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Japanese Society for the Science of Design

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JapaneseSociety for the Science of Design

NEW

APPROACHES

FOR

NEW

REALITIES

Wolfgang

Neumann

It

is

a

_great

honour

for

me

to

address

this

Conference

"Design

_Contribution

for

the

World

-

_Physical

Protection

fbr

Refugees"

on

behalf

of

the

United

Nations

High

Commissioner

fbr

Refugees.

Refugees

are

homeless

-

homeless

in

a

double

sense:

firstly,

they

have

been

deprived

of

their

country,

their

social

and

cultural

identity

and

their

livelihood;

and

secondly,

they

have

lost

their

homes

and

dwellings,

their

human

habitat.

While

legal

_protection

is

the

centre of

UNHCR's

Work

--

_physical

protection

of refugees

becomes

increasingly

a challenge

fbr

UNHCR

and

the

international

community.

Together,

we

have

to

identify

new approaches

for

new realities.

At

the

beginning

of

this

_year,

the

number of

_people

of

_concern

to

UNHCR

stood

at

some

24

million

world-wide.

Of

them,

14 million,

or some

60 _per

cent,

were refugees.

Internally

displaced

_persons,

returnees and others of

humanitarian

concern, most of

them

victims of conflict, made up

the

balance.

AII

of

them

have

atone stage

lost

their

homes

or

been

in

danger

of

doing

so.

The

_protection

of

the

rights of refugees

lies

at

the

heart

of

UNHCR's

mandate.

And

those

rights

include

the

right

to

a

home

and adequate

housing.

The

ugly

_process

of

ethnic

cleansing

that

has

been

the

tragic

hallmark

of

so many recent

_conflicts

has

_given

a

_particular

resonance

to

this

right,

as countless

_people

have

been

ruthlessly

deprived

of every vestige of what

they

celled

their

home.

Solutions

to

the

_plight

of

those

displaced

need

to

take

full

account of

that

loss

and

_provide

satisfactory redress.

There

can

be

no more eloquent examples

than

Bosnia

and

Rwanda

of why

the

right

to

adequate

housing

must

be

safeguarded and

_of

why

UNHCR

would welcome an unequivocal affirmation of

that

right

by

this

Conference.

This

issue

has

powerfu1

implications

for

the

_post-war

reconstruction of

Bosnia,

where

the

peace

agreement contains

_provisions

for

the

restitution of

_property

or

the

award of compensation.

In

Rwanda,

similar concerns

have

arisen.

Massive

destruction

of

_property

at

the

time

of

the

l994

_genocide

and civil war

has

been

fOllowed

by

the

retum of

700,OOO

refugees who

had

fled

the

country

in

earlier

years.

Dispossession

and

_questions

of

_property

rights

can,

_unless

_purposefu11y

_addressed,

_easily

become

major

obstacles

to

repaniation and reconciliation.

While

the

rights

of

refugees remain our ultimate

_point

of reference,

_the

work of

UNHCR

_also

involves

meeting

the

_physical

and social needs of

those

uprooted.

In

situations

of

human

displacement

around

the

world,

the

shelter we

_provide

affbrds security after

the

trauma

of

flight

and

serves

as

a

staging

_point

fOr

physical

and social recovery.

For

those

able

to

return

home,

it

_provides

a

basis

for

stable

reintegration

into

their

national

societies.

Through

such

_programmes,

with

US$

l65

mio.

budgeted

for

shelter alone,

UNHCR

has

become

the

largest

provider

of

family

shelter assistance

in

the

United

Nations

system

today.

f'tidY\-Sig$g SPECIAL ISSUE OF JSSD voL 5 No.2 1997 NII-Electronic

(2)

In

situations of

human

displacement

around

the

world,

the

shelter we

_provide

affbrds security after

the

trauma

of

flight

and

services

as

a

staging

_point

for

_physicai

and

social

recovery.

For

those

able

to

return

home,

it

_provides

a

basis

fbr

stable reintegration

into

their

national societies.

Indeed,

the

_question

of

housing

closely

relates

to

all

three

facets

of

UNHCR's

approach

to

the

refugee

problem.

Fitstly,

it

relates

to

the

_provision

of shelter

in

situations of

1arge-scale

refugee

influx

and

to

the

alleviation

of

the

burden

on

hard-pressed

countries of asylum.

Secondly,

it

relates

to

reintegration of returnees

in

their

home

countries and

thus

to

_questions

of

development

and

reconstruction,

And

thirdly,

as an

important

aspect

of

human

rights

--

violations of which

are

the

_principal

root

_cause

_of

_refugee

flows

--it

relates

to

the

_prevention

of refugee situations.

THE

CHALLENGE

OF

EMERGENCIES

Our

first

and

most

compelling

_{preoccupation}

with

shelter

is

in

emergencies.

When

first

uprooted,

_the

great

majority

of

refugees

and

internally

displaced

_persons

of

our

concern

are

bereft

of

housing

and

other

basic

means of

survival.

The

overwhelming speed and scale of many of

the

refugee

infiuxes

we

have

confronted

in

recent

_years

have

challenged

the

internationul

community,

host

countries and

UNHCR

in

an unprecedented way.

