W11y Exte皿sive Readi皿gsho皿阯be P舳。f
a School，s LaI1g皿age Program
Steve ComweH
なぜ学校語学教育にExtenslve Readlng（多読）をいれるべきなのか
スティーブ・コーンウェル
Ab8山act
The pu11〕ose of this paper is to make a case for adding an extensive reading component to English language programs．1t will first brieHy review some of the extensive reading
research that has been conducted in」apan and abroad before looking at some of the major concepts（language thresho1d，text coverage and lrequency，simplified texts and graded readers，and meeting words and comprehensib1e input）that need to be understood to fu11y appreciate why extensive reading shou1d be a paれ。f a schoors language curriculum．Fina11y，it wil11ook at some of the common objections to extensive reading
before outhning one way extensive爬ading could be worked into a reading program．
K6y word5：extensive reading，comprehension，vocabulaW，curriculum
（Received September12．2002）
抄 録
本稿は、英語の教科課程にextensive readi㎎（多読）を加えることの意義を論証するこ
とを目的とする。まず国内外でおこなわれたextensivereadi㎎に関する研究を簡略に紹
介し、さらにextensivereadi㎎の、語学カリキュラムにおける有効性を十分に理解する
ために必要な概念について論ずる。さらに、extensive readi㎎に対する一般的な反対論を
検討し、最後にextensive readi㎎をreadi㎎の課程に効果的に組み込む方法を概観する。
キーワードl extensive readi㎎、理解、語彙、カリキュラム
（2002年9月ユ2日 受理）The best way to improve one’s know1edge of a foreign language is to go and li寸e among its speakers．The next best way is to mad e対emively in it．（emphasis added）
Nuttall（1982：168，cited in Renandya，Rajan，＆」acobs，1999）
The purpose of this paper is to make a case for adding an extensive reading
component to English language programs．lt will first brieHy review some ol the extensive
reading research that h砥been conducted in』apan and abroad before−ooking at some of
the major concepts that need to be understood to fuuy appreciate why extensive reading shou1d be a part of a schoo『s language curriculum．Finally，it wil11ook at some of the common objections to extensive reading before outlining one way extensive reading could be worked into a reading program．
My enthusiasm ror extensive reading Hrst began when11eamed it is one of the best
ways for students to accomp1ish incidental vocabulaW leaming or high 什equency
vocabulaWl which in tum 1eads to an increase in their reading Huency and
comprehension．（Nation，2002）This enthusiasm increased this year after seeing the response ol students to an integrated reading assignment made during our live weekintroductoW unit whose purpose is to acclimate students to O」」C’s demanding Eng1ish CurriCu1um．
This year each integrated c1ass（Discussion，Reading，Academic Writing）assigned
students the task of reading a graded reader2and writing a repqrt summarizing it．A1most a11 my students were successfu1in reading their three books（one per subiect）during the
introductoW unit．Furthermore，the reports the students wrote showed real unde帽tanding
and several students went as far as to say that although they used to hate reading，now
they liked it．
1n addition，one of my first−year advisees has been boπowing books au semester and after finishing them，she has been coming to my ofiice to discuss them．Moreover，during
5ummer vacation another student emailed me and then came to borrow several books．
Finally，at the end of our summer semester when l offered to lend some books to students to read voluntarily during the break between semesters，a1most a11 the students in my
wri士ing dass came up and borrowed one．Seeing students’newfound enthusi舶m for
reading has made me even more enthusiastic lor extensive reading．
M出mg the ca8e
This paper does not argue that extensive reading and extensive reading alone is the only way to teach reading．What it does do is make the c槌e extensive reading in some form should be a part of a language program−Extensive reading has been around for a
Comwe11＝Why Extensive Reading should be Pah of a Schoors La㎎uage Program
