A Compa r a t i veSt udyo ft heEf f e c t i ve ne s s be t we e nAudi ome di um a ndVi de o
me di um i nTe a c hi ngEng l i s h. 1
Os amuTakai
Thi spape re xami ne st hee f f e c t i ve ne s soft heaudi o‑ vi s ual andaudi ome di ai nl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i o nf orEngl i s hl angua ge cl a s s r oo ms at uni ve r s i t y l e ve l . Mot i va t i on on t he af f e c t i ve domai ni sal s oi nve s t i gat e dt os e ei ft he r ei sac or r e l at i o nwi t ht he i r e f f e c t i ve ne s s . TheLt e s ti sus e dasame t hodo fs t at i s t i canal ys i s t oanal yz et hef ol l o wi ngf i vehypot he s e s:1 )Us i ngt hea udi o‑ vi s ual me di awoul dbee f f e c t i vei nl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i on. 2 )Us i nga vi de ome di um woul dbemor ee f f e c t i vet hanus i ngonl yca s s e t t e t ape si nl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i o n. 3 )Us i ngavi de ome di um woul d bemo r ee f f e c t i vet hanus i ngo nl yc as s e t t et ape si nl i s t e ni ngc o m‑
pr e he ns i onf o ral e s s ‑ ad vanc e dl e ve lofl anguagep r of i c i e nc y. 4 ) The r ewoul dbenodi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het woi nl i s t e ni ngco mpr e ‑ he ns i onf oranadvanc e dl e ve l . 5 )Us i ngt hevi deome di um woul d mo t i va t es t ude nt smor et os t udyEngl i s ht ha nus i ngonl yca s s e t t e t ape s . Ther e s ul t so ft hi ss t udy s uppor tt hef i r s tand f o ur t h hypo t he s e sbutnott hes e c o nd,t hi r dandf i f t h.
1 Theaut hori sgr at e f ult oPr of e s s orUnoYos hi f umiandPr of e s s orAnaz awa
Ts ut o muf oras s i s t i ngi ns t a t i s t i c alanal ys i s ,andPr of e s s o rJayM.Pys oc k ,
Pr of e s s orMi c hae lCar randPr of e s s o rJoanM.Hoodf orco mme nt i ngupon
t hee ar l i e rve r s i onso ft hi spa pe r .
Ll NTRODUCTl 0N
TheMi ni s t r yofEduc at i o no fJ apa nhass e tbr oad,na t i onalgoal s i nmi ddl eandhi gh s c hoolEngl i s h e duca t i onf ort hede ve l opme nto f communi c a t i on s ki l l s . Tokyo Uni ve r s i t y and ot he ri ns t i t ut i onsha ve al r e ady i mpl e me nt e da l i s t e ni ngco mpr e he ns i ont e s taspar toft he i r e nt r a nc e e xami nat i ons . Te ac hi ng l i s t e ni ng a nd s pe aki ng s ki l l s has al r e ady be e n i de nt i f i e d asave r y i mpo r t a ntcompone ntofJapane s e Engl i s he duc at i o n. Wi t ht hi sde ve l opme nti nEngl i s he d uc a t i oni nJ apan , t hee f f e c t i ve ne s so fus l ngaudi o‑ vi s ualmat e r i al si nt hec l a s s r oom has be c omet hes ubj e c tofne ar l ye ve r yme e t i ngofEngl i s hl anguagee duc a t or s l a t e l y.
Wi t ho utq ue s t i on, t het e ac he r ' sa bi l i t yi nEngl i s hi st hemo s ti mpor ‑ t antf ac t ori n t hec l as s r oom. Thi sa bi l i t y al o ne,howe ve r , Wi l lno t maxi mi z et hee f f e c t i ve ne s so ft e ac hi ngcommuni ca t i ons ki l l si nt heEFL ( t eac hi ngandl ear ni ngEngl i s ha saf or e i gnl a ngua ge )C l a s s r oom s i t ua t i on whi c he xi s t si n Ja pan. Sat okoNaz awai nt he Dai l yYo mi ur ine ws pape r onNove mbe r8,1 9 9 0 ,di s c us s e dt hepr o bl e msEngl i s ht e ac he r sha ve ,and r e c ogni z e dt hatt heappr opr i a t et e ac hi ngmat e r i al sa ndi ns t r uc t i o na r e i mpo r t antf o re nha nc l ngCO mmuni c at i ons ki l l s .