In

the

last

five

_years,

UNHCR

has

responded

to

refugee

flows

and

_population

displacements

that

have

few

parallels

in

recent

history

--

be

it

on

the

Turkish

border

with

lraq,

in

Armenia,

Azerbaijan,

Georgia

and

the

Chechen

Republic

of

the

Russian

Federation,

in

Bangladesh,

in

the

Former

Yugoslavia

or

in

the

Great

Lakes

region of

Africa.

In

the

face

of such situations, we

have

launched

massive assistance

_programmes

in

which

the

_planning

and

_proyision

of shelter and camp

infrastructure

has

been

a major aspect of our work.

The

challenges

faced

have

_perhaps

been

most

_graphically

illustrated

in

the

Great

Lakes

region of

Africa

which

hosted

the

largest

refugee

agglomerations

in

the

history

of

this

world.

Following

the

events

of

April

1994,

the

region

experienced massive

influxes

of over

two

million

Rwandan

refugees,

many

of

them

fiooding

across

the

borders

of

Tanzania

and

Zaire

in

a matter of

days,

Rapidly

_growing

refugee concentrations of

two

to

three

hundred

thousand

_people

were confronted with an acute scarcity of shelter,

of

water

and,

in

_particular,

of

land

--

and all

of

this

in

a

fragile

environment,

unable

to

cope

with

such

high

_population

densities.

The

cutting of wood

for

shelter and

fbr

cooking

fuel

threatened

to

deplete

scarce

forest

reserves,

_groundwater

resources were

exhausted

and

the

local

_population

was

seriously

affected,

In

an enormous relief effOrt,

headed

by

UNHCR,

hundreds

of

thousands

of shelters were constructed

together

with

infrastructure

and

basic

services, such as safe

drinking

water and sanitation

systems

necessary

to

_quell

the

initial

epidemics

and

_provide

a minimum

human

standard

of

living.

The

crisis

in

the

Great

Lakes

region again

demonstrated

that

access

to

suitable sites

fbr

refugee

camps

is

perhaps

the

biggest

problem

in

providing

adequate shelter,

sanitation

and other

facilities.

But,

even when suitable

land

is

available and

the

country of asylum agrees

to

its

use,

_principles

of environmental

14SPECIAL

ISSUE OF JSSD VoL 5 No. 2 19g7 itrt't;,\ffzakke

(3)

protection

need

to

be

respected

in

the

development

of

refugee

settlements,

Only

camps

_planned

and

developed

in

harmony

with nature can

_provide

a

healthy

living

space

for

refugees.

Enyironmental

degradation

will not only

impair

the

temporary

habitat

of

the

refugees,

but

will

also

_produce

a

long-lasting

and

_perhaps

irreversible

impact

on

the

hosting

communities.

Environmenta1

considerations

have

become

an

increasingly

serious

_{preoccupation}

for

countries

hosting

large

numbers of refugees, especially

since

the

majority of refugee

_populations

are

found

in

ecologically

fragile

areas.

In

response

to

such concerns, and

in

the

spirit

of

the

1992

United

Nations

Conference

on

Environment

and

Development,

UNHCR

has

developed

a

set

of

_guidelines

on

environment-sensitive

management of refugee

_programmes,

Refugee-related

environmental

_problems

have

their

origin

in

the

sudden

imbalance

between

refugee

population

requirements

and

the

area's

environmental

carrying capacity, made more serious

by

the

absence of countervailing environmental action.

Sometimes,

the

_problems

are a

by-product

of

different

assistance activities

taken

to

meet

the

refugees'

immediate

needs,

One

way of addressing

these

_problems

is

to

initiate

new environmental

_projects

as

funds

become

available.

However

this

add-on approach

has

serious

drawbacks,

It

is

usually costly cornpared with available alternatives

besides

being

difficult

to

implement

in

_proportion

to

the

environmental

damage

created,

It

is

widely recognized

that

it

is

more effective

to

incorporate

environmental eiements

into

the

interventions

made right

from

the

beginning,

i,e.

to

modify

refugee assistance operations

to

make

them

environmentally

more

benign.

The

modifications need

to

be

implemented

in

a coordinated

fashion.

There

are many

different

sectoral activities accompanying refugee

_assistance

and

decisions

conceming

them

are made at various

levels.

Without

systematic and consistent

integration,

one

action

in

aparticular sector could

be

nullified

by

other actions

in

different

sectors.

PREVENTION

BEFORE

CURE

Preventive

and

mitigation measures should

be

the

norm rather

than

the

exception.

This

widely accepted rule of

_prudent

conduct

applies

_particularly

to

decisions

relating

to

the

environment,

including

refugee-related environmental

intervnentions.

In

some cases,

environmental

impacts

(such

as certain

types

of

health

impacts

or

destruction

of

biodiversity)

are

irreversible,

and

_preventive

measures

therefore

represent

the

only

real solution

to

these

_problems.

In

addition,

_preventive

and

mitigation

measures

are

usually

less

expensive

than

curative ones.

While

it

is

reasonable

to

acknowledge

the

high

element

of unpredictability characterising

the

emergency

phase

of refugee movements,

the

prevention

and

mitigation-oriented

approach

requires

that

effective

planning

be

carried out as early as

_practicable

in

a

crisis

situation.

The

_quality

of

the

first

measures

taken

during

refugee assistance operations will

largely

determine

the

overall

cost

of

refugee

assistance

over

its

7±r-r ;.\ffee"$g SPECIAL ISSUE OF JSSDVoL5 No.2 1997

15

(4)

entire

duration.

