第 54 卷 第 4 期
2019 年 8 月
JOURNAL OF SOUTHWEST JIAOTONG UNIVERSITY
Vol.54 No.4 Aug. 2019
ISSN -0258-2724 DOI：10.35741/issn.0258-2724.54.4.7
Research Article
Energy
T
HE ENERGY FLOW FOR MAIZE PRODUCTION
:
AN APPLICATION OF
MATERIAL
F
LOW
A
NALYSIS
(MFA)
AND
G
IDDENS STRUCTURAL THEORY
Latifah Abdul Ghani a, Noor Zalina Mahmood b, Zikri Muhammad c, Syaiful Bahri d, Jumadil Saputra e* aSchool of Social and Economic Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia, [email protected]
bInstitute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya,
51030 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia [email protected]
cSchool of Social and Economic Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia, [email protected]
dFaculty of Economics, Universitas Muhammadiyah,
20238 Medan, Sumatera Utara, Indonesia, [email protected]
eSchool of Social and Economic Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia, [email protected]
Abstract
Energy in maize productivity is an important parameter that is often used as a stabilization indicator in sustainable agricultural management. The production of maize contributed 25 percent of the total crop production in Terengganu, Malaysia. The purpose of this study is to examine the extent of the effectiveness of the Giddens Structural Theory-based Material Flow Analysis approach in creating an eco-friendly, sustainable and green economy through energy flow for maize production management. A total of 10 farms exceeding 50 hectares of land were involved as study samples, and the biomass energy from maize production waste was selected as a parameter of the study. The data was analyzed using the SubTANce Analysis (STAN) 2.5, ArcGIS and Microsoft Excel software packages. The results of the study show a continuous and significant relationship in the acquisition of biomass energy flow data in the proposed integrated framework model. These results support the fact that in the maize waste production the biomass energy balance data can be evaluated through a computational and correlative calculation method. The conclusion of this study also identified the change agents involved concretely in developing a more efficient and effective governance system for the management of maize productivity and its residual waste.
摘要 : 玉米生产力中的能量是一个重要参数，通常用作可持续农业管理中的稳定指标。玉米的产量占马 来西亚登嘉楼总产量的 25％。本研究的目的是研究基于 Giddens 结构理论的物质流分析方法在通过玉米 生产管理的能量流动创造环保，可持续和绿色经济方面的有效程度。共有 10 个农场超过 50 公顷的土地
作为研究样本，选择玉米生产废弃物的生物质能作为研究的参数。使用 SubTANce Analysis（STAN）2.5
，ArcGIS 和 Microsoft Excel 软件包分析数据。研究结果表明，在拟议的综合框架模型中，生物质能流数 据的获取具有连续且显着的关系。这些结果支持以下事实：在玉米废物产生中，可以通过计算和相关计 算方法评估生物质能量平衡数据。该研究的结论还确定了变革因素，具体涉及为玉米生产力及其残余废 物的管理建立更有效和更有效的治理体系
关键词: 能源经济学，玉米，吉登斯结构理论，物质流分析
I.
I
NTRODUCTIONMaize (Zea mays L.) has been globally recognized as a vital grain succeeding wheat and paddy [1]. At the Malaysian level, Terengganu holds the first place with a total area of maize accounting for 38.6 per cent (293 ha) of the total value of 100 per cent (758 ha). Inclusively at the state level, maize plants in Terengganu are ranked fourth as a successful commercial crop after palm oil, rubber and paddy [2]. The amount of maize production in 2012 exceeding 49,000 tons contributed 25 percent of the total crop production in Terengganu. Energy in maize productivity is an important parameter that is often used as a stabilization indicator in sustainable agricultural management. This is because energy works as a consumer and producer in the agricultural sector itself [3]. According to Hasan and Ibrahim [4], energy flow analysis is used to determine the degree of environmental damage and economic contribution to an area [5].
