Makara in Indonesia Focusing on Java and Sumatra
I
TONaoko
Introduction
There are various understandings about makara, a legendary creature of the sea. In the Ṛgveda, makara appears as the vehicle (vāhana) of the goddess Gaṇgā and the deity of water (Varuṇa).1) Makara is also endowed with the image of an animal resembling an
alli-gator which is related to water, the sea, or whirlpools. However, it is unknown when and where these images were established. In terms of its appearance, the sculpture curved in a circle on the sūcī decoration from Bhārhut, which resembles an alligator and is known as an early example of makara.2) Makara is also found among the metallic ornamentations
ex-cavated from Taxila and the sculptures of Amarāvatī.3) It is considered that makara had
al-ready been acknowledged among many regions of India before C.E., and a certain image of makara was established approximately by the first or second century C.E.4)
On the other hand, the images of makara are diverse; varying from fish, birds, and snakes to alligators as well, and sometimes it is also called kumbhīra.5) In Nepal and
Viet-nam, makara is often paired with kīrtimukha, an animal which resembles a horned lion which has only a face and hands (another name is Kāla) and is curved on the semicircular ornamentations, toraṇa over the gate of stūpa.6) In Cambodia, Indonesia, and the Malay
Peninsula, we can often find that kīrtimukha and makara are placed over temple entrances with makara on the bottom of the pillars.
In addition to the implication of the vehicle for Gaṅgā or Varuṇa, makara sometimes appears as the banner of Kāma, the goddess of love, and the earrings of Viṣṇu.7)
In any case, it is assumed that the image of kumbhīra, which resembles an alligator, had already existed as one of the ornamental designs in archeology before the foundation of Hinduism. Later, this image of makara probably came to be accepted by both Hinduism and Buddhism.8)
area, Eastern Java of the Java Islands, and on the Sumatra island. According to the location where makara was found, there are four main patterns: (1) makara is found on both sides of ornamentations, toraṇa which is displayed over temple entrances, or found on both sides of the bottom of the pillars of the gate, (2) makara is found on both sides of the end of the staircases that lead up to the temples, (3) makara is found near the drains for rain water of temples, and (4) makara is found in the aureoles of stone and casting statues (bronzes) . In particular, the following discussion will focus on the makara found in the aureoles of stat-ues by providing pictures.
Firstly regarding (1), makara is found on both sides of the semicircular ornaments toraṇa over temple entrances, or on both sides of the bottoms of the pillars of the gate. They are all placed in a position facing outside. For example, in Candi Pawon, makara is placed on the both sides of toraṇa, while in Candi Sari makara is found on the niche, which is set on the inner wall. In Gedung Songo, few images of makara are left on the staircase. However, some works of makara are recognized, such as on the entrance gate and on the ornamental windows of the side walls. A bird is placed inside the makara s mouth (Figure 1). In addition to the bird, a lion is placed in the makara s mouth in Candi Kalasan, with a string of flowers flowing out from its mouth. This type of makara placed on temple en-trances or on the top or bottom of the gate is often found in the scenes of temples in the re-liefs of Candi Borobudur.9) To conclude, therefore, by the time of the construction of Candi
Borobudur, the pattern (1) of makara was established on the Java island.
Regarding (2), the previous studies have made a detailed survey as follows.10)
Accord-ingly, in the Central Java, makara, facing forward, is set on both sides of the lower end of the staircases handrails of temples. In Candi Borobudur, kīrtimukha is placed on the upper part of staircases and makara is connected with kīrtimukha s mouth (Figure 2). On the oth-er hand, in the case of Candi Mendut, a fat man (yakṣa) is found beneath makara who seems to hold up the makara. In the Central Java, makara has thin eyes, small ears, a curled long nose like an elephant, and a mouth like an alligator with sharp fangs. We can see a flower in bloom at the tip of the nose, and a string of flowers is flowing down from the center of the flower. It is often the case that there is an animal in makara s wide-open mouth to catch the string of flowers. The animal is often a lion (Figure 3).11) However an
upper-half figure of a human (celestial being) leaning forward who holds a string of flow-ers with both hands is found in the mouth of makara, such as in Candi Sewu and Candi
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
Bubrah.12) Some images of makara have a spiral pattern above their heads, while other ma-kara have a lion on their top, as found in Candi Loro Jonggrang and Candi Bubrah. During the Eastern Java period, which is later than the Central Java period (eighth to tenth century C.E.), the form of makara changed. As shown by the examples of Candi Gangsir, its eyes were wide-opened, and the ornaments became much more luxurious. This change was par-alleled with the process of makara s indigenization. It is the same change that happened to the styles and designs of stone statues and casting statues from the Central Java art of the eighth to tenth century to the Eastern Java art which underwent Islamization later. Further-more, like the makara of Candi Jago, some makaras are decorated with a J-shaped orna-ment. During the Eastern Java period, the total number of makaras that are left to us today became much fewer, compared to that of the Central Java period. In contrast, as claimed by Marijike J, Klokk,13) makara of Sumatra have some features in common, as found in
Bi-aro Bahal I and II, Sipamutung, Sangkilon, Gunung Tua, Nagasaribu, and Sitopayan of the North Sumatra.14) These makaras most distinguished feature is that they have both hands
with bending elbows, and that they have long fingers like humans. Overall Sumatra s ma-kara looks more decorative and rather grotesque, compared to those of Eastern Java. A cir-cular spiral pattern is often curved around the mouth and the back of the head. Including Solok Sipin, Jambi of the Central Java,15) there is a standing or squatting human figure in
the mouth who is holding a weapon such as sword or shield. Assumingly, it suggests the figure of a warrior. However, as the author has once discussed in the case of Biaro Bahal I,16) it is also possible that the figure can be interpreted as a kind of guardian (dvārapāla) as
well as a warrior.