Appr opr i at et e ac hi ngmat e r i al sandi ns t r uc t i onar epr e s e nt l ybe i ng s t udi e danddi s c us s e damongr e s ea r c he r sa ndt eac he r s . Vi s s c he r( 1 9 9 0 ) di s c us s e st heus eofa udi o‑ vi s ualma t e r i al s ,ands ayst hatvi de osha vebe e n avoi de di nt hec l as s r oom byt e ac he r sbe c aus eoft heunc e r t ai nt yo ft he i r us eande f f e c t i ve ne s s .
The r ea r e,ho we ve r ,s o mes t udi e ss howl ngS pe c i f i cme t hodsf or
us i ngvi de o si nt hec l as s r oom ( Lone r ga n,1 9 8 4;St e mpl e s kia ndTomal j 丸
1 9 9 0;Wr i ght ,1 9 7 6;Al l an,1 9 8 5 ) ,butt he r ear enotmanys t udi e son
e xa ml nl ngt hee f f e c t i ve ne s so ft heme di um i t s e l f , t omykno wl e dge . The aut horwoul dl i kef i r s tt or e vi e w t hel i t e r at ur eco nc e r ni ngt heus eand e f f e c t i ve ne s so ft heaudi o‑ vi s ualme di a,a ndt he ndi s c us saco mpar a t i ve s t udyoft hee f f e c t i ve ne s soft het wome di a:a udi o‑ vi s ualme di um ( us i ng avi de ot a pe )anda udi ome di um ( us i ngacas s e t t et ape ) .
Thi spape ri nve s t i ga t e st hee f f e c t i ve ne s soft heaudi o‑ vi s ualand audi ome di ai nt e r mso fl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i o n. Thea f f e c t i vedomai ns ar eal s oi nve s t i gat e d i n t e r mso ft hec or r e l at i onswi t h t hel i s t e ni ng compr e he ns i ont e s t s .
l l .THEORETI CALBACKGROUND:REVI EW OFTHELI TERATURE
Ne ur o‑ ps yc hol o gi cal l y s pe aki ng,i thasbe e n be l i e ve d t ha tt he audi o‑ vi s ua lme di ar e pr e s e nt e dbyvi de ot ape sandf i l ms( t he s ear ec al l e d ,
" vi de ome di a"f r om no wo n)a r emo r ee f f e c t i vei nl a ngua get e ac hi ngt han
audi o me di a r e pr e s e nt e d by c as s e t t et a pe s( t he s e ar e c a ll e d , " audi o
me di a"f r om now o n)( Ta naka ,1 98 0) . Ther a t i osoft hecor r el at i o nf or
t hea mo untofi nf or mat i o nbe t we e nvi s uala ndaudi t or yi nputar e8 3t o
l l: 8 3pe r c e ntoft hei nf or mat i on i sa bs or be d vi s ual l y , l lpe r c e nt
audi t or i l y,andt her e mai ni ng6pe r c e nti sa bs or be dduet oo t he rf a c t o r s
( Tanaka ,1 980: p. 1 7 ) . Vi s s c he r ( 1 990) al s onot e st hevi s ualadvant age s
o ve raudi t o r y:" I nt hehi e r ar c hyofpe r c e pt uali nt ake,f ur t he r mor e,t he
vi s ualal wayst ake spr e c e de nc eo ve rt hea udi t o r y(p.7 ) . " Thus ,t he
powe ro fvi deosor i gi na t e sf r o m t hi sunbal anc e dr at i oofi nf or mat i onal
i nt akebe t we e nvi s ualanda udi t or yme di a. Someoft head vant age sof
us i ngvi deome di ai nt hec l as s r oom f ormot i va t i ng s t ude nt si n c l a s s
ac t i vi t i e s ,i nt r od uc i ngt hel angua gewi t hi t ss i t ua t i onalc ont e xt s ,vi s ual i z ‑
i ngs oc i
o‑ c ul t ur ali nf or mat i on, andi nt r oduc i ngnon‑ ve r balc o mmuni c at i on
s ki l l sca nbeat t r i but e dt ot hevi s ualpowe rpr oduc e dbyt hevi de ome di a.