The presence of minimum energy input values is proportional to the emissions of greenhouse gases that will result from the agricultural production system. The effectiveness of energy management in the maize production system is a critical stage to determine whether the maize products are of quality, with the residual products able to be recycled, stored in landfills, or dispersed to the environment. In addition, identifying how and why agents interact and are sustainable in the structure of the maize production management system, requires arduous exploration in these two different areas of social and science. According to Binder et al. [6], integration of Material Flow Analysis and agent analysis is a solid foundation for a successful transition process in environmental management. Important attention is required because the likelihood of material flow in the system will
change as interactions between agents may not occur or are protected.
Therefore, this paper aims to identify energy flows in the maize production management system in Terengganu by adjusting the Material Flow Analysis (MFA), Giddens Structural Theory and Energy Analysis methods. Analysis of Giddens and MFA will relate the energy input-output data involved with the development of an integrated framework model. By taking into account that the studies on energy flow in the maize system are poorly reported locally and in the states as compared to studies on biomass energy potential from maize residues. Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) as a support of spatial mapping for flow potential in the maize production system will be presented at the final part of the study.
II.
L
ITERATURER
EVIEWTo highlight energy or material links to the environmental chain, many previous studies have been reviewed and divided into two perspectives. One of which is from the science field in the aspect of the system of nature, and the other in sociology such as communication, behavior, perception, and human response, such as agent. The integration of social and environmental science network analyses can recognize the epistemological differences of ontological data and the equality points created to enhance successful implementation opportunities like methodological reflexivity. Some previous studies explore the importance of integration between social sciences and biological sciences in various countries and most often result in consistent findings, such as the basic point of decision-making support [7],[8],[9].
The household waste management policy from the simulation model of agent behavior in Suzhou city, China was investigated in [10]. This
study uses a combination of social surveys and analysis of various agents and the results show that there is a large conflict between environmental sanitation agents and waste recycling agents. Thus, researchers have concluded the need for the development of marginal profit points in waste management network systems involving institutions and resources. Furthermore, the study by Schiller et al., [11] concludes that the integration of social and environmental science network analyses can recognize the epistemological differences of ontological data and the equality points created to enhance successful implementation opportunities like methodological reflexivity.
Anthony Giddens’ Structuration Theory was defined as 'the structuring of social relations across time and space in virtue of the duality of structure’ [12]. With the use of the Giddens Structural Theory, several studies have been solely applied in the investigations of the field of accountancy, archaeology, business and management studies, human geography, informatics, organization studies, political science, religious studies and sociology [13]. Although slightly slow in jumping on the bandwagon, the use of the Giddens Theory in the field of nature began to evolve in the early 1970s [14]. According to [15], the development of environmental sociology reforms began with three generations of hierarchy, such as ‘policies and protests’ for the first generation (the 1970s), 'ecological modernization' for the second generation (mid-1980s till early 1990s), and ‘networks and flows’ for the third generation (the second half of the 1990s).
Urry [16] and Beck [17], each acknowledging that sociology of networks and flows is known as a hybrid system, such as the system consists of material and social entities. Castells [18], described that research based on environmental sociology concepts is a combination of two strong disciplines. This is because the mutual co-existence of both theories should be marked by globalization as well as prevented from withdrawing in geographical locations or localism. Therefore, the importance of unifying social and environmental theories is essential in understanding, interpreting and redefining the level of environmental degradation. The renewal and use of social theories such as the Giddens structural theory is an order of reform for today and a social order for tomorrow.
The beginning of the study refers to adaptation, motivation, the idea of unifying Giddens Structural Theory with MFA techniques, was kick-started from the success of the research
conducted by Binder et al., [6], who discussed the approach to integrating material flow analysis and the analysis of agents in the management of regional timber in Appenzell, Switzerland. Their study found that the knowledge of agents is paramount in determining the transitional steps and a particular system. Intervention of values, cultures, trends and traditions by local agents has acted as a protective function of the timber chain in their respective areas. The integration of MFA and analysis of agents has been successful in measuring the extent to which stakeholders engage in enhancing sustainable forest management. Urry [16] described that fluid and flow should be considered "crucial as an analysis category in the global social world that has a share in both regions, with networks being less strongly linked".