1900s to refer to“reading large amoun㎏with the aim of getting an overa11 understanding oi the material．”Extensive reading has taken varied forms in language programs ranging from being the main focus of a reading cou帽e to being an add−on to an ongoing reading course，and even to being an extra−curricular activity（Day and Bamford，1997）． In」apan research on extensive reading ha∫been going on since at Ieast the late1980s
when Robb and Susser（1989）examined the eHectiveness of an extensive reading program when compared to a ski11s−based program．Today one can find numerous descriptions of diHerent extensive reading programs一（Helgesen，1997；Hill，1997；Mason＆Penderg譜t， 1997）
Fuれhermore，extensive reading research is e譜ily availab−e through an annotated
bibliography with over200entries that is available online（Bamford，et al・2002）Research cove帽such areas as adapting texts to the language class roomαoung，1999；Hi帽。h＆
Nation，1992），extensive reading’s effect on motivation and attitudes toward reading（Gee，
1999；Mason＆1（rashen，1997）；and the use of dass reade脂（having the whole dass read the same book）（」acobs＆GaHo，2002；Powe11，2002）、
Extensive reading has a1so been investigated as a source of comprehensible input for
L2acquisition（Lightbown et al，2002；Krashen＆Cho，1995；Mason＆Krashen，in press）；as a way to incidentally acquire grammatical competence（Lee，Krashen＆Gribbons，1996； Stokes．Krashen＆Kartchner，1998）；as a way to improve reading abi1ity and work on
academic reading （Bell，2001；Carrell＆ Ca旧。n，1997；Eskey，2002：Grabe，2002；
Zimmerman，1977）ln addition，research has looked at extensive reading’s eHect onincidenta1vocabu1a収1eaming（Bamford＆Day，1998；Day，Omura＆Hiramatsu，1991；
Nation＆Wang，1999）and witing ability in L2（Constantino，1995；Elley，1991；Lai．1993a；
Lai，1993b⊃．Fina11y，a great deal has been written about setting up and running extensive
reading programs（Day＆Bamiord，2000；Dupuy，1998；Edinburgh Project on Extensive
Readi㎎，1992；」acobs，Davis＆Renandya，1997；Wari㎎，1997）Key COmCeplS
In the next section，I want to provide some key concepts that help provide a good rationale廿。r having an extensive reading component in a language curriculum。
レ㎜卯ageKmwledgeT11msho1d
There has been a lot of research on the concept of a language knowledge threshold・
（Hu and Nation，2000；Laufer and Sim，1985；Laufer，1989）Language know1edge thresho1d refe帽to the idea that there is“a boundaly between not having and having enough 1anguage knowledge for successfu11anguage use、”（Nation，2001，p．145）A lot of the
comprehending a texいs low−Furthermore．the5ame research has shown that coverage needs to be about95％for adequate comprehension．
Te対Coverage amd Fr6g皿e皿。y
Text coverage refers to how many words a leamer knows in a given text−For examp1e， 80％coverage means the leamer knows four out of eveW five words．This is an impo吋ant
concept as text coverage helps determine how well a leamer can comprehend a text．
Frequency refers to how often a word appea臨in English，and it is an impo血ant concept
because as mentioned earlier words can be grouped into four types−For example，there are high frequency words（the2000most frequent words）which cover about80％ol the running words in English；academic words which cover another8to10％；technical or specialized words which cover5％；and low frequency words which cover the remaining
words、（Nation，2001，pp．l l−21）
The most frequent word in Eng1ish is the word“the．”H you know the word“the，”then you know7％or the words you will encounter in reading a running text、一n fact it doesn’t
take knowing as many words as you might think to reach80％coverage．The2，000most frequent words in English are considered high frequency words and wm provide leame鵬
with80％coverage．High frequency words are important because1eame帽wi11encounter
them over and over again in both reading and1istening．Untortunately，as seen above high
什equency words a1one are not enough．Leame帽need to know more than80％for
adequate comprehension of a text．
Simplmed tex嶋ε㎜d駆aded reade鳴
A graded reader is a complete book that h砥been specia11y prepared with limited vocabulary．