Thead vant age so fus i ngvi deome di af ori ns t r uc t i o nha vebe e n di s c us s e dbyanumbe ro fr e s ea r c he r sf ors e ve r alde cade s . For s dal ea nd Dyks t r a( 1 9 6 3 )di s c us st hee f f e c t i ve ne s sofus i ngf i l msi nt hel anguage c l as s r oom. The ye s pe c i al l ys t r e s st hei mpac to nt hes t ude nt s ' i nt e r e s t si n t het ea c hi ngmat e r i al ,whi c hi nt ur nge ne r at e ss t ude ntpar t i c i pat i oni n c l as sac t i vi t i e s . The yal s or e c o gni z eS OmeO t he rs l gni f i c antadva nt a ge s i nt heus eoff i l m :i tal l owss t ude nt st oi nt e r ac twi t har a ngeofa c c e nt s ofnat i ves peake r so ft hel anguage ,andwi t ht hel a ngua ger e l at e dc ul t ur e andha bi t st hr o ughvi s uali nt ake .
Ot he rr e s e ar c he r si nt he1 9 6 0 ' S( Mc Luha n,1 9 6 4;Ga t t e gno,1 9 6 9 ) e xami ne dt hea f f e c t i vepowe rofvi de ous ei nt hec l as s r oom ;t he yc i t e d , f ore xa mpl e ,t hee mpat he t i ce f f e c t s . The yal s odi s c us s e dwhyt het el e‑
vi s i on/ vi deome di um c ar r i e ss uc hpo we r ,andhowt hes c r e e nhasc ha nge d t hec l as s r oo m at mos phe r e. The ypr e di c t e dt hatt hevi de owoul dc hange t hewor l dofl a ngua get e ac hi ng.
Lo ne r gan ( 1 9 8 4 )di s c us s e st her ol eoft heme di um,t e ac he rand､
l e ar ne r ,communi c a t i veval ueofvi deos ,andt he i re f f e c t i ve ne s si nt he l anguagec l as s r oom. Hes t at e st ha toneoft hema j orbe ne f i t so fvi de os i st ha tt he ybr i ng" r e all i f e "i nt ot hel a nguagec l as s r oom. Thus ,vi de o me di agi vet hes t ude nt ss i t uat i onsi nwhi c ht he yar ee ngul f e di nt hes t or y andpl ot . AsVi s s c he r( 1 9 9 0 )s t at e d,t hes ubs t ant i albe ne f i t so fvi deos s uc hasac qui r i ngbodyl angua ges ki l l s ,s pat i alandge s t ur alc onc e pt s , voi c ei nt onat i o n,andot he rs o c i o‑ c ul t ur alf a c t or sar ea bs or be dbyt he s t ude nt s .
Oneoft hef a c t or sofl anguageac qui s i t i oni sac qui r i ngno n‑ ve r bal
c o mmuni c at i ons ki l l s , whi c hc oi nc i dewi t hl i ngui s t i cf ac t o r s . No n‑ ve r bal
co mmuni c at i oni s ,howe ve r ,note as i l y a cqui r e dbyt hes t ude nt si n a
f or e i gnc ount r ys uc hasi nJa panunl e s ss t ude nt sgot ot hec ount r ya ndl i ve
i n an e nvi r onme ntwhe r et he l angua gei ss poke n. The r e ar e s ome di s c us s i onsa boutt hi sadva nt a gei nt heus eofvi de osi no r de rt opr e s e nt andt e ac hs uc hnon‑ ve r balcommuni c a t i ons ki l l s( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0 ) .
Ⅰ ncommuni ca t i ons ki l l s ,t he r ear ege ne r al l yt wophas e st obe cons i de r e d. Onei sve r baldomi nantc ommuni c at i onwhi c h a ppl i e st o aca de mi cl anguages ki l l s ,a ndt heo t he ri snon‑ ve r baldomi nantc o mmuni ‑ cat i o n whi c h mai nl y a ppl i e st of ac e ‑ t o‑ f ac ee ve r yday communi c at i on s ki l l s . Ac co r di ngt oCummi ns( 1 9 8 3 ) ,t heacade mi cl angua ges ki l l spr e‑
s uppos ef ac e ‑ t o‑ f ac ec ommuni c at i o ns ki l l si nwhi c hl e s sc ogni t i vet as ks ar ede ma nde da ndaco mpl e t ec o nt e xtwi t hge s t ur e sandf ac i ale xpr e s ‑ s i onsi se mbe dde d. I ti se as i e rt oc ompr e he ndame s s agei ft hef ul l c ont e xti sa vai l a bl e. I ft he r ei sc o mpr e he ns i bl ei nput ,t heac q ui s i t i o no f t hel anguaget ake spl ac emor er e adi l y( Kr as he nandTe r r e l l ,1 9 8 3 ) .