Knoeri et al., [19] investigated the main system of agents, interactions between operative agencies as well as decision-making and context-specific behaviors of stakeholders in construction case studies in Switzerland. The success of this study is that it succeeded in fulfilling the answers to these three disadvantages, such as. (i) the unrealistic behavioral tendencies of agents without any empirical basis, (ii) application of 'concept proof' is too theoretical and (iii) placing value on operational validity beyond the placement of conceptual validity.
Lang et al., [20] also managed to investigate the material and monetary analysis of the economic and environmental aspects of biological waste studies in Canton of Zurich, Switzerland. The results show that the understanding of the dynamic system model requires the participation of the associated parameters, such as the behavioral parameters of the stakeholders, physical and economy. The paper is structured as follows: The first phase begins with a brief introduction of the case study of energy input output analysis in the production of maize systems. The second phase, a framework of the MFA model was developed to identify subsystems, stocks, goods and flux involved throughout maize management. The final phase, the Giddens Structural Theory analysis approach is carried out to identify the role of agent interaction in making environmental decisions. The donation approach to the weaknesses of the study will be reserved for further research.
III. R
ESEARCHM
ETHODOLOGYThe main focus of the study was to identify the extent to which reactive agents and cognitive agents interacted at the macro level in the MFA
system through Giddens structuration theory approach. This study uses primary and secondary data in the form of monthly time series from December 2016 to December 2017. Although the methods used are two different disciplines, the main focus of this study is achieved through the development of the conceptual framework as noted in Fig. 1 below:
Figure 1: The flow chart of integration procedures based on energy evaluation in maize production
A. Study Sites
The location of the state of Terengganu is at the coordinates: 4°45'N 103°0'E, with a land area of 13,035 km2 (5,033 sq mi). The equatorial climate for this state will experience high temperatures throughout the year and sporadic heavy rainfall, especially during the Northeast Monsoon with an average annual rainfall of 2987.9 mm per year. In 2017, the population census of the state was 1,210,500 people, where nearly 94.7 per cent of the population was Malay. The agriculture sector in Terengganu contributed 4.7 per cent to the state GDP. In 2017, the total agricultural area is 338,723 hectares, whereby 45.3 per cent of the total land area available in the state of Terengganu is suitable for agricultural crop ventures [21].
The types of rubber, palm and paddy crops contributed to 79.4 per cent to the main crop composition in the state. Meanwhile, the land use for the case maize plantation is low due to the factors of location and soil suitability in the state, namely BRIS, lowland and paddy fields. The success of maize productivity in the state also depends on the use of four major hybrid varieties, namely GWG111, GWG 333, GWG 888 and R310 with a yield of around 7.4 to 9.4 tons per ha involving three rounds of cultivation, such as the first (January-April), second (May-August) and third rounds (September-December) [22].
B. Data Acquisition
Methods of data acquisition used in this study involve field observations and surveys as depicted in Figure 2. Sampling was conducted on farmers and related agencies engaged in maize
cultivation in Hulu Terengganu, Besut, Marang and Kemaman areas. These farmers are classified into three categories: traditional farmers (subsistence farmers), corporate farmers (for examples: GWG company, Grain Synergy) and co-operatives and agencies (for examples: Sahabat Sdn Bhd). This study was conducted throughout January until December 2017. The data obtained was processed and analyzed by computerized means using STAN version 2.5 and Microsoft Excel software. Another additional statistical analysis was also obtained from government departments such as Department of Agriculture (DOA), Farmer’s Organization Authority of Malaysia (LPP), Federal Agricultural Marketing Agency (FAMA), Terengganu Entrepreneur Development Foundation (TEDF) and the Terengganu Agricultural Development Center (TADC).
Figure 2: Session of data collection through purposive sampling with interviews
C. Data Analysis
Data analysis involves calculating input-output ratios and energy indicators. The energy coefficients and energy parameters involved are shown in Table 1. Analysis of the effectiveness of employment using the Energy Analysis method is used to study the relationship of the parameters measured by the productivity of maize crops in the area of study. The equations used to determine Energy efficiency, energy productivity, energy intensity, energy gain, are the methods of equations 1 to 4 [23], [24], [25] as mentioned below;
Energy use efficiency = Output Energy (MJ/ha)/Input Energy (MJ/ha) (1) Energy Productivity = Maize yield (Kg/ha)/Input
Energy (MJ/ha) (2)
Energy specific = Energy input (MJ/ha)/Maize
output (Kg/ha) (3)
Net Energy = Output Energy (MJ/ha) − Input
Energy (MJ/ha) (4)
Table 1.