Some interpret the makara of (1) and (2) as follows: makara descends from both sides of kīrtimukha, which is placed at the center of the ornaments over temple entrances. It is as if the pillars on both sides and the staircase handrails are seen as the trunk of makara, while the lower ending of the staircases seen as the head of makara.17)
Thirdly, the type (3) of makaras found near the drains of temples are often set high. This seems to suggest that makara is supposed to drain rain water in temples. In Candi Borobudur, a fat male figure (yakṣa) is holding up a drain pipe with both hands. In the case of the staircases ending in makara, there is a hole in the drain pipe in its mouth instead of animal or human figure, suggesting that makara was used as drainage (Figure 4). Many makaras with drain pipes have been excavated from Candi Kalasan. A flower in bloom is
placed in the mouth of makara, with a large hole at the center of the flower. In Candi Boro-budur, a circular spiral pattern is curved on the back of makara s head. Furthermore, in Candi Sewu, we can find makara with a circular spiral shape on the head and back, and with a human figure in the mouth whose right hand is raised high while the left hand is placed on his waist. A round pipe with a hole goes between his legs. Sometimes a round pipe is placed together.
Lastly, makara found in the aureoles of statues of (4) are exemplified by the works in Candi Kalasan in the Central Java. The statue is not left today and there remains only a pedestal on which one can find an elephant, a lion, and a makara from bottom to top. Simi-lar motifs are also found in the aureoles of three Buddhist statues of Candi Mendut (Padmapāṇi, Buddha, and Vajrapāṇi?) (Figure 5). In Candi Borobudur, there is also a relief of a statue with aureoles around the shoulders in which there is makara.18)
As to the aureoles of casting statues, the author has examined approximately 1,000 casting statues, yet some statues lost the aureoles. 11 statues are apparently recognized as makara.19) As the images of makara are found in the statues of Viṣnu, Jambhala, Buddha,
Padmapāṇi, and Prajñāpāramitā, Vajradhātu-Vairocana, it is possible to say that makara is found on the statues belonging to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Tantric Buddhism. It suggests that makaras on the aureoles exist crossing over different religions. Especially the aureoles with an elephant, a lion, and makaras are found on the relatively large statues: Viṣṇu and Nganjuk maṇḍala with four-faces, which is considered to consist of maṇḍala. Except for these two, only makara is found on other statues.20) Same as the case of stone statues, the
location of the aureoles with makara is around the shoulders of casting statues. These cast-ing statues date from the eighth to twelfth century C.E., found in broad areas from the Cen-tral to Eastern Java. It is characteristic that makara and the ornaments considered to be makaras are frequently found in the aureoles of relatively large pieces of work, although it is partly because of the fact that large aureoles could easily survive. In addition, 5 of 11 statues with makara are identified as the Vajradhātu-Vairocana, as many of these statues, regardless of large or small, have the aureoles without lost (70 of 101 statues).In particular, the relatively large Buddhist statues which consist of maṇḍala (Figure 6)21) often have ma-kara, or the ornaments which seem to be makara.
To conclude, there are four types of makara in Indonesia depending on the location where it is found. Many works of makara remain, and their forms vary depending on
re-gions. The shift in forms suggests the gradual process of makara s indiginization, just like of stone and bronze statues. A more detailed examination about the difference in time and regions will be necessary in the future.
Notes
1) In this article, makara is used as a general noun, although it can also be a proper. Benton 2006, 145; Suganuma 1989, 301; Tachikawa 2009, 80–126.
2) Miyaji 1981, 28; Ranasinghe 1991, 135; Koezuka and Miyaji 2000, 30; Tachikawa 2009, 87. 3) Stutley and James 1977, 175.
4) Tachikawa 2008, 309.
5) Mizuno 2016, 103–122. The archives in Pāḷi and Jātaka claim that makara cannot be categorized same as kumbhīra (divine monster resembles alligator).
6) Tachikawa 2009, 309.
7) Mizuno 2016, 113. Coomaraswamy, 1993, 142–154. 8) Tachikawa 2008, 364.
9) Krom 1993, vol. 2. In the Gaṇḍavyūha there are as many as 17 reliefs with makara, curved both on the over the temple entrance and the bottom of pillars.
10) Bosch 1948, 9–23. Klokke 2014, 129–146. 11) Candi Kalasan.
12) Possessed by the Amsterdam National Museum (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam), no. AK-MAK-248. 13) Photograph is shown in Klokke 2014, 140–143.
14) Possessed by the Museum of Negeri. no.04.2, H.85 cm. no.04.3, H.128 cm. 15) Bernet Kempers 1959, plate 199.
16) Ito 2017, 63–77.
17) This is argued by Professor Park Hyounggook of the Musashino Art University. 18) Krom 1993, vol. 2, nos. 10, 16, 60, 71, 77, 79, 87, 106, 123, and so on.
19) Ito 2019.
20) Viṣṇu: the National museum of ethnology, Leiden, no.1403–2836, 31.3 cm. Vajradhātu-Vairocana (4 Faces): the Jakarta National Museum, no.5387, 17.0 cm; Empu Tantular Museum, no. 8825/4. Jambhala: the Jakarta National Museum, no.3625. Buddha: the National museum of ethnology, Leiden, no.1403– 1878; Empu Tantular Museum, no number. Padmapāṇi: Private Collection. Prajñāpāramitā: the National museum of ethnology, Leiden, no.1403–1697, 1865. Vajradhāth-Vairocana: the National museum of eth-nology, Leiden, no.1403–2847, 1883; the Tokyo National Museum, no.TC-709; Empu Tantular Museum, no number.
21) Possessed by the Jakarta National Museum, no.5387.
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(This work is a report of research supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 18K00161)
Key words Makara, Indonesia