Graded Reade帽（sometimes caHed Reade脂。r Basal reade帽）are books wri趾en
specificany for language leame肥to deve1op their reading ability．They are made easy to read by simpli蚊ing the vocabulaIy and grammar so that the leamer can easily
unde帽tand the stoly．Graded Reade肥are not children’s books（although some are
written for teenage備and chi1dren），but in general they are books ror adu1t language learners、（、Varing＆Takahashi，2000）・
Graded readers are available irom many companies and are usua11y arranged according to1evels．For example，Oxlord Unive帽ity has a graded reader series called Bookworms that has six levels，Level one uses400di付erent words and each subsequent
Comwell：Why Extensive Reading should be Part of a Schoors Language Program
Each graded reader usuauy has several thousand words一
Meetimg wo州s㎜d Com叫e11em8i阯e1叩111
Much research says that a leamer needs to see a word anywhere肚。m six to twenty
times．（Nation，1994；Waring＆Takahashi，2000）This is why some say that teaching
vocabulaワis a daunting t船k as there are so many words to leam especiaHy if−leame帽 need to encounter each word mu1tiple times，（Nation estimates there are120，000words in English（Pe帽。nal communication），
Related to meeting a word is the concept of comprehensib1e input−A lot has been
written on comprehensible input（Kr譜hen，1980．1981．1982；See Larsen−Freeman＆Long
（1991）ior a critical ana1ysis）and its role in improving language ability．The main idea is that learners need to encounter language that they can unde㎎tand in order to develop and improve their language abili｝．lmme肥ion program and she1tered−English programs are two
蚊pes oI curricuIums that have developed out oHhis concept．EFL leamers，such as leamers in』apan，who do no〕ive where they can imme㎎e themselves in the target
language，musHind their comprehensib1e input somewhere．Renandya，Rajan and』acobs
（1999）quote Nuttall as saying that next to1iving in a foreign countIy，the“next best way ［to improve your language ab舳y］is to read extensively in it。”Nuttall（1982，p．168，cited
in Yu，1993）
Why趾一emsive Readimg is He1p阯
We have looked at some key concepts such as1anguage thresho1d，text coverage and
frequency，simp1ified texts and graded reade帽，and meeting words and comprehensib1e
input．Extensive reading is one type of program that addresses the various cha11enges these
concepts present，Waring＆Takahashi，2000，pp．7−8⊃1ist rive reasons why extensive reading is good：
1．When done at the appropriate level，leamers st舳processing words qu1cke岬nd is able to begin recognizing words automatically．（Note：this is related to text coverage and graded readers；appropriate leve1refers to reading tex㎏where they know95％of the running words）
2．Research in」apan shows that extensive reading makes students more confident
and motivates them to read since they can comprehend what they are reading 3．Extensive forms the habit of reading regularly which is userul in an EFL situation where opportunities to encounter the target language are not so plentiiu1．（By
reading regularly，Ieame帽will meet the words they need to develop the
vocabulaW nece艶aW to read fluently with comprehension）．
text and phrasing．（Note：this is often considered the rea，m of intensive reading； extensive reading can help with reinforcement．）
5． “Extensive reading Provides opPo血unities to ［revisit language］because the learner
iSmθeκ㎎m0∫∫加0m㎝鮒0∼0㎎ααge0ηd∼∫わe’㎎肥ρe肋吻砒ρ0∫ed‘0
meoη加g危〃。cc口η1εηcε∫o戸ωo”d∫oηd g”口π一mo〃。o’∫〃uαα肥∫that are in the process
oi being leamed．”（Waring＆Takahashi，2000，p．8⊃Note：this is re1ated to−meeting
a word many times through reading high frequency texts where the words occw naturally aS a funCtiOn Oi trequenCy）．
Comm0110助ectioIls to E対em8ive ReadiIlg
Reading is often taught intensively and／or by translation in EFL situations like」apan． Thereiore，it is not unusual to sometimes hear objections when tlying to add an extensive