Environmentally

sound site selection and

layout

of refugee camps

is

an example of

this

approach.

If

sites are selected so

that

refugees'

impacts

remain outside areas of

high

environmental value and

their

environmental

impacts

are mitigated

in

the

final

location,

irreversible

consequences

are

likely

to

be

eliminated

and other adverse environmental

impacts

significantly reduced.

Sound

interventions

at an early stage avoid more complex and costly steps

later.

Although

it

may not

be

feasible

in

some cases

to

adopt

certain

_preventive

or

mitigation

measures

due

to

prevailing

political

and

social

conditions,

it

is

important

to

alert all

the

_parties

involved

about

the

economic and environmental

implications

of a stance

_that

precludes

environmentally sound

_preventive

options.

On

the

short

run,

environmentally

sound

refugee

_projects

may

appear

too

expensive,

and

it

might

be

difficult

to

receive

the

necessary

funds

--

but

it

is

a new approach

for

new realities

--

and of course... worth

fighting

fbr.

ENVIRONMENTALLY

SENSITIVE

PHYSICAL

PLANNING

The

location

and

layout

of

refugee

camps

and

settlements

and

the

design

of refugee

shelter,

determine

to

a

large

extent

(i)

the

effect which environmental conditions may

have

on refugees' well-being and

health

and

(ii)

the

type

and

degree

of

impacts

on

the

environment

in

and

around

refugee

sites,

caused

by

the

presence

of refugees.

Environmental

considerations will

have

to

be

integrated

as main

_planning

_parameters

in

the

fo11owing

sequence

_of

_physical

_planning

activities:

(i)

site

selection;

(ii)

site

survey;

(iii)

site

_planning;

(iv)

site

_preparation;

(v)

shelter construction.

ENVROumALIMPAorS

RELATEDTO

SITE

ESTABLIS}IMENrl"

AND

SHELTERCONSTRUCTION

Refugee

health

may

be

_affected

by

_such

_{environmental}

factors

as

_prevalence

_of

_endemic

diseases,

_weather

conditions,

dust,

drainage

and

soil

conditions,

water

_quantity

and

_quality

and

exposure

to

man-made

or

natural

hazards

_such

as

polluted

soils,

hunicanes,

radiation,

_earthquakes,

volcanic

activhies,

etc.

Proximity

of refugee sites

to

fbrest

reserves, natural

_parks,

wildlife reserves, range

land,

open water courses and other

fragile

areas may

increase

the

risk of

damage

eaused

by

overuse of unmanaged exploitation

of

natural resources,

This

damage

may

include

deforestation,

loss

of

biodiversity,

rangeland

degradation,

erosion,

siltation

and

_pollution

of

water

resources,

etc.

The

overuse

of

and

damage

to

natural

16SPECIALISSUEOFJSSD

vol,5 No.2 1991

(5)

resources may

cause

conflict

with

the

1ocal

_population.

Location

of

refugee

sites

on

steep

slopes

increases

the

risk

of

erosion.

Inappropriate

location

of camp sites may

increase

the

risk

of

fioods

and

the

need

for

construction of new access roads, or may

increase

transport

distances.

Inappropriate

camp

layout,

shelter

design

and

_poor

maintenance of camp

infrastructures

may

lead

to

an

increased

risk

of

erosion,

_poor

sanitary

conditions,

water

_pollution,

fire

hazards,

and

refugee

_exposure

_to

wind,

dust

and extreme

temperatures.

In

urban areas, refugees are often accommodated

in

communal

buildings

or abandoned residential

buildings.

Excessive

damage

may

be

caused

because

of overcrowding and

lack

ofcare.

If

insufficient

shelter

material

is

supplied,

refugees

will

extract

needed

materials

from

areas

surrounding

the

camps.

Poles

cut

from

live

and

straight

trees

are

the

preferred

choice,

resulting

in

the

loss

of

high

quality

fbrestland.

The

range of

the

shelter assistance

_provided

by

UNHCR

and

its

implementing

_partners

has

also

increased

in

response

to

the

new

_phenomenen

of cold climate refugee crises, notably

in

the

Balkans

and

the

Caucasus.

In

the

fbrmer

Yugoslavia,

UNHCR

has

moanted a massive relief

_effOrt

_over

the

last

four

_years

involving,

at

its

_peak,

some

four

million

refugees,

internally

displaced

_persons

and

war

affected

populations.

This

included

not

oniy

the

_provision

of

fbod

and

other relief

items

but

also

housinglhousing

repair, winterization

kits

and

the

conversion of

_public

buildings

into

refugee

housing,

Emergency

assistance

_pregrammes

in

technologically

and socially complex urban areas

_present

a whole new range of challenges and require new expertise and

the

fbrging

of new

_partnerships

(partnerships

with

_professional

societies and

the

international

NGO

community

willing and

able

to

cope

with

the

challenges

for

technologically

sound

and

economically

viable

solutions).

This

is

where

creativity

and

experience

of

architect,

engineers

and

designers

are

in

urgent

demand.

No

matter where or when a refugee crisis occurs,

it

is

only

through

adequate

_preparedness

and an ability

to

respond

effectively

that

tragedy

can

be

avoided

or

contained.

