition. The travel dimension of sport (i.e., home to destination to home) defines these athletes as tourists. Similarly, one has only to look at the promotional images found on tourist destination websites to see that sport is frequently used to entice visitors to travel to these sites. Despite the intuitive nature of this relationship, there is little appreciation of the extent to which these phenomena are interrelated and without this appreciation, and there is little chance that sport tourism can be used strategically as an agent for sustainable development. 2. 1　The Sport Tourism Attraction System

Hinch and Higham’s (2001) conceptualization of sport tourism provides a foundation for the discussion that follows. Fundamentally, sport tourism is understood as “sport-based travel away from the home environment for a limited time where sport is characterized by unique rule sets, competition related to physical prowess, and a playful nature” (p. 49). This conceptualization positions sport as an attraction within a tourism framework. The complexity of the relationship between sport and tourism is captured in Figure 1, which draws on the work of tourism scholars such as Lieper (1990) and Gibson (1998) to illustrate the sport tourism attraction system.

Like other tourists, sport travelers start their trip at home in the generating region, travel to the destination, engage in touristic activities in the destination and then return home. The distinguishing feature is that their motivations and behaviors are focused on sport experiences. Key sport tourism market segments include: elite athletes, spectators, recreational athletes and others such as the support entourages (e.g., family & friends, coaches, physical therapists, managers, etc.) that often accompany athletes to their sites of engagement. Each of these segments is characterized by different motives and behaviors that also vary by sport. Market size and spatial distributions vary depending on the popularity and nature of the sport in a given region of origin. Destinations are similarly diverse with one major variation being the contrast between central and peripheral places. Central or urban destinations feature built facilities (e.g., stadiums) serving concentrated populations while peripheral regions feature natural resources that facilitate specific types of outdoor oriented sports (e.g., skiing in the

management of sport tourism requires consideration of all parts of this system.

2. 2　The Advantage of Authenticity

One of the most fundamental criticisms of tourism is that it tends to undermine the resource that served as its original attraction (e.g., Mowforth & Munt, 2016). This conundrum is especially noticeable in the case of culturally based attractions, which are often sensitive to disturbance by “others.” This argument suggests that the commodification of cultural resources and places is self-destructive (Morgan, 2014) as it destroys the meaning of the cultural practice and undermines the true character of the destination making it a less meaningful place for residents. Basically, the commodification or commercialization of cultural practices is seen to destroy or at least change the meanings of these practices as they become valued more in economic terms than the ways that they were originally valued such as spirituality. Commodification is seen to lead to a loss of authenticity thereby turning real communities into at best, watered-down caricatures of their former self. One of the ways that destinations have tried to manage this threat is to concentrate tourism activity in a “front stage” (Goffman, 1959) area. In these designated spaces, destination hosts perform for the visitors providing them with mountains).

The four major types of sporting attractions include “spectator events” populated by a small number of competitive elite athletes and large numbers of spectators (e.g., 2019 Rugby World Cup). “Participant events” which share a similar institutional event framework but feature a higher proportion of participating athletes (usually amateur) relative to spectators who often consist of a support team of friends and family for the competing athletes (e.g., World Masters Games 2021 Kansai). Active sport attractions are sites of active engagement patronized by recreational athletes who pursue independent sporting activities (e.g., ski resorts in Hokkaido). Finally, heritage sport attractions are sites of sport nostalgia or heritage-base leisure experiences (e.g., Museum of Hanshin Koshien Stadium).

Sport attractions can also be categorized by their degree of importance in terms of the traveler’s motives and experiences. Some attractions serve as the only or at least the dominant motivation for a visitor to travel to a destination (primary). Others are an important part of a bundle of attractions in the area (secondary). Finally, some sport attractions may not have served as motivation for a visit to the destination initially but may have been an important part of the visitor’s travel experience while they were in the destination (tertiary). The strategic

Sustainable Sport Tourism in Okinawa 31

Figure 1. Sport Tourism Attraction System (Source: Higham & Hinch, 2018)

◦ Embodied experiences characterize sport due to the centrality of the gross motor activity of athletes. This physicality serves to engage all of the senses thereby connecting sport tourists to the places that they are visiting. Such engagement is clearly evident at participant based events and during active sport tourism but also holds for spectator events and even heritage based sport tourism albeit a more vicarious form of engagement.