reading component to a language program．The io11owing section attempts to address some common objections．
趾1㎝SiVemdimg㎜三舳00㎏㎞al㎜e・008i叩1e㎜d100ShOn．
One obiection to extensive reading is that it uses books that are too simple and too short．1n order to read廿。r comprehension，students must understand95％of the words they encounter．The best way to achieve this is by using the appropriate leve1of graded reader． Based on some pi1ot tests at my schoo1，students have a b譜ic unde献anding of most of the
fi耐2000words in English．Therefore，graded readers with a word range approachin91800 −2000words would be appropriate．
ln addition，most graded reade閑are40−50pages1ong and have8，000−1O，000
running words in them．H we compare this to the average reading text which use50nepage readings，we can see that graded reade帽。fier much longer reading opportunities−For
examp1e，亙わ。η片。me，a book from the Oxford bookwom’s series is53pages1ong and
h砥approximate−y8500words．And as−eve−s go up，so do the−engths of the books．
趾1emiVe肥汕11g㏄㎞伽dem嶋tOdOt00m㎜C11・
in programs where there is a1ot of homework across the curriculum，it might iook as if asking students to read30to40pages in a week is too much．However，if the books are at the appropriate1evel，students will not need to look up many words in their dictionaW． instead，they can read for comprehension and they can do it at a faster pace than if they are constantly encountering words th台y do not know．
趾temive肥adimgd㏄5m’｝mp皿6舳dem嶋量。r㎝汕yzimgte池．
Comwe11＝Why Extensive Readi㎎should be P舳。f a Schoors La㎎uage Program
structure，toPic sentences，transitions，etc．The focus oi extensive reading：s not on analysis． Studies have shown that−to become a proficient reader，students need to work on both bottom−up and top−down approaches−Extensive reading is a bottom−up approach that helps
student improve both nuency and accuracy，the two main components necessaW｛or
comprehension．
眩ten8iVereadinga110WS舳de11酬0mad㎜沖ing・
One perceived prob1em with extensive reading is that when students seH−select their
reading material，it may mn the gamut irom stoW books foHive and six year olds to
juvenile fiction like“Black Beauty｝and“Anne of Green Gables．”This is easily compensated
for by having student5select their books from an appropriate group of books，or even selecting the books ior the students、
服temiVe肥adi皿gi“i㎜Cl11HOdOiH6aC阯mgli−emt㎜肥i8mly0㎜r8脾Ci阯蚊．
Extensive reading does not require you to be a literature expert．ln iact，you can teach
the same basic reading skills that you teach when you are not doing extensive reading； skimming，scanning，reading tor gist，tracking one’s speed and comprehension，etc一
趾一emiVe肥a仙1gm批e5並di㎜ClllHOd1㏄kW11at8量阯em値ammadi11g，
1t should not be any more difficult to check what students are reading when doingextensive reading than when they are doing a different type of reading．Most graded
reade帽provide worksheets and pre一，dwing，and post−questions．In addition，it should be
quite easy to deve1op Wh questions（who，what，where，why，when，how）lor each chapter in a graded reader．
Most oi the objections or concems are addressed if one understands the key concepts
mentioned earlier，and is aware that one has a1ot of flexibi1i1y when setting up an extensive reading program，The next section describes how a program could be set up within the context．of my school’s first year introductoIy unit。
Apos8i阯epmgmm
Any school incorporating extensive reading into its program will have to do it in a way
appropriate fohts setting and context．This section describes one way an extensive reading program could be integrated into my schoors introductoW unit．As was anuded to earlier，
the goa1s of the introductory unit is to provide students with a transition from the type of
study they did in high schoo1，to intensive English study in an environment that is fuu oi
English．地such，the introductoW unit di5cussion dasses work a lot on dassroom
language．circumlocution，and how to have a conve肥ation in Eng1ish culminating with afinal project that is a se1f−introduction．