In

recent

_years,

UNHCR

has

worked

hard

to

strengthen

its

own

emergency

capability

and

to

build

operational

_partnerships

with

sister

agencies

and

NGOs.

We

have

also supported

broader

effbrts

to

improve

the

ability

of

the

United

Nations

to

respond

to

complex

humanitarian

emergencies.

These

efforts need

to

be

complemented

by

the

development

of national capacities

fbr

disaster

response and mitigation.

UNHCR

itself

is

contributing

to

national capacity

building

through

a number of

initiatives,

such as our regional emergency management workshops, which

include

representatives

of

Governments

and

local

NGOs

together

with

our

own

staff.

In

several countries, we are

also

assisting

Governments

and

NGOs

to

draw

up

contingency

_plans.

irVrf;,\essck=g SPECIALISsuEoFJSSD voL5 No.2 1997 NII-Electronic

(6)

Refugee

camps are

human

settlements.

In

some cuses

they

reach

the

size of

1arge

towns

accommodating

hundreds

of

thousands

of

_people.

In

many

instances

they

have

a

multi-year

history

and

acquire

the

characteristics

--

an

the

needs

--

of

long-term

communities.

It

is

our aim,

however,

that,

while

they

must

provide

an

environment

for

decent

human

living,

they

should

not

become

_permanent.

The

_preferred

solution

is

for

refugees

to

_go

home

in

safety and

dignity

as

soon

as

the

situation

_permits,

to

reintegrate

into

their

society of origin and

_participate

in

the

econornic and social

development

of

their

national community,

Over

the

last

four

_years,

no

less

than

nine million refugees

have

returned

to

their

home

countries

to

begin

new

lives.

But

most

_of

_the

areas

that

refugees return

_to

have

suffered massive

destruction

of

homes,

infrastmcture

and

services

as a result

of

long

_periods

of war and economic

decline,

The

means

of

_production

have

decayed

and

all

too

often

agricultural

land

is

infested

with

mines

or

has

decayed

through

erosion.

Peace

alene

is

not enough

to

ensure safe and sustainable reintegration.

Rehabilitation

assistance

is

often

desperately

required.

Over

and above assistance

to

individuals,

_people

trying

to

rebuild

their

lives

need

forms

of community-based aid

that

effectively

link

immediate

reintegration needs

to

the

longer-term

process

of

reconciliation, reconstruction

and

sustainable

development.

Given

the

more

vigorous approach

taken

by

UNHCR

in

recent

_years

to

the

_promotion

and

consolidation

of solutions, reintegration assistance

has

figured

more

_prominently

amongst

our

priorities.

While

our

involvement

is,

by

definition,

temporary

--

with

the

Office

seeking

to

hand

over

to

development

agencies where

longer

term

assistance

is

required

--

we

have

become

increasingly

involved

in

the

rehabilitation of

housing,

infrastructure

and

services

(schools,

health

_posts,

etc.).

We

are,

fbr

example,

_playing

_an

initiating

role

in

rehabilitation activities

in

Bosnia

and

_the

Caucasus.

In

Bosnia

and

Herzegovina,

in

the

context

of

implementation

of

the

Dayton

Peace

Agreement,

we

have

_gone

ahead with

the

implementation

of

housing

repair

_prejects

to

_permit

repatriation and early reintegration of refugees and

internally

displaced

_persons.

Once

again, climatic conditions with

hash

winters

have

required

complex,

more

durable

shelter

solutions.

In

Mozambique

with

the

return of over

1.7

million refugees also,

UNHCR

has

made

a considerable

investment

in

the

development

of

human

settlements

to

_promote

voluntary repatriation and

facilitate

reintegration.

The

longer-term

sustainability of

these

activities

transcends

our mandate and capacity.

In

seeking

to

link

rehabilitation

to

reconstruction and sustainable

development,

UNHCR

recognizes

the

imperative

need

fbr

joint

_action

_with

development

_agencies,

financial

institutions,

_{non-governmental}

organizations

and

bilateral

development

_programmes.

However,

joint

action cannot

be

achieved without

firm

Ionger-term-term

_political

and economic commitment

from

both

the

countries

to

which refugees return and

the

broader

intemational

community.

18SPECIAL

ISSUE OF JSSD VoL 5 No.2 1997 i'V'ly\anzafiIg

(7)

JapaneseSociety for theScience of Design

TOWARDS

EFFECTIVE

PREVENTION

The

best

--

and,

in

the

long

term,

only

_guaranteed

--

solution

to

the

refugee

_problem

is

through

effective

prevention.

And

this

can

be

achieved only

by

a concerted effort

to

ensure sustainable

human

development.

While

refugee

_problems

are sparked

by

violations of

human

rights

and conflict,

these,

in

tum,

are conditioned

by

other

factors,

notably economic

deprivation

and

lack

of

development.

For

decades,

most

tragically

in

_parts

of

Africa,

the

failure

to

achieve sustainable

development

has

led

to

a

desperate

cycle of crises requiring massive

long-

term

relief assistance,

Whatever

the

humanitarian

imperative

may

be

in

the

face

of such emergencies, a more committed and

_proactive

approach

is

urgently required, especially

in

relation

to

the

underlying causes of refugee

flows.

Ensuring

the

sustainable

development

of

human

settlements

involves

economic

development,

social and cultural

_progress,

respect

for

hurnan

rights and

the

fbstering

of

democracy.