Cummi ns( 1 9 8 3 )di s c us s e sco mmuni c at i vepr of i c i e nc yi nt e r mso f t woco nt i nuai nt hec ont e xta ndt heco gni t i vepoi nt sofvi e w. Ac c or di ng t oCummi ns ,co nt e xt spl ays i gni f i ca ntr ol e si ne xpr e s s i ngorr e c e i vi ng me ani ngs:" c o nt e xt ‑ e mbe dde d"vs ." c ont e xt ‑ r e duc e d"co mmuni c at i on.
Her e f e r st oc ont e xt ‑ e mbe dde dco mmuni c at i oni nwhi c h" t hepar t i c i pant s c anac t i ve l yne go t i at eame ani ng( e . g " bypr o vi di ngf e e d bac kt hatt he me s s agehasnotbe e nunde r s t ood)andt hel angua gei ss uppor t e dbyaWi de r ange of me ani ngf ulpar al i ngui s t i c ( ge s t ur e s , i nt o nat i on , e t c. ) a nd
Cont e xtEmbe dde d
Cogni t i ve l yUnde mandi ng
→
Co gni t i ve l yDe mandi ng
Cont e xtRe duc e d
s i t uat i o nalc ue s "( p.l l ) . Ma nyr e s ear c he r sc i t et he s ea sa dvant age si n t heus eofvi deo.
Co nt e xLRe duc e d c ommuni cat i o n , as Cummi ns ( 1 9 8 3 ) s t a t e s , de pe ndspr i mar i l yonve r balc ue st oco mpr e he ndt heme s s ageandma ni pu‑
l at et hel o gi cofc o mmuni c at i onappr opr i at e l y. Si nc et he r ear ef e we r c ont e xt ualc ue sands har e dr eal i t y,onl yl i ngui s t i cme s s a ge sbe c o met he me a nsf ormut ualc ommuni c at i o n. Thedi a gr am a bo ves howst het wo p has e s( Cummi ns ,1 9 8 3 ) .
Communi c at i vebe havi orf r om l e f tt or i ghto ft hi sc ont i nuum ( Cummi ns ,1 9 8 3 )c anbei nt e r pr e t e dasgoi ngf r om e ngagi ngt hevi s ual c o nt e xti nt hevi de ot ol i s t e ni ngco mpr e he ns i o nt hr oughac as s e t t et a pe.
Theve r t i c alc ont i nuum r e pr e s e nt s" t hede ve l o pme nt alas pe c t sofcommu‑
ni c a t i vecompe t e nc ei nt e r msoft hede gr e eofac t i vecogni t i vei nvol ve‑
me nti nt het a s korac t i vi t y"( Cummi ns ,1 9 8 3 ,p.1 2 ) . Thi sde pe ndsont he s t ude nt s 'l e ve lofpr of i c i e nc yi ns uc har e asasgr amma r ,phonol ogy,e t c.
a ndoncl as s r oom ac t i vi t i e sus l nga udi oandaudi o‑ vi s ualme di a. Ge ne r al l y s pe aki ng,s i t uat i onswhi c har ee as yf ors t ude nt st ohandl ei nt hecl as s ‑ r oom s uc h asr e co gni z i ng awor d ar eco gni t i vel y unde mandi ng,but r e as oni ngouto fc ont e xt si sc ogni t i ve l yde mandi ng.
Ⅰ n r e ga r d t o co nt e xt ‑ e mbe ddi ng and l anguage us e , St e mpl e s ki ( 1 9 9 0 )S t a t e sc l ea r l yt hatt hecombi na t i onofaudi oe l e me nt swi t hvi s ual par al i ngui s t i cf ac t or ss uc ha sc ul t ur eandc us t omsf ac i l i t at e sunde r s t a nd‑
1 ngandr e t e nt i onofl angua geus e.