Academic Writi㎎works on havi㎎studenおproduce a variety of writi㎎s with the
emphasis not on any one rhetorical pattem but rather on building conlidence in writing
through produdng many pieces．ComweH and McKay（2000）found inセheir research on
writing apprehension that75％of fi耐year students had never written beyond the sentence ！evel when in high schoo1so confidence building through seH−expression is warranted． Extensive Reading could form the basis of the IntroductoW unit’s Reading Program．In
chosing books we must remember that a key component ol extensive reading is having
leame帽read at an appropriate1evel．Appropriate reie脂to a1evel that is not too hard，nor
too easy．Hi帽h and Nation（1992）fee1that readers should only encounter one or two unknown words in1OO mnning words．
O』」C could select5or6books for each1evel with input from teache帽．The
appropriate1evels can be determined by a combination oi VocabulaW Levels Tests（Nation，2001）and consu趾ing with students beiore the semester as to which1evel they leel comfortable with．Although most graded readers are stories，there is no reason that these stories could not be connected to themes in the OJ』C curriculum（For a description of the
OjJC curriculm，see−Kim and Comwell，2000）1ike peace，science and religion，human
rights，or crises oHife．For example，λCわ比価。∫Cα”o’deals with issues of character≡ κ〃ηoρρed dea1s with a．boy thrown into slaveW；励わ。η〃。mεlooks at pove町．A11 three books are c1assics and are fomd in leve1three of the Oxiord Bookwoms series．All three
could be connected to issues that are studied in the iirst year curricu1um．
Leamers could be required to read5books over the five weeks．Nation （2001）
suggests that reading a book eveワ。ne or two weeks wi11allow leamers to encounter a
new word“．．．before the memo収。川is lost．”（pp．169）Book repo雌。r summaries could be required of each book with an oral summaW being given in discussion class each week．As mentioned eariier many pub1ishe肥also publish worksheets and even quizzes so
that there are ways to monitor what it is being read without placing too many demands on the teacher．The worksheets，of cou帽e，cou1d be something that are done in d砥s which is
the topic of the next paragraph．
One question that often comes up is what to do during the actual class？While some
reading in ciass is fine，having the entiI−e period devoted only to reading in class is not acceptab1e in rigorous language programs such as ou肥．But，there are many activities
beside reading that can be done in class to complement extensive reading．Timed reading
activities and dictionaIy use activities along with activities that formally teach reading skills
such as reading for gist，skimming，and scanning should be deve1oped for use in class．ln addition higher level skills such as predicting what wm happen next can be introduced in dass and then practiced with the book the leamer is currenuy reading．There are also a lot
Comwe1L Why Extensive Readi㎎should be Paれ。l a Schoors Language Program
of resowces availab1e that provide guidelines on how to manage an extensive reading
prOgram in c1ass．See Waring’s extensive reading support page．（Waring，2002） Finally，vocabu1aフーeaming techniques can be taught in dass during the five−week
introductoW unit−H students need to know the2000high irequency words and the570
Academic Word List words in order to be able to read Huently with adequate
comprehension，then we shou1d do eveW thing possible to help them．1t is not enough t0
1eave vocabulaly leaming up to the leame帽given the important role it plays in proficiency．There are many ways to1eam and practice vocabulaly and we can introduce
some of the techniques during the introductoW unit．
At the end of the five weeks，teachers can remind leamers that extensive reading is
something they can continue on their own．Forms to monitor their reading can be