◦ Emotional engagement is another dimension of sport that keeps it real. Sport often evokes powerful emotions as the unscripted drama of a competition or activity unfolds. This is especially evident at competitions between elite athletes but also is found in the small personal victories and defeats that are imbedded in recreational sport.

◦ Community celebration is another aspect of sport that serves to help it retain authenticity within a tourism context. Whether it is the celebration of a historic win for the home team or the more relaxed celebration of a way of life found in a sporting subculture, sport can foster a state of communitas in which individuals transcend their daily lives and welcome visitors to the backstage of the destination. Such celebrations are genuine and often go beyond many other types of tourism engagements that are simply performances on the front stage that are spatially separated from the backstage.

In combination, these characteristics of sport can provide authentic insight into a destination. The cultural dimensions of sport can therefore be strategically commodified by the tourism industry without undermining the meanings that local residents have for these activities in the absence of tourists. In fact, these characteristics facilitate the management of sport as a tourist attraction in the front stage of a destination while providing a window if not a portal into the backstage.

2. 3　 The Failure to Consider Sport Travel Across the Lifespan

While sport is increasingly being studied as a tourist attraction, the fact that the nature of sport participation varies across the lifespan has received little attention. Sport researchers and policy makers have developed evidence based models that illustrate various stages of sport development that begin engineered experiences in designated spaces. When

not performing for tourists, the hosts retreat to the “backstage” where they cease act in favor of living their normal lives (MacCannell, 1973). One of the challenges with this approach is that many tourists intentionally seek out the backstage of destinations in their search for authenticity.

Sport offers at least a partial solution for this conundrum (Hinch & Higham, 2005). This claim is based on two key arguments. The first argument is that sport is a cultural attraction as it reflects cultural norms and values that serve as distinguishing characteristics of people and places. Secondly, sport is more resilient to the erosion of authenticity than are other types of cultural attractions (Higham & Hinch, 2018). This is especially true when the authenticity of the experience rather than the authenticity of the toured object is considered (Wang, 1999). For example, in his study of active sport tourists participating on a cycling trip in conjunction with the Tour de France, Lamont (2014) found a process of authentication supported by: embodied experience, collective sporting practices that fostered a state of community celebration, and the mediation of the sporting experience through photography and social media posts. Further to these characteristics of sport tourism, Higham and Hinch (2018) have argued that the dimensions of sport that arguably foster this type of authentic experience include:

◦ Uncertain outcomes such as not knowing who is going to win or lose a given sporting competition. More generally, uncertainty exists at all points throughout a competition as performance levels depend on a broad range of dynamic factors that cannot be totally controlled. Even the performance and experience of recreational athletes like snow boarders is unpredictable due factors like snow conditions, weather and the fatigue level of the athlete thereby making each run unique and authentic.

◦ Public display is an accepted dimension of most sports and rather than diminishing the competition it may actually enhance it as the audience’s energy becomes part of the event. Professional baseball in Japan provides a good example of this as spectators cheer on their favorite teams. In this case, the absence of such spectators would likely detract from the performance of athletes as they would miss this source of feedback and energy.

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Key questions that emerge from this definition are “whose needs are being protected” and “what is being sustained?” Scholars who study “sustainable tourism” originally focused on the sustainability of tourism activity. Later, they considered tourism in the context of sustainable development which shifted the focus to the sustainability of resources so as not to degrade or harm the human or physical environments in ways that prohibit other types of future development in the destination. Bramwell, Higham, Lane, and Miller (2017) summarize this shift by suggesting that the concept of sustainable tourism has evolved beyond its original self focus to the point where it is “now seen as a normative orientation that seeks to re-direct societal systems and behaviour on a broad and integrated path toward sustainable development” (p. 1).