Vi s s c he r( 1 9 9 0 )al s os ugge s t ss t ar t i ngf r om non‑ ve r balc ompone nt s
t or e ac hunde r s t andi ng.Thevi s ualcompo ne nt sher ai s e sar ee s pe c i al l y
pr oxe mi cand ki ne t i cas pe c t s ,whi c h c or r e s pond t o Cummi ns '( 1 9 8 3 )
mode l: " de ve l opme nto fc ommuni cat i vepr of i c i e nc y. "Thi si deaal s o
s uppor t s Kr as he n' S ( Kr as he n and Te r r e l l , 1 9 8 3 )" Ⅰ nputHypot he s i s . "
Vi s s c he rc onc l ude shi spape rbys ayi ngt hatt hi sl eadss t ude nt st oa c t i ve vi e wi ngt hr oughaf f e c t i ve ( i . e . ,mo t i vat i on,e mpa t he t i c,pe r s onal i z e dand i mpe r s ona t e d)i nt e r ac t i onwi t ht heme di um ( s e eal s oSe l i ge r ,1 9 8 3 ) . Thi s gi ve ss t ude nt sar ea s ont ol i s t e na t t e nt i ve l yi no r de rt ocompr e he ndt he co nt e nt si nmor ede t ai l .
The r ear es omeot he rs t udi e swhi c hs howac o r r e l at i onbe t we e nt he vi s uale l e me nt sandt hel i ngui s t i ce l e me nt s . St e mpl e s kiandTomal i n ( 1 9 8 9 )s t at e ," ‑mos tadvocat e sofus i ngvi deoi nl anguaget e ac hi ngha ve f oc us e donus i ngt heme di um f o rcompr e he ns i onpr ac t i c eo rt hepr e s e nt a‑
t i o no fne wl a ngua ge"( p. 2 1 ) . Ki t ao( 1 9 8 6 )al s os ugge s t sgi vi ng" S t ude nt s al i s tofne w voc a bul ar y i t e mswhi c h a ppe ari n o r de rt ohe l pt he m unde r s t andt hema t e r i al "( p.2 1 ) . Coope r( 1 9 9 0 )i ndi c at e st hatvi deoi sa powe r f ult eac hi ngt ools i nc et heai m ofi t sus ei sf ors t i mul at i ngaswe l l a sc ont e xt ual i z i ngl an guageus e. Le ar ne r spi c kupmuc hl a ngua gef r om r e aHi f es i t uat i ons ,ands oci al ‑ c ont e xt:whowass ayi ngwhatt owhom , whe r e ,andwhe n. Bi t so fl angua gear es t or e di nt heme mor yal ongwi t h t he i rs oc i alcont e xt( Na t us c h,1 9 9 0 ) .
Thel anguagepr oduc e dbys t ude nt sofEngl i s h wi l lr e f l e c tt he l angua geus e di nvi de ost he yha ves e e n( Lone r gan,1 9 8 4p.6 0 ) . St ude nt s wi l la bs o r bt hel angua geunc ons c i o us l ybybe i nge ngul f e di nt hevi de o s c e ne;t hi si smuc hl i kepi c ki ngupt hel angua gei nt heco unt r ywhe r et he l angua gei ss poke n( s e eKr as he na ndTe r r e l l ,1 9 8 3 ) .
Al t hought he r ear eanumbe rofadvant a ge si nt heus eofvi deoas s t a t e da bo ve ,s o mer e s ea r c he r sha veal s of o unddr a wbac ksa swe l l .
Fi r s tandmos ti mpor t a nt l y,Wec a nnotf or ge tt hef ac tt hatvi de o s
a swe l lasca s s e t t et ape sar eonl yus e f ulai d sf ort hel anguaget e ac he rand
c anno tr e pl a c et het e ac he r( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0;Lone r gan,1 9 8 4p.5;Takai ,
1 9 8 4p.1 1 4 ) . Thet ea c he r ' sme t ho dol o gymake sgr eatdi f f e r e nc ei nt he
s t ude nt s 'l anguageac qui s i t i on. Thet e ac he ri si ndi s pe ns a bl ei nt hel an‑
guagec ' l a s s r oom.