distributed and，if teachers desire，some｝pe of extra credit based on extensive reading
can be devised．The extra credit work couId be monitored by book reports or
comprehension quizzes−After the intro unit is over，reading classes wi11 continue（during units l−4）with the current system that combines unified textbooks with practice activities in skimming，scanning，etc．
C0皿。1118iOm
This paper has made a case for adding extensive reading to language programs．lt has presented key concepts that are addressed by extensive reading and has also looked at some obiections that are commonly raised．Finally，it has briefly outlined how extensive reading might be incorI〕orated into O』」C’s introductoW mit．Almost any school can benefit
from extensive reading a1ong with a comprehensive vocabulaワprogram（See Comwe皿＆
Bramley this volume）．As students read texts at the appropriate level they will develop higher comprehension which in tum will lead to higher proficiency−As proficiency goes
up，students can incre砥e the number and奴pes of texts they attempt to read．Such an upward spiraいs a win−win situation．
One Iinal specific example may he1p make the above point dear．Up to this point this article h棚2857words，Over eigh奴six per cent（84−49）or the words are from the fi耐1000
most irequent words（1−1000）and4−39％are irom the second1000most trequent words （1001−2001⊃。Academic word list vocabulaW makes up another7．74％of the words．There are only l l l（3，38）words which do not fall into any of these categories．The point l want
to make is that if a student knows her high frequency and academic word1ist vocabulaIy， she wouId have96．62％coverage of this text．That is more than enough｛or her to read and comprehend this academic paper．1sn’t that a goal worth aiming for？
EIld皿0・e8
1 VocabulaW can be divided into four categories；low frequency，high付equency，academic，and
technicaL These categories will be discussed in greater detaiUater in the paper．
2 Graded reade帽are boo庵written with a limited vocabuiaワusuaHy chosen on the basis ol
Comwe11：Why Extensive Reading should be Part of a Schoo『s Language Program
Wor㎏dted
Bell．T。（2001）．Extensive Reading：Speed And Comprehension．肋e他。d加g Mbf欣∫（1）．Avai1able：
http＝〃www．readingmatrix．com／artides／be11／
Bamford，』一，Chau，M．H一，』acobs，G一，Renandya，W。，Robb，T．，and Ru艶e11，」．（2002）一ληηo他胞d
Bめ”og畑ρ卿。戸Wb破∫oη政胞η5わe他αd加g加。∫εcoηd工。ηg口。gε．Revised，November2002．
Accessed December13．2002at幽
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Constantino，R。（1995）．Learning to read in a second1anguage doesn’t have to hurt1The effect of
p1easu re reading−Jo〃η一〇’o戸λdoた∫ceηf oηd月d〃〃工”e”口。γ，39，68−69−
Lee，S−Y。、Cho，K−S一＆Kr砥hen，S，1997．Free可。luntary reading as a predictor ot TOEFL scores。
λρρ”εdム0兀gu口geムε07η’ηg，8，l l l−l18．
Comwe11，S・and McKay，T・（2000〕．Va1idating a measure of writing anxiely for Japanese students of English．Jo〃Jo〃mo’．2∫（2）：114−139．
Day，R，R．．＆Bam｛ord，』．（2000）．Reaching re−uctant Ieade肥．Eng〃∫hτeoc〃ng Fo㎜m，38（3），12−17．
Day，R−R．，Omura，C．，＆Hiramatsu，M。（1991）．Incidental EFL vocabu1aly leaming and reading． 月eod加g加。灼肥’9ηω㎎uoge，乙541−551．
Dupuy，B、（1998）．Cerdes de lecture：Une autre approche de1a lecture dans la classe intermdiaire de irands langue Etrangere．［Literatwe Circles：A diHerent reading approach in the intermediate French classroom］肋召Coηodわη〃。demム。ηguogε沢ω’eω，54，579−585．
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Elley，W．B。（1991）．Acquiring literacy in a second language：The−elfect of book−b鵬ed programs． ムロη9u09eムθ0m加g，4∫．375−4−1．
医key，D・E・（2002〕・Reading and the teaching of L2reading．㎜0Z Jourηo’，〃．1，pp．5−9・ Gee，R．W．（1999）。Encouragi㎎ESL students to read．㎜0“o〃mo’，8（1），3−7．
Grabe，W。（2002）一Readi㎎in a second la㎎uage．1n R．B．1〈aplan（Ed．），肋e O肋〃片αηdわ。o庄。戸 oρρ〃ed〃ηg〃∫”c∫（pp．49−59）。New York：Oxlord Unive帽蚊Press，
Hi四h，D．and Nation，P。（1992）。What vocabulaly size is needed to read unsimplified texts for
P1easure？ReOdfηg’η0’b”ε壇η’oηg〃。gε，8，689−696．
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