Sustainable development requires the management of change. Planners and managers must anticipate changes in the broader environment, articulate desired outcomes, develop strategies for action, implement these strategies, assess their impacts and modify them as required. A key part of this process requires a decision as to what measures to use to articulate the desired outcomes and to measure progress in pursuing these outcomes. Three options for assessing sustainable development in a sport tourism context include: (a) the triple bottom line; (b) the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals; and (c) measures of place integrity.

3. 2　Triple Bottom Line

Traditionally, economic measures dominated discussions of sustainable tourism with an emphasis being put on net economic benefit. Hall (2008) pointed out that this approach conformed to the dominant political-economic system operating throughout the developed world in the 20th _{century. However,}

the late 20th _{century and the early 21}st _century

has seen a shift, at least in terms of the academic and policy perspectives, as it has been recognized that sustainable development is also manifest in improvements in the social realm including cultural integrity. Similarly, it has been recognized that the protection of the environment is central to sustainable tourism and by extension to sustainable sport tourism (Fyall & Jago, 2009). Figure 2 highlights with physical literacy experiences during infancy

and progress through a range of pathways that are meant to culminate in active living for seniors (Canadian Sport Institute – Pacific, 2014). While such frameworks are attractive, they fail to explicitly recognize that sport progression also has spatial implications. Sport tourism researchers are usually explicit about their interest in the spatial dimension of sport travel in their research but they have largely failed to address the changing nature of sport travel throughout the lifespan. One exception to this is a growing body of literature that explores sport travel careers of athletes which suggests that serious recreational athletes will adopt predicable travel patterns to sport events as they progress through their athletic careers (Getz & McConnell, 2014). More generally, however, sport tourism destinations need to consider their sport resources relative to the ways that sport travel varies across the lifespan for potential travelers to their region.

3．Sustainability

While sport tourism offers considerable potential for net benefits in a destination there is no guarantee that its organic progression will necessarily lead to this outcome. This section of the paper considers ways in which sport tourism development can be managed followed by the presentation of three different perspectives of sustainable approaches in sport tourism.

3. 1　Shaping the Future

In a sport tourism context, development is more than growth as measured by increases in the number of incoming visitors, revenues and the physical development of sport facilities. Development is change that has a positive impact. It must therefore be assessed in the context of a broad range of stakeholders who often have competing interests. For the purpose of this paper, development is defined as “…the continuous and positive change in the economic, social, political and cultural dimensions of the human condition, guided by the principle of freedom of choice and limited by the capacity of the environment to sustain such change” (Sharpley, 2014, p. 22). It therefore is closely linked with the contested concept of sustainability.

Sustainable development is widely understood as “…development that meets the needs of the

3. 3　United Nations Sustainable Development Goals The United Nations sponsored Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represent a second major framework in which to consider sustainable sport tourism. These goals expand on the triple bottom line approach through the identification of 17 specific goals that have relevance both within and beyond the boundaries implied by the triple bottom line approach (Saarien, 2019). The United Nations (n.d.) positions these SDGs as “a call for action by all countries – poor, rich, and middle-income – to promote prosperity while protecting the planet. They recognize that ending poverty must go hand-in-hand with strategies that build economic growth and address a range of social needs including education, health, social protection, and job opportunities, while tackling climate change and environmental protection.” Adopted in 2015, these 17 SDGs articulate a global agenda with integrated targets articulated for 2030. Three of these goals are of particular relevance in a sport tourism context: #3 good health and well-being; #8 decent work and economic growth; and #11 sustainable cities and communities.

The “good health and well-being” goal aims to this expanded view of sustainable tourism and

reflects the triple bottom line perspective.