Energy equivalents of input and output in Maize production systems
Unit Energy equivalents
Inputs
Seed (corn) kg/ha 100
Land ha 1
Human labor h/ha 1.96
Lime kg 1.75
Machinery h/ha 62.7
Diesel fuel L/ha 51.33
Chemical fertilizer
(a) Nitrogen kg 66.14
(b) Phosphate (P2O5) kg 12.44
(c) Potassium (K2O) kg 11.15
Water for irrigation m3 1.02
Electricity Kwh 3.6
Farmyard manure ton 303.1
Output
Maize (yield) kg 14.7
Source: Adopted from Singh (2002)
IV.
R
ESULTS ANDD
ISCUSSION A. Energy AnalysisThe analysis of energy consumption at Maize cultivation was carried out to determine the stations of all selected data in this study. Field studies conducted at selected maize farms in Terengganu found that maize harvesting occurs three times a year. Table 2 shows the highest consumer of energy is the use of nitrogen fertilizer of 15,675 MJ/ha (35%), which is equivalent to 237 kg/ha, followed by diesel fuel of 9,655 MJ/ha (22%). Meanwhile, the total amount of energy required to produce maize is 44,545 MJ/ha and the total maize output produced is 229,320 MJ/ha.
Table 2.
Quantity of inputs and output of maize production systems in Terengganu state Quantity Quantity/unit area (ha) Total energyequivalent (MJ/ha) Input Seed (corn) (kg) 30 3000 Land (ha) 1 Human labor (h) 118 231.3 Poison (kg) 6.68 801.6 Lime (kg) 50 140 Machinery (h) 76.5 4796.6 Diesel fuel (L) 149 9655.2 Chemical fertilizer (Kg) (a) Nitrogen 237 15675.2 (b) Phosphate (P2O5) 168 2089.9 (c )Potassium (K2O) 66 735.9 Water for irrigation 2819 2875.4 Electricity 0 0 Farmyard manure (t) 15 4546.5 Total energyinput (MJ) 44547.6 Output Maize (Kg) 15600 229320 Total energyoutput (MJ) 229320
Table 3 shows the results of energy index in terms of consumption, direct and indirect, productivity, input and output ratio, renewable and non-renewable. This analysis is done continuously to see the presence of the most important energy indicators practiced by farmers. The results for energy input and output ratio tests are shown in Table 3. Based on the results, the energy use efficiency value of 5.15 MJ/ha is lower than the other studies conducted by other researchers such as [26], [27]. Energy productivity value is 2.5 per cent. Hence, there is a weak relationship between the practice of clean energy and fossil energy. Consequently, we can proceed with the MFA approach to see high fossil energy displacement variables in the machinery handling system, especially with the rate of re-use of compost products and residual waste, leading to a level of sustainable practice or vice versa by those agents.
Table 3.
Energy input and output ratio in maize production system.
Indicator Unit Value
Yield kg/ha 15600
Input energy MJ/ha 44548
Output energy MJ/ha 229320
Energy use efficiency MJ/ha 5.15
Energy specific MJ/ha 2.86
Energy productivity kg/MJ 0.35
Net energy gain MJ/ha 184772
Direct energy MJ/ha 12762
Indirect energy MJ/ha 31786
Renewable energy kg/MJ 3231
Non renewable energy MJ/ha 19940
B. Analysis of Energy Flow in Maize Production
The calculation of off-season inflows and maize residuals must be carried out before the full MFA diagram can be presented in Table 4. The third phase is a detailed balance sheet meant to visualize the potential presence of product-based biomass energy offerings and maize residuals, as well as to identify ideal locations for maize product dominance. Based on Table 4 and Fig. 3, the results show that the total value of maize-based biomass energy supply is 15407 × 103 Giga Joule per year in Terengganu. A total of 63 per cent of maize energy productivity equivalent to 9832 × 103 Giga Joule per year was contributed by the Marang and Hulu Terengganu districts. Thereafter, we can proceed to the fourth phase of the MFA to see the overall energy flows that depend on the functional agents and subsystems of the long term study.