While

such

concerns

_go

well

beyond

the

mandate

of

UNHCR.

We

have

still

_plenty

of room

to

continue our search

for

new approaches

to

remain

_prepared

to

cope with new realities.

Physical

_protection

of refugees challenges

Architects,

Designers,

Engineers,

Social

Scientists,

as well as

the

makers of

_products

and not

to

_goret

the

donors

who

have

to

_pay

for

it,

Please

allow me now, after setting

the

_general

_parameters

of "physical

protectione'

to

look

into

some more

detailed

elaborations

on

how

to

approach

aspects

of

_physical

_planning

in

LJNHCR

operations.

Suitable

and well selected sites, soundly

_planned

refugee camps with

_{professionally}

integrated

appropriate

infrastructure

and

adequate

fbrrns

of shelter

are

essential

in

the

early stages of a refugee emergency as

they

are

lifesaving

and reduce suffering.

Initial

decisions

on

location

and

layout

have

repercussions

throughout

the

existence of a refugee camp and mark

long-term

effects on

_quality

and efficiency of

humanitarian

assistance

_programmes.

The

Aims

are:

e

To

meet

the

need

to

_provide

suitable and sufficient campsites and shelter

to

accommodate refugees and other

_populations

caught

in

emergencies.

e

To

avoid

faulty

decisions

in

site

selection

and

conceptual

camp

_planning,

very

often

taken

in

the

absence of

technical

support, as

they

are very

difficult

to

correct, especially

if

the

initial

decisions

during

the

emergency

phase

were not well made.

e

To

_ensure

_tight

_and _{complementary}

fit

between

_policy

(what

is

_desirable

_to

do)

and

_prejects

(what

is

_actually

doable).

The

Basic

_principles

are:

e

_Use

_longer

_term

_planning

_principles,

_even _when

_the

_refugee _situation

_is

expected

to

be

only

temporary,

7V-f ;,\Mscnsug SPECIAL ISSUE OF JSSD VoL 5 No.2 1997 NII-Electronic

(8)

e

_Avoid

_high

_{concentration}

_of

refugees

in

limited

areas

(high

density

camps).

e

Avoid

very

large,

undifferentiated refugee camps.

e

Involve

refugees

in

_all

_phases

of

_camp

_planning

and

-

implementation

to

the

maximum extend

_possible.

e

Use

bottom-up

_planning

approach.

Start

_planning

from

smallest

social

entities,

presrving

original social arrangements and

-

structures

as

far

as

_possible.

e

_Develop

_a

_{comprehensive}

master

_plan,

with

the

camp

layout

developed

around

asanitation and service concept and with

definition

of overspill

and

extenslon

areas,

Physicai

Planning

_(a

term

which

is

mainly

used

in

the

UN

jargon)

covers

considerations

relating

_to

the

site or

_area

where

_the

refugees are

_going

to

live

or are

living

aiready,

covers

as

weil

the

_physical

layout

or

design

and organization of

their

community,

the

infrastructurelutilities

and

the

shelter or accommodation

they

need,

These

factors

will

have

a

major

influence

on

the

safety and well-being of

the

refugees.

Site

selection

and

site

_planning

must

consider

and

include

at

the

initial

stage allother vital

disciplines

involved

in

an

humanitarian

operatien:

hydrology,

environmental sanitation,

health,

education,

food

distributionfiogistics,

community work,

fbrestry,

enyironmental

coordination,

etc.

We

will

have

to

look

as well

into

with specific

forms

of spatial assistance:

the

establishment of

transit

and

reception camps,

either

as

initial

facilities

for

screening or

to

support urgent repatriation operations with

emergency

type

requirements.

Further,

the

wide range

_of

_climatic

conditions,

in

which refugee situations

take

_place,

will

deterrnine

spatial

organization,

type

of

infrastructure

and

type

and

standard

of

shelter.

On

the

one

hand,

one

has

to

acknowledge

that

most refugee

situations

last

much

longer

than

initially

anticipated,

hence,

a certain cost-efficient sustainability of

infrastructure

and shelter

should

from

the

emergency

_phase

_,be

included

in

the

operational concept and

longer

term

budget;

and on

the

other

hand

that

the

_post-refugee

situation

will

_confront

host

_governments

and most

Iikely

the

international

community

to

be

charged with

damage

repair

in

refugee

affected

areas.

This

operational span, and

its

hypothetical

consequences, should

be

included

in

the

criteria

to

select a

_site,

to

_plan

and run a refugee

programme.

The

right

_and

_the

need

for

_aplace

_to

live

is

a corollary

to

the

_granting

of asylum,

The

role and responsibility of

the

national authorities

in

site

selection

is

obvious

and

of

fundamental

importance,

Equally,

the

refugees

themselves

must

be

involved

as

early

as

_possible;

ideally,

the

needs of

the

refugee community would

determine

the

1ocation,

size

and

organization

of

the

site.

In

_practice

a

compromise

has

to

be

reached

between

refugee needs and external

factors,

both

_practical

and

_political.

The

spatial

organization

of

the

sites,

where

refugees

dwell

may range

from

scattered settlements over a wide area;

through

spontaneous attachments

to

villages of similar

ethnic

_groups

in

the

host

country;

to

high

concentration

in

a very

limited

area.