The social sphere is interpreted broadly to not only include dimensions of the social community such as gender equality but cultural elements related cultural integrity within a rapidly changing world. Elements in the environmental sphere include benefits such as those associated with environmental reclamation projects and the protection of the natural areas as well as costs such as pollution. Finally, the economic realm includes the traditional focus on net economic impacts but is increasingly including consideration of economic characteristics such as the equitable distribution of these impacts. Under a triple bottom line approach to sustainable sport tourism development, it is no longer sufficient to focus only on one sphere or even solely on the area of overlap between all three spheres. Despite the challenge of equating the different types of impact measures normally used in each sphere, the overlaps between each pair of spheres within the trilogy (e.g., social & economic; economic & environmental; environmental & social) must also be considered along with the potential tradeoffs that exist between those parts of each sphere that do not overlap (Higham & Hinch, 2018).

Sustainable Sport Tourism in Okinawa 32

Figure 2. Triple Bottom Line Perspective of Sustainable Sport Tourism (Source: After Hall, 2007 and Higham & Hinch, 2018) Figure 2. Triple Bottom Line Perspective of Sustainable Sport Tourism (Source: After Hall, 2007 and Higham & Hinch, 2018)

Standeven and DeKnop (1999) went so far as to describe sport tourism as “an experience of physical activity tied to an experience of place” (p. 58).

Issues of sustainability arise when different stakeholders hold distinct and sometimes, competing understandings of place at a given location. It is therefore necessary to consider how perceptions of place vary between groups (Scannell & Gifford, 2010) and the impact that these differences can have on sustainable sport tourism. For example, Hinch and Holt (2017) found that visiting ultramarathon runners were attached to the site of their race more through place dependence than the residents of the host community who were attached through place identity. In this instance, while visiting racers were fond of the destination, they could be drawn away by competing events that offer a similar or greater level of race support in a more accessible location. In other cases, the challenges to sustainability may be even more direct if the way visiting sport tourists understand place directly conflicts with that of the local residents (e.g., a place of pleasure versus a place of labor). Another challenge to place integrity occurs when there is a contradiction between the ways that the sport tourism industry attempts to construct place image versus the collective place identity of residents. Sustainable tourism is more likely to occur if the place image featured in tourism branding and promotion is consistent with the sense of place prevalent in the community (Campelo, Aitken, Thyne, & Gnoth, 2013).

4．The Case of Okinawa

Okinawa is the southernmost prefecture of Japan and consists of over 160 islands including the main island and a surrounding archipelago. It is attractive to tourists due to its favourable climate, beautiful beaches, coral reefs, history, and unique culture. Given this bundle of attractions and its popularity as a tourist destination it is often referred to as the Hawaii of Japan (Tada, 2015). In the 16th _century,

Okinawa was called Ryukyu Kingdom and flourished as an independent country with its own unique culture under the influence of China and Southeast Asia. Many archaeological ruins testify to the unique cultural and historical heritage of the Ryukyu Kingdom; for example, five Gusuku (castles) and four ruins are registered as UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Sites (Japan Golf Travelers Club, n.d.). In ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for

all at all ages. As such, it is closely aligned with contemporary sport’s claim that it promotes physical activity and active living thereby contributing to individual and collective health. More specifically, sport claims to help in the reduction and treatment of health issues like cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory issues and diabetes. This SDG is also aligned with health tourism claims associated with active physical engagement and more general relaxation or revitalization from the pressure and routines of work. The “decent work and economic growth” SDG aims to promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. From a sport tourism perspective, this goal contrasts with the health SDG in that it is most closely aligned with tourism where the focus has long been on economic growth including employment. Professional sport and sport equipment manufacture have also become global industries that are recognized as making substantial contributions to the world economy. Sport tourism is a significant contributor to this goal. The third SDG highlighted – sustainable cities and communities – aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Tourism is seen to do this through economic development, infrastructure development and the fostering of hospitality and good will. Sport contributes through the promotion of community ties across traditional lines of division such as economic status and class distinctions.