Table 4.
Total Biomass Energy potential of Maize Waste in Terengganu region, 2017
Figure 3: Total Biomass Energy potential of Maize Waste in Terengganu region (2017)
Fig. 4 shows the energy flow diagram of the maize production system in Terengganu. Based on the calculations, it can be seen that the input and output values for maize energy flow are 266800 GJ per year and 257373 GJ per year. It is assumed that only 4 percent of the biomass energy of maize remains a stock of the system. Whereas, the remaining 96 per cent total of the maize energy stream is attributable to losses to the environmental system.
This means that the rate of utilization of this product, from the aspects of recycling, reusing and composting maize crop products among key agents, such as farmers and consumers along the supply chain, is very low. Additionally, the value of imported and exported products and maize residues was at the 1.5 per cent disposable rate. Hence, enabling improvements in agronomic practices, integrated management systems, the involvement of recent and ongoing research collaborations as well as financial support are able to bring significant changes in the withdrawal of material inputs from the environment into a more sustainable research system.
Figure 4: A data model of MFA complemented with an entity for Energy Analysis
C. Mathematical expressions
Table 5 shows the results for social practice relationships by agents in the maize production system in Terengganu. The results of the study are translated into three categories, namely the structures of significance, legitimacy and dominance. The significance structure is the sign that refers to symbols, terms, discourses and meanings. Whereas, the structure of legitimacy is defined as justification of the normative rules contained in the rule of law. The dominance structure is about the mastery of the aspects of sources, economics, or politics [28].
Table 5.
Structural model and interaction of agents in maize production systems.
Structural
Dimension Social Systems and Practices of agents
Signification structure
The development of most maize grain projects in selectedd istricts such as in Kemaman and Setiu involves the target of modern farming groups. The involvement of these agents is strongly supported by both state and federal governments in terms of agricultural resources, subsidies, land acquisition, research and development of local institutional networks and product marketing.
Legitimation structure
The federal and state governments unite in supporting the policy of rehabilitation and development of maize production in the study area. Selected rules and agreements between intermediaries have established a solid foundation for access and allocate of capital resources to sub-domain agencies. Political involvement also influences behavioral appreciation among sub-domain agents in the maize management system in the study area
Domination structure
The government has a strong enforcement in strengthening maize productivity by dominantly focusing on modern farming communities as compared to traditional
farming communities. For example,
fertilizer subsidies and maize seed subsidies, renting of abandoned land and machinery fittings
Figure 5: Integrated framework model of MFA and Energy Analysis with Giddens Structural Theory
The results shown in Table 5 and Figure 5 demonstrate that the significance structure is highly dependent on land availability and financial resources for agronomic practices of maize cultivation. An important group involved is an entrepreneur's agent, a cooperative agent (for examples; the co-operative Pemodalan Sahabat Bhd), whereby agency agents have strong controls to drive the implementation of maize production. Examples of financially self-sustaining farming agents have leased their land to Mr. Ramana in Merbok for this cultivation purpose. The structure of legitimacy meanwhile demonstrates once again the social practices in the form of norms and values are fully controlled by the same agents who control the structure of significance. Low profit margin factors, unattractive career options for the younger generation and land absence, as well as financial constraints and information dissemination are the powers that restrict and give adherence to the agronomic practices of this maize cultivation.
Dominance structure refers to the transformative capacity inherent in actors [12]. As such, both state and federal government agents such as Department of Agriculture (DOA), Farmer’s Organization Authority of Malaysia (LPP), Federal Agricultural Marketing Agency (FAMA), Terengganu Entrepreneur Development Foundation (TEDF) and the Terengganu Agricultural Development Center (TADC) have full control over the distribution of funds, subsidies, machinery, product marketing control, pricing and training in the overall maize productivity management in Terengganu. The
same thing is also supported by [29], which certifies that farmers are subdominant and other members of profitable channels are dominant and dominate the structure of maize production system in the state of Terengganu.