Se c ond,a na ut he nt i cvi deoi sus ual l ymadef ore nt e r t ai ni ngnat i ve s pe ake r s . I ti snowo nde rt hatt eac he r sofl angua gehavea voi de dus i ng vi de osi nt hec l as s r ooms i nc evi de osar emadef o re nt e r t ai nme ntpur pos e s a nd dono tne c e s s a r i l yha vei ns t r uc t i veval ue( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0 ) . Thi s vi s uale nt e r t ai nme ntma y i nhi bi t ss t ude nt s 'c ons c i ous ne s si n l i s t e ni ng compr e he ns i on( Lo ne r gan,1 9 8 4 ) . St ude nt sar es ome t i me st ooe ngr o s s e d i nt heac t i onofvi deb sa nddono tgai nt hebe ne f i t so fl i s t e ni ngt ot he di al o gue s . Ki t ao( 1 9 8 6 )me nt i onst hes amedi s ad vant ageo fus i ngvi de o s i nt hec l as s r oo m : " Ac t i on‑ adve nt ur emovi e sar epopul ar ,buti ns ome cas e s , S t ude nt smaybea bl et ounde r s t andmuc hoft hepl otwi t ho utha vi ng t ol i s t e nt ot hedi al ogue"( p.2 0 ) . Be s i de s , s t ude nt sas s umet hatac l a s si n whi c hvi de oi sus e di sf o re nt e r t ai nme ntandno n‑ ､ pe ､ da go gi c alpur pos e s ( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0 ) .
Thi r d, t head vant ageofvi s ualo ve ra udi oi nt akeo fi nf or mat i onc an s o me t i me sbe co meadi s ad vant a ge . Fore xampl e,whe nwedr i veac a r whi l el i s t e ni ngt ot hene wsi no urnat i vel anguageandt het r af f i cbe co me s c onge s t e d,wet e ndno tt opaya t t e nt i ont ot her adi obutt hatwhi c hi si n f r o ntofus:ourbr ai nhasame nt alpr i or i t yt ur n‑ Of fs wi t c h. What e ve r c har ac t e r i s t i ci sofi mpor t a nc e ,ori nt e r e s t;wewi l lf oc usont hatf a c t o r andt ur nof ft her e s t . Thevi s ualpe r c e pt i ons o me t i me si nt e r f e r e swi t h at t e nt i o nt os o undso ft hec l as s . Thus , i ft het ea c he ra s kss t ude nt st opay at t e nt i o nt ot hea udi oa swe l la st hevi s ualas pe c t sofvi deo,t het as ki s al mo s ti mpos s i bl e( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0 ) .
Thi ss ugge s t st hatvi s uali nput sbeus e da si nt e nde d:f orunde r ‑
s t a ndi ngnon‑ ve r balc ommuni ca t i ono rf orpr e s e nt i ngas i t ua t i onwhi c h
s t ude nt sc a nut i l i z ei nde ve l o pi ngt he i rl anguage. Forl i s t e ni ngpr ac t i c e ,
s t ude nt ss houl dbeat t e nt i vet ot hes oundsonl y. Ve r ball anguagec a nnot bet aughts i mpl ybys howi ngpi c t ur e so nt hevi de o.
Fo ur t h,o neo ft hec har a c t e r i s t i c so fvi deous e ,i nt r o duc i ng" r e al l i f e" ,i sc hal l e nge dbyVi ne y( 1 9 9 0 ) . Thedr amape r f or me donvi de oshas dynami c,pa c eandr e pe t i t i o nf ac t or swhi c ha r eve r ydi f f e r e ntf r o m t he r e als i t ua t i ons i nc et hedr a mai t s e l fi sba s e do na r t i f i c i alpe r f or ma nc et o e nt e r t ai nanat i ves pe ake ra udi e nc e. The r e f or e,t hedi al o gue si nt he vi deohasbe e ns c r i pt e d,r e ad,r e he a r s e d,andme mor i z e dbyt hepe r ‑ f or me r s . Thi si shar dl yt hecas ei nas pont ane ous ,non‑ r e he ar s e d,r e al l i f es i t uat i on.
Fi f t h, t hee f f e c t i ve ne s soft heaut he nt i c i t yofvi deosi sc hal l e nge di f t hevi de o sar eus e df orl owe r ‑ l e ve ls t ude nt s . Mor l e ya ndLawr e nc e( 1 9 71 ) S t a t et ha tt hena t ur als pe e dandvoca bul a r yus e di nvi de o sc r ea t e ss ub‑
s t a nt i alpr o bl e msf orl e s spr of i c i e nts t ude nt s . Fr o m hi sowne xpe r i e nc e , Vi ne y( 1 9 9 0 )not e st ha thee ve nt ual l ye ndsuponl ye xpl ai ni ngvoc a bul ar y a ndphr as e sa ndne ve rr e ac hi ngt hec ompr e he ns i onac t i vi t i e swhe nus i ng a ut he nt i cmat e r i al si nhi sl a ngua gec l as s r oo m.