3. 4　Place Integrity

A third way of assessing sustainable development in a sport tourism context is by focusing on place integrity. Place is space that has been infused with meaning (Lewika, 2011). Human geographers (e.g., Tuan, 1975; Relph, 1976) pioneered the study of place and argued that place meaning and the related concept of place attachment were more likely to develop through long term residence as opposed to what they described as the superficial experiences of place that characterize tourism. Since then, ample evidence has been generated to shows that short-term visitors such as outdoor recreationists also develop strong attachments to place (e.g., Williams & Kaltenborn, 1999; Lewicka, 2011). This is also true of sport tourists who connect to place through their embodied experiences and community celebrations.

This question list was sent to each organization in advance, and the concepts of the triple bottom line and the SDGs were briefly introduced during the interviews. Each interview approximately took from 60 to 90 minutes. The websites of each of these institutions were also examined using a framework that paralleled the interview questions.

4. 2　Sport Tourism in Okinawa

4. 2. 1　The Sport Tourism Attraction System Based on its warm climate and unique culture, the prefecture of Okinawa has developed into one of the most popular sport tourism destinations in Japan. Tourists visiting the prefecture can experience all major types of sport tourism: active (e.g., diving), spectator events (e.g., baseball training camps), participant events (e.g., 30 marathon events a year), and heritage (e.g., the birthplace of karate). The Okinawa Prefectural Government through the SCO and OCVB actively markets the destination as “Sports Islands OKINAWA.” The OCVB has also promoted heritage sport tourism in Okinawa by opening the OKK in 2017 based on the fact that karate originated in Okinawa and still reflects a unique dimension of Okinawan culture. The combination of sport tourism resources, activity, and market interest makes Okinawa an attractive case study subject for sport tourism as a tool for regional development.

From an organizational perspective, the distinctions among the three organizations mentioned above should be clarified. All of the organizations are related to the Okinawa Prefectural Government, but their roles in sport tourism promotion are different. The SCO is a part of the Okinawa Amateur Sports Association, and this organization promotes a wide range of sport including lifelong sports, competitive sports, and sport conventions. Sport tourism promotion is included as part of the event and convention business. The most prominent example of this feature is training camps hosted in Okinawa for athletes from other parts of Japan and abroad. Participants at these camps range from amateur to elite athletes (e.g., professional baseball teams). Therefore, the SCO targets tourists who primarily visit Okinawa for sport tourism. On the other hand, the OCVB coordinates a wide range of tourism promotion in Okinawa including MICE (meeting, incentive, conference/convention, exhibition/event). Sport tourism is regarded as one of the priority 2018, 9.8 million tourists (6.9 million domestic and

2.9 million inbound tourists) visited this destination (Okinawa Prefecture, 2019). Air access to Okinawa is very convenient with 41 domestic lines from 27 locations (as of January, 2018) as well as international flights from Taiwan, China, Hong Kong, Thailand, and Singapore (Japan Golf Travelers Club, n.d.). It is expected that the number of tourists will increase in 2019 as new flight and cruise routes open (Okinawa Prefecture, 2019). Insight into sport tourism in Okinawa was developed through an examination of relevant agency websites and a series of personal interviews with the Sports Commission Okinawa (SCO), the Okinawa Convention and Visitors Bureau (OCVB), and the Okinawa Karate Kaikan (OKK) to highlight current practices and potential strategies used to foster sustainable sport tourism at a regional level in Okinawa.

4. 1　Method

On November 22, 2018, the authors conducted semi-structured interviews with two individuals of the SCO, four individuals of the OCVB, and one individual of the OKK, all of whom were responsible for sport tourism marketing in their respective organizations. Although the interviews were slightly modified to make them relevant for each organization, the following core questions were asked:

1． How important is sport as a tourist activity in Okinawa?

2． Describe the way you work with other sport organizations to market sport tourism.

3． The triple bottom line approach to sustainable tourism development traditionally focuses on the economic, social, and environmental realms. What is your perspective of the contributions and challenges of sport tourism in each of these domains in Okinawa?

4． How would you describe the visitor experience of a typical sport tourist?

5． The United Nations has identified 17 SDGs. In what ways do you think that sport tourism in Okinawa contributes to the following three: good health and well-being, decent work and economic growth, and sustainable cities and communities.