High

density

camps

with

very

1arge

_population

concentration may

be

the

result of

_political

decisions

of

the

host

country or simply

the

lack

of

sufficient

suitable

land

to

20SPECIALISSUE

OF JSSD VeL 5 No. 2 1997 i'ifrftz\ffscNlg

(9)

spread

the

refugee

_population

over

a

larger

area.

High

density

refugee situations, at a

different

scale

however,

may

develop

if

refugees are accommodated

initially

in

structures

such

as

_public

buildings(schools,

hospitals,

hostels,

sanatoria,

etc.),

not

designed

and equipped

to

cope

with

the

overpopulation which

frequently

occurs

in

urban situations after spontaneous

influxes

during

armed conflicts and

/or

subsequent "ethnic

cleansing".

The

timely

well

prepared

professional

planning

approach

may

save

lives

and

will

certainly

reduce

costs,

and will

minimize

the

need

fbr

difficult,

corrective

measures.

Comprehensive

_physical

_planning

brings

utilities,services,

infrastructure

and shelter areas

into

a

logical

cost-efficient context, and

wi11

ensure most effective utilization of

land,

resources and

time.

The

_prospects

for

a

durable

solution must

be

taken

into

consideration.

Protection

or

_political

considerations may also

be

important.

If

no

durable

solution

is

in

sight,

this

must

be

recognized

and

the

planning

should

assume

a

long

stay,

Unsatisfactory

temporary

arrangements

can

be

hard

to

change

once

established.

Finding

the

right site,

_planning

on

it

for

the

right camp and

_providing

the

right shelter

have

a

direct

bearing

on

the

_provision

of other assistance and will

be

important

considerations

in

the

overall assessment of needs and

_planning

of response.

Decisions

must

be

_taken

as

_part

_of

_an

integrated

approach

_and

in

light

of

the

advice of

experts

and views

of

the

refugees,

Expertise

rnay

be

required

in

the

fields

of

hydrology,

surveying,

_physical

_planning,

engineering

(e.g.,

water supply, environmental sanitation, roadlbridge ¢onstruction,

building

material supply, ete.),

public

health,

the

environment and

_perhaps

social anthropology.

Familiarity

with conditions

in

both

the

country

of

origin

and

asylum

is

very

important.

Close

monitoring

of

_political

conditions

of

the

conflict

area,

where refugees are coming

from,

warns

_planners

about:

increase

of

influx,

_potential

duration

of

the

refugee

situation,

on

the

need

for

alternative

campsites

and

the

_{perspectiveltimeframe}

for

voluntary repatriation.

Experts

may

be

experts

in

their

respective

fields,

however,

only related

frequent

field

experience mandatory

in

emergency situations.

_provides

the

expert with

the

capabilities which

is

mandatory

in

emergency

situations,

Professional

expertise

and

advice

should

be

sought

through

UNHCR's

technical

service,

PTSS,

specialized

NGOs,

national and

international

relief agencies,

local/national

_government

line

minisnies, architecturelengineering

faculties

or

local

industrylprofessional

sources, or

from

local

offices of organizations such

as

UNDP,

the

World

Bank,

WHO,

UNICEF

and other voluntary agencies

already

in

the

country.

In

the

light

of

this

Symposium,

I

would

be

_gratefu1

to

hear

about

_your

interest

in

supporting

UNHCR

with

professional

advice.

In

fact

, most of

the

international

expertise we are cooperating with are coming

from

irifl),\-ft"St SPECIALISSUEOFJSSD VoL5 No.2 1997

21

(10)

occidental countries, very

far

from

Japan.

It

is

certainly one of my objectives

here

in

Japan

to

raise

interest

fbr

our

work

and

to

motivate

some

colleagues

to

lend

their

_professional

skills

to

the

_plight

of

the

refugees.

The

special

mandate

of

UNHCR

may

require

the

immediate

fielding

of

an

experienced

Physical

Planner

(Shelter

Coordinator,

Infrastructure

Coordinator

or

Construction

Manager),

develop

the

_plan

of action,

time

frame

and

budget.

The

Physical

Planner

will

be

responsible

fbr

the

implementation

in

_general

and

for

the

keeping

of

the

time

frame,

task

oriented

_quality

and

_quantity

control

in

_particular.

Land

may

be

scarce

in

the

country of asylum and no site may

be

available

that

meets

the

desired

_criteria.

If,

however,

the

_present

or

intended

site

is

clearly unsuitable, every

effbrt

rnust

be

made

to

move

the

refugees

to

a

better

site

as

_quickly

as

_possible.

The

_problems

which

result

both

from

a

bad

site

and

the

difficulties

inherent

in

a move

increase

with

time.

The

following

criteria are crucial

for

the

successful

identification

of sites:

e

Land

uselland

rights:

In

many

host-countries

the

availability of

land

for

the

establishment of refugee sites

is

scarce.

Needless

to

say,

in

most

countries,

Iand

has

a

fbrm

of

usage

or

ownership,

even

if

its

use

is

not obvious.

Nomadic

use of rangeland,

for

instance,

requires

huge

areas

and

may

not

look

as

it

was under use.

Tribal

or

traditional

land-use

rights are

very

sensitive

issues,

and even

if

there

is

a

_general

agreement with a national

government,

local

political

or ethnic

_groups

may

disagree

even with

its

temporary

use.