Consequently, from the findings of energy analysis and MFA analysis, the involvement of farming agents and local communities should be strengthened in achieving sustainability in the management of maize products and maize residual waste. Hence, enabling improvements in agronomic practices, integrated management systems, the involvement of recent and ongoing research collaborations as well as financial support are able to bring significant changes in the withdrawal of material inputs from the environment into a more sustainable research system.
V.
C
ONCLUSIONThis study aims to investigate the potential of Terengganu's agriculture system in analyzing the energy flow in the maize production system. There are three phases of analysis carried out in this study. The first is energy analysis, and the results show that two key indicators, namely the use of nitrogen-based chemical fertilizers and the use of fossil fuels have contributed to inefficiency in energy management at maize farms in Terengganu. The second is the MFA analysis, and the results show that most of the energy outflows for maize productivity are released into the environmental system, indicating a weak and inefficient relationship in the management of maize input-output as disseminated in different subsystems. When an energy flow analysis is performed on the entire subsystem, the behavioral response and the interaction of the agents are also reviewed.
Subsequently, relationships and interactions of agents using the Giddens structuration theory approach and the results show that social practices in managing maize residues and maize products demonstrate the mastery of unsustainable and weak structures. Participation of subdominant agents from local farmers and communities belonging to consumer categories, villagers and middlemen should be empowered from all economic and social aspects. In addition, the absence of biomass processing facilities in small or large scales also has an impact on the rate of utilization of maize processing plants at the Ajil Agricultural Complex. Private research collaborations with private companies, universities, MARDI, PPK and other research bodies are able to strengthen the interaction of Maize Cultivation Harvesting Marketing Disposal Environment Agent : dominant & Subdominant (Interaction) Agency Structure Attitude and behaviour Knowledge and information SIGNIFICATION LEGITIMIZATION DOMINATION Exploration & extraction Social culture & strategic plan MFA + Energy System
structural duality and agents in the maize production system in the state.
Clearly, this study linking MFA with social science approaches has ensured a good dimension in providing an understanding of one aspect that guides human decision in managing energy resource management, nutrients and waste in a system. Examples include the inference of fuel consumption, carbon gas emissions, productivity calculations of maize yield and residues, strengthening databases and so on. The donation approach to the weaknesses of the study will be reserved for further research. The findings of this study also provide some insight into the existence of social structure restrictions and conflicts among the agents involved in the maize production system in the study area. Hence, policymakers can summaries the right options, policies and guidelines to ensure that the sustainability of the maize management system is achievable.
VI.
RECOMMENDATIONS/SUGGES
TION
Using the results and discussion, some suggestions for sustainable environmental management in maize production in Terengganu can be highlighted, i.e.
(i) the co-operation of the three-way collaboration between government-private-community agencies needs to be strengthened by building an industrial ecosystem network within the cooperative community through a green-business model so that commercial production can be implemented in a large-scale food program or project.
(ii) it is required to provide a transfer station hub and in-port ports in each parish or district that serves the main agricultural waste disposal center.
(iii) plantation management is accurate and efficient in terms of the utilization of farming mechanization, plant density, efficient fertilizer and NBOS (national blue ocean strategy).
(iv) it is required to establish a regional or state halal food and agro valley for potential areas in the recovery of maize-based green energy resources. At the same time, it is possible to develop IKS secondary industrial growth center (PPI) based on halal food and 'value added' generally on potential products and areas in Terengganu state.
(v) the authorities need to identify and focus on the location of maize cultivation areas that still cannot be developed due to accessibility issues, completely and comfortably equipped infrastructure and utilities bring high potential to
the development of the existing plantation areas that are still vacancies in certain zones such as the Kuala Berang valley, the Marang valley, the Jerteh valley and the Kuala Besut valley.
A
CKNOWLEDGMENTThe authors would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (The Incentives Scheme of UMT Publication TAPE- 2018: vote 55123) for supporting this project.
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