6． What makes the Okinawa prefecture a special place for you?

7． What makes the Okinawa prefecture a special place for sport tourism visitors?

4. 2. 3　 Okinawa Sport Tourism Across the Lifespan Study findings suggest that these three organizations have different age-based marketing strategies for sport tourists. The SCO emphasizes professional sport camps, which target young adults as the age cohort most interested in watching baseball in Japan. Research on baseball spectatorship in Japan (Just Research Service, 2015) found that stadium spectatorship was dominated by males and females in their 20s, followed by those in their 30s, 40s, and over 50 years-old cohorts. In contrast, the OCVB targets early and middle age females in the active sport tourism category. This strategy is explicitly used in the promotion of Okinawa Healing Sports (e.g., running, golf, yoga) with the pictures on its website featuring early to middle aged females. The OKK targets a broader range of age cohorts including youth, early adult, and middle age in association with the karate facility. For example, local school students visit the OKK on field trips to learn about Okinawan history and culture. In combination, these organizations are promoting sport tourist attractions across a range of age cohorts, however, these promotions are limited at in terms of seniors and children suggesting that there may be untapped markets. Conscious strategies to target the full range of ages would be advantageous for further sport tourism development in Okinawa.

4. 3　The Sustainability of Sport Tourism in Okinawa 4. 3. 1　Triple Bottom Line

Conscious planning and managing sport tourism impacts are required for the achievement of sustainable sport tourism development (Higham & Hinch, 2018). Effective economic strategies to address seasonality are an important aspect of the economic bottom line of tourism destinations. The interview results indicated that promoting professional baseball training camps is one of the strategic approaches to address seasonality. In Okinawa, summer (July and August) is the peak visitation season and winter (January and February) is the low season (Okinawa Prefecture, 2019). To take advantage of its relatively warm climate throughout the year, the prefecture of Okinawa has promoted professional baseball spring training camps during the shoulder tourism periods. This idea is similar to the strategy of scheduling sporting events during the off-peak tourism periods (e.g., Isle of Man Tourist Trophy Race: Hinch & Higham, 2011). According to the Ryugin tourist areas, and this organization tries to attract

tourists to Okinawa for active sport in particular. Therefore, the OCVB actively markets sports as primary, secondary and tertiary attractions for tourists. Based on the prefecture’s Designated Manager System, the OCVB operates the OKK. Although this facility is specifically designed for karate, people also use the facility for other types of meetings and events which fall more broadly under the OCVB’s mandate. As the birthplace for karate, the OKK attracts both domestic and inbound tourists who are enthusiastic about the martial art. This facility also has a karate museum that serves as a powerful heritage sport tourism attraction for this devoted domestic and international market niche. 4. 2. 2　Capitalizing on Authenticity

The interviewees did not identify any specific strategies that are currently in place related to the authenticity of sport tourism experiences in Japan with the exception of the development and promotion of the OKK. Clearly, however, the sport tourism attractions being promoted are meant to be genuine elements of the Okinawa prefecture with the intent of fostering authentic experiences for sport tourists. The starting point for the SCO is sport for local residents. Promoting sport tourism is a secondary responsibility that has been aligned with their primary mandate. As such, like the OKK, sport authenticity lies at the heart of their interests and activities. In contrast, the OCVB’s mandate is to promote tourism and sport is seen as a mechanism for doing so. It is evident, however, that the OCVB is conscious of the marketing advantages of promoting authentic sport experiences. This is especially true in terms of active sport tourist attractions such as diving where the unique embodied experience of the sport is highlighted in the images and text found on the OCVB website. Evocative descriptions of sport tourist experiences are used to emphasize their emotional dimension along with the celebration of community both in terms of sporting subcultures and the host communities in which the activity or event occurs. It appears that the promotion of these authentic advantages of sport as a tourist attraction has been intuitive. The OCVB appreciates the value of attracting and engaging tourists in meaningful sport experiences even though no formal strategy to promote authenticity appears to be in place.