Once

a site

has

been

identified,

the

_process

of site assessment should always

include

clarification

on

land-owner$hip

and

land-rights.

e

_Size

_ot

_camp

_sites

Over

the

many

_years

of

developing

and applying standards on

land

use

fbr

refugee camps,

_practical

figures

fbr

minimum

land

requirements

have

been

established.

These

figures

should

be

applied

_cautiously

and with

fiexibility.

They

are rather

_a

rule

_of

the

thumb

fbr

initial

calculation

of

required

site

surface

area

than

_precise

standards.

It

is

recommended

to

use

30-40

m2

_per

_person

overall surface area.

This

figure

is

composed of

_proportional

_parts

fbr

roads,

fbot

_paths,

educational

facilities,

sanitation,

securitylfirebreaks,

administration,

water

storage!distribution,

markets,

foodlrelief

item

storage

and

distribution

and of course

the

shelter areas.

It

does

not

include,

however,

any

land

for

agricultural activities or

livestock.

While

the

option

for

agricultural activities, with

the

_goal

of selfisufficiency,

is

not really an

issue

during

emergencies,

the

concept

for

small vegetable

_gardens

_preferably

attached

to

the

family

_plot,

should,

from

the

outset ofa camp,

be

_part

of

the

_plan.

This

requires a minimum

increase

of

15 m2

_per

_person

(for

a vegetable

_garden

of some

80-90

mP),

hence,

a minimum of45-55 m2 overall

land

allocation

_per

_person

shouid

be

applied,

(11)

i,tf(Y\MvereI-Japanese Society for the Science of Design

If

possible,

the

camps should

be

constructed with a substantial

distance

to

each other,

The

distance

depends

on a nurnber of

factors:

vegetation, climate,

topography,

1ocal

_population,

aquifer replenishment, environmental considerations and

land

uselagricultural activities.

A

camp site should

have

_potential

for

expansion, as

its

_population

_grows

(3-6%per

_year).

Clanlfamily

reunification, subsequent

to

the

initial

influx,

may

also

demand

additional

areas.

e

_Water

_supply

The

availability of an adequate amount of water on a

_year

round

basis

has

_proved

in

practice

to

be

the

single most

important

criterioh, and commonly

the

most

problematic.

A

site

should

not

be

selected

on

the

assumption

that

water

can

be

acquired merely

by

dri11ing,

digging,

or

hauling.

Drilling

may not

be

feasible

and may not

_provide

adequate

water.

No

site

should

be

selected

where

the

hauling

of

water will

be

required

over

a

long

_period.

Professional

assessment

of water availability should

be

a

_prerequisite

in

selecting a site,

e

-lopography

_and

drainage

Where

water

is

readily

available,

drainage

often

becomes

a

key

criterion.

The

whole

site

should

be

1oeated

above

flood

level,

_preferably

on

a

_gently

sloping

area

(ideally

2-4%

slope).

Rat

sites

_present

serious

_problems

for

the

drainage

of waste and storm water.

Ifpossible.

the

siteshould

be

a minimum of

3

m above

the

_ground-water

table

(this

in

view of construction of

_pit

lanines,

as

they

do

not

function

if

the

_pit

each

into

the

_ground

water).

Avoid

marshes or

_areas

likely

to

become

marshy,

_soggy

_or

waterlogged

during

the

rainy

season.

Slope

above

1O%

is

difficult

to

use

and

requires

complex and costly site

_{preparations.}

e

Security

_and

_protection

Sites

should

be

removed

from

the

frontier

and

_potential

military

_targets

in

_order

_to

provide

security and

_protection

for

the

refugees,

and

to

_prevent

hostile

activities

by

the

refugees

against

the

authorities

of

their

country

of

origin

which would undermine

the

_principle

that

the

_granting

of asylum

is

not an unfriendly act.

This

criterion

is

specifically mentioned

in

Article

[

,

paragraph

6

of

the

OAU

Refugee

Convention:

'`Jlor

reas(ms of security} countn'es of asylum shall, as

far

as

_possible,

_settie

refugees

at

a

reasonable

distance

from

the

IiDntier

of

their

countrzy

of

on'gin

",

eAccessibility

The

site must

be

accessible and

therefbre

close

to

assured communications

links,

and

preferably

also

to

sources of

the

necessary supplies such as

fbod,

cooking

fuel

and

shelter

material.

Proximity

to

national

community

services

is

desirable,

_particularly

with regard

_to

health

_care.

Roads

must

_secure

_all

weather and

all

_year

access.

iTVt)\"tcNfit SPECIAL ISSUE OF JSSDVoL5 No.2 1997 NII-Electronic

(12)

Eventually,

access roads

to

connect

the

main road with

the

sitecan

be

constructed as

part

of

the

camp

development,

The

distance,

however,

should

be

short

(max.

2-5

km).

e

Environmental

_conditions

The

area

should

be

frree

of

major environmental

health

hazards

such

as

malaria, onchocerciasis

(river

blindness),

schistosomiasis

(bilharzia)

or

tsetse

fly.

Climatic

conditions should

be

suitable

_year

round and carefu1 account

taken

of seasonal variations: a suitable site

in

_the

dry

season may

be

untenable

in

the

rains.

A

daily

breeze

is

an advantage, while

emergency

and

temporary

shelter need

_protection

from

high

winds.