Naha Hari (dragon boat race) and karate. As the birthplace of the popular sport of karate, Okinawa possesses a very strong and defendable sport tourism brand. With more than 100 million practitioners in about 180 countries it is not surprising that over 3,000 karate practitioners visit Okinawa every year. To further promote karate, the prefecture of Okinawa launched the Okinawa Karate Promotion Division in 2016 and opened the OKK in 2017. OKK sport tourism initiatives in 2018 included: (a) the 1st _{Okinawa Karate International Tournament}

where 1,635 practitioners from 50 countries/regions participated, and (b) a Karate trial class for a Chinese insurance company’s trip where 166 Chinese people participated. Okinawa Karate will receive even more global attention with the inclusion of karate at the Summer Olympics in Tokyo 2020. The OKK therefore has the potential to play a major role in promoting karate and Okinawa sport tourism as well as encouraging cultural exchange. Promoting karate as a sport tourism attraction also aligns with the budo (martial arts) tourism promotion conducted by the Japan Sports Agency (2018).

In terms of the environmental goals, Okinawa sport tourism draws heavily on the natural (e.g., marine) environment as a resource. Even for land based activities like Marathon Islands Okinawa, the marine environment is highlighted in promotional materials recommending the race “ … for those who want to run in great nature. Run and experience an ocean view and mountain trails.” Given this dependence on these natural resources, managing environmental impacts is crucial for sustainable sport tourism development in Okinawa. However, few explicit strategies are employed to mitigate negative impacts or even to investigate the extent of such impacts (Hinch & Ito, 2018; Ito & Hinch, 2017). Given that the Japan Sports Agency (2018) promotes outdoor sport tourism as well as budo tourism, environmental impacts should be consciously taken into account as it relates to sport tourism in Okinawa and Japan. 4. 3. 2　United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

The study focused on the three SDGs of: (a) good health and well-being; (b) decent work and economic growth; and (c) sustainable cities and communities. In terms of the first goal, the OCVB promoted “healing sports” for tourists in Okinawa. The English brochure for Okinawa Healing Sports emphasized a health theme with statements like: “Sports will Research Institute (2018), the economic impact of the

professional baseball training camps in 2018 was 12.2 billion yen with 84,000 tourists coming from outside Okinawa to watch the games and practices associated with these camps. Along with the professional baseball training camps, the prefecture of Okinawa has recently promoted professional soccer training camps with the result that the number of Japanese professional soccer teams that had training camps in Okinawa increased from two in 2010 to 14 in 2017. Okinawa has also become a popular training camp destination for East Asian countries as reflected by the presence of eight South Korean baseball team camps and six Chinese soccer team training camps in 2017. However, the interview results of the SCO also suggested that this benefit comes with a social cost for the local people in terms of reduced access to sport facilities during the spring training seasons. If not managed carefully, this sport tourism strategy may end up taking opportunities for sport participation away from the local people. A balance is needed between the social needs of prefecture residents and the economic benefits associated with the camps to foster sustainable sport tourism development.

Hosting training camps also contribute to the achievement of social goals in Okinawa as it corresponds to Higham and Hinch’s (2018) assertion that: “A healthy sport tourism economic/political sphere should ideally support and enhance the social/ cultural dimension of the community” (p. 66). For example, during the training camp in 2018, one of the professional baseball teams (i.e., Chunichi Dragons) organized a baseball camp for the local children. This initiative went beyond the benefits of hosting spectator activities to facilitating a participant event with social benefits. In another example of the development of a participant based event, a brochure titled Marathon Islands Okinawa stated that marathon participation in Okinawa is recommended “For people who want to enjoy the post-race life. After-parties include exchange gatherings, casual get-togethers and closing parties. Interaction with local people will be cherished memory for all.” These two examples suggest that sport tourism development in Okinawa has a direct positive impact on the social dimension of the local community.

Okinawa sport tourism also puts a strong emphasis on the cultural components of the social sphere. The prefecture has rich cultural roots in sports such as

Naha Hari). They also indicated that sport was an important part of contemporary culture as evidenced by mass community recreational days. It was not surprising therefore that no concerns were raised over the way that visiting sport tourists understood and practiced sport in Okinawa. Interviewees from the OCVB indicated that local hospitality is strong and has been an important part of the sport tourism experience in Okinawa. For example, in the case of the marathon events, locals cheer runners from the sidelines (sidewalk) and interact with the runners before and after the races (e.g., closing parties). The local are very friendly and they develop meaningful relationships with sport tourists. Their warm hospitality is a significant part of the visitor experience in Okinawa and it cannot be easily found in other prefectures. This has consequently increased the number of repeat visitors to Okinawa. The fact that local residents offer such a genuine welcome suggests that they find the visitor’s understandings of place to be consistent with their own. For example, both groups appreciate the favourable climate and the marine sport environment. The promotional images found on the webpages of the OCVB and SCO were consistent with the way that the interviewees spoke about their prefecture. Given that these interviewees are in the business of marketing sport in Okinawa, it would be useful to talk to other residents who do not have a professional interest in sport to seek their opinions on place identity relative to those of the visitors.

5．Conclusion

The purpose of this research paper was to explore the use of sport tourism as an agent for sustainable regional development by considering it in the context of Okinawa, Japan. It was meant to highlight current practices and potential strategies rather than to provide a definitive empirical assessment. The positioning of the prefecture as “Sports Islands OKINAWA” appears to be a sustainable strategy. Study results indicated that there is merit to focusing on sport tourism as an agent for sustainable development. In fact, many sport activities are already being used as agents for sustainable development with examples being: healing sports and diving (active sport tourism), baseball training camps (spectator event sport tourism), marathon events (participant event sport tourism), and karate make you feel the five senses within the nature of

Okinawa and will give you a deep, bright and true healing.” In Okinawa, there are many resources that enable tourists to enjoy healing sports, such as pottering (leisure cycling), trekking, running, golfing, yoga, stand up paddleboard (sup), sup yoga, and horse riding. These images of good health and well-being in Okinawa sport tourism materials align well with popular perceptions of the longevity of Okinawa residents (male: 80.27 old, female: 87.44 years-old in 2015), although the prefecture’s ranking for longevity relative to the rest of the country has fallen substantially in recent years (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, n.d.). This intersection of healing sports and longevity in Okinawa can be considered an opportunity that can be matched with the strategies of targeting a senior active sport market.

In terms of the second goal (decent work and economic growth), baseball training camps have had a significant economic effect on tourism industries in Okinawa (e.g., 12.2 billion yen in 2018: Ryugin Research Institute, 2018). Additionally, the OKK has attracted not only domestic but also international sport tourists (i.e., enthusiastic karate practitioners) every year. These two highlights clearly contribute to economic growth in the tourism industries and in Okinawa more generally. Furthermore, these initiatives also contribute to the third goal (sustainable cities and communities) as suggested previously in terms of their social benefits. The Okinawan prefecture and municipalities have developed and maintained training camp facilities so as to attract and provide better services for professional baseball and soccer teams. Moreover, provided that local access is maintained, these facilities play an important role in promoting local revitalization by hosting various sporting events and by inspiring the local people, especially children, to participate in sports.

4. 3. 3　Place Integrity

Despite the last two questions meant to solicit opinions about the way locals understand place versus their views of the way visitors understand Okinawa, the study findings did not provide a great deal of insight into place integrity. Clearly, however, the interviewees from the SCO appreciated Okinawa for its favourable climate, its marine environment, and its culture of sport as highlighted by its heritage related to karate and traditional boat races (e.g.,

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Acknowledgement

We would like to express our appreciation to the interviewees from the SCO, OCVB, and OKK. We would also like to acknowledge the editor Dr. Chogahara’s help in the preparation of the manuscript.

Funding

This research project was supported by a CTR Research Project Support Program from the Center for Tourism Research (CTR), Wakayama University.

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