Regular

dust

_clouds

_can

fbster

respiratory

diseases

if

a

_site

is

_set

_up

in

dust

_prone

areas.

As

far

as

_possible,

refugees

should

not

be

settled

in

an

area

where

the

climate

differs

_greatly

from

that

to

which

they

are accustomed,

For

example, settling refugees

from

malaria-free

high

_ground

in

a marshy area where

the

disease

is

endemic can

be

disastrous.

Mountainous

areas may

be

in

summer very

_pleasant,

however

in

winter

the

temperatures

may

fall

way

below

zero

C,

with serious consequences

to

the

type

and cost of shelter,

infrastmcture,

heating

fuel

and even

the

diet,

In

the

_past,

relocation

_to

_warmer

_areas

was

the

_only

_sensitive

altemative.

e

Vegetation

The

site should

have

a

_good

_ground

cover

(grass,

bushes,

trees).

Covering

vegetation

provides

shade,

and reduces

erosion

and

dust.

During

site

_preparation

care

should

be

taken

to

do

as

little

damage

as

_possible

to

this

vegetation

and

_topsoil,

The

next step after

theidentification

of sites

leads

into

the

making of

the

_plan.

e

Making

the

_plan

-

site

planning

e

_The

_overall

_physical

_layout

_of _a_site _as _well _as _other _aspects _of _site

_planning

should reflect a

decentralized

community-based approach

fbcusing

on

family,

village or ethnic

_groups.

e

_Site

_planning

_should

use

the

'"bottom up "approach

and

start

from

the

characteristics

and

needs

of

the

smallest

social

entity,

the

individual

family,

and at

the

same

time

reflect

the

wishes of

the

community as much as

_possible.

Site

_planning

is

necessary

because

the

_physical

organization

of

a

settlement

will markedly affect

the

health

and well-being of a community.

The

smaller

the

area

available

fbr

a

_given

number

of

refugees

the

_greater

the

importance

of

site

_planning,

though

any

site

must

be

_planned

to

allow

the

equitable,

efficient

and

economic

distribution

of

_goods

and services.

(13)

Any

refugees who are already

_present

on

the

site will of course

have

arranged

themselves

in

some way.

Even

if

desirable,

radical changes

in

their

_patterns

of

1ocation

may

be

a

lesser

_priority

than

meeting

the

immediate

need

fbr

services and relief

_goods.

However,

fbr

new

_{sites/arrivals}

_the

layout

must

be

_carefully

_planned

in

advance,

Once

refugees

are

settled

they

will

understandably

resist

movement

of

their

houses,

If

the

refugee

leadership

can

be

persuaded

early

on

of

the

importance

of

planning,

it

should soon

be

_possible

for

the

refugees

to

take

responsibility

for

the

organization of new shelters

(demarcating

_plots

ete.) within

designated

areas, with

the

added advantage of releasing relief workers

fbr

more urgent

tasks.

Guidelines

on

the

layout

of

non-shelter areas,

can

be

more

fully

applied

iater.

During

the

emergency

phase,

site

_planning

on

the

ladder

of

_priorities,

remains,

_perhaps

ad

hoc.

But

then

even

sketehy

designs

are

appropriate,

however,

they

should

_preferably

be

to

scale.

TRANSIT

CAMPS

There

are

in

_principle

only

two

different

situations

for

the

_planning

of refugee camp sites:

=>

Reorganizing

_existing

_{spontaneously}

developed

_carnps.

=>

Planning

of new camps.

Certainly,

the

design

standards

to

be

applied,

should

be

the

same,

be

it

fbr

reorganization or

_planning

of new camps,

Methods,

approach and

timing,

however,

may

differ

substantially.

Reorganization

will

have

at

least

to

consider

the

fo11owing

aspects:

=>

Can

the

camp remain?

=>

Is

_the

_camp _{overpopulated?}

>

Can

the

infrastructure

be

upgraded C?

=>

Can

_the

_camp

be

_reorganized?

=>

Does

_sufficient _adj _acent

land

_exist

to

decongest

_a_{overpopulated} _camp?

To

reorganize an overpopulated camp,

the

degree

of overpopulation

has

to

be

established.

Once

the

extent of

_problem

is

known,

a,i,

the

amount of

households

_to

be

relocated

has

been

established and sudicient

nearby

land

has

been

identified,

the

site

can

be

thoroughly

assessed

and

surveyed

according

to

above-mentioned criteria

for

site selection.

These

sketches

indicate

on

how

to

_go

about a site reorganization.

Eventually

the

reorganization requires more

land

if

_planned

according

to

UNHCR

standards.

This

means an additional site

has

then

to

be

identified

to

accommodate

the

surplus

_population.

As

the

basis

for

site

_planning

a

topographic

and

_planimenic

survey

is

crucial metric scale

between

1:1

,OOO and

1:5,OOO,

in

case of

large

camps a scale of

1The

planlmap

should

have

a

lO,OOO

or above.

MODULAR

SHELTER

AREAS

PIanning

should start

from

the

_perspective

of

the

needs,

_preferences,

and

traditions

of

the

individual

refugee

family.

Begin

by

considering

the

needs of

the

individual

household,

such as

distance

to

water and

irvtv\ffscn$s _spEclAL _lssuE _oF _JssD _VoL5 _No.2 ₁₉₉₇