Si xt h,t he r ea r es o mevi de oswi t ht hepur po s et os howhowt ous e awor doraphr as ei ncont e xtt hr o ugho r alr e pe t i t i on. Thi sdi f f e r sf r om s howi ngs t ude nt sas i t uat i onandhavi ngt he m c r e a t et hes ameors i mi l ar s i t uat i o nsi no r de rt ode ve l opt he i rl a ngua geus e( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0 ) . Thi s c r i t i c i s m c or r e s pondswi t ht heonel e ve l e da gai ns taudi o‑ 1 i ngual i s m i nt he 1 9 6 0 ' S . Mi mi c ki ng o rpar r ot i ngdoe snotf ac i l i t at et heac qui s i t i o n of l anguage( Kr as he nandTe r r e l l ,1 9 8 3 ) .
Se ve nt h,c ons i de r i ngt hec har a c t e r i s t i c so fvi de os ,t hei mpor t ant
t hi ngi st hat" t hevi s uali si ns t ant ane ousands ynt he t i cwhi l es peaki ngand
wr i t i ngi sl i nea randanal yt i c al "( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0 ) . Si nc eavi deohasa n
i mme di at evi s uali mpac t ,t hes t ude nt st e ndt opay at t e nt i on. Whe n
a s ke da boutaf i l m,ho we ve r ,s t ude nt swi l lgi veonl yt he i ri mpr e s s i ons r at he rt hanmo r ede t ai l e de xpl a nat i o nsabo utt hecont e nt soft hef i l m.
Si nc et hevi s ualas pe c tonl yha ppe nso nc e,al lve r bala ndnon‑ Ve r bal i nf or mat i o ni scons ol i dat e dt o ge t he r . St ude nt sus ual l ydon' tha vet i me t oa nal yz et hi si nf o r mat i on,ande ndt hevi e wi ngwi t ho nl yac ur s or y i mpr e s s i onoft hevi deo. Ac c or di ngl y,t heque s t i onsi nf ol l ow‑ upcl as s ac t i vi t i e swi t hvi deot e ndt obedi s pl ayque s t i o nss uc has" howma nyboys we r et he r eont hebr i dge?"The s eq ue s t i onsar enotc ogni t i ve l yde ma nd‑
i ng,caus i n gs t ude nt st ol os ei nt e r e s ti nc l as sac t i vi t i e swi t hvi de os . Ei ght h,i fyo uus eaut he nt i cvi deo s ,t he r ecanbes oma nyi di omat i c di al e c t i c ale xpr e s s i onsore ve nge s t ur e ss pe c i alt oapa r t i c ul arc ul t ur e ( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0 ) . Eve nnat i ves peake r sofEngl i s hc annotunde r s t and s omer e gi o naldi al e c t s . I ti sawas t eoft i meandf r us t r at i ngf ors t ude nt s a ndt ea c he ral i ket os t r uggl et ounde r s t andt he s ee xpr e s s i onsandge s ‑ t ur e s .
Fi nal l y,t hel e ngt hofvi deosc a nbeadr awbac ks i nc emos tvi de os r angef r om o net ot hr e ehour s . Thi smake si tdi f f i c ul t ,al t ho ughnot i mpos s i bl e , t of i tvi de osi nt oar e gul a rc l as ss c he dul e. Te ac he r swhopl an t ous evi deosne e dt omakea d j us t me nt st oac commodat ef i l m l e ngt h ( Eda s awae ta1 . ,1 9 8 9 ) .
Fr om t her e vi e w o ft hel i t e r at ur eonvi de ous e ,i ts e e mst hat t eac he r sc anut i l i z et hef ul lvi s uali mpac tofvi de o st omot i va t es t ude nt s andt of ac i l i t at et he i rcompr e he ns i onoft hel anguagei nadr amat i z e d s i t uat i o n. Ont heo t he rhand,t hedi f f i c ul t yi nl anguageandt hes pe e dof t hedi al o gue scanbedr awba cks . The s edr a wbackss e e m t obepr i mar i l y a t t r i but a bl et oco nf us i o na bouthowt ous eavi deo,andal s ot oal ac kof i nf or mat i o no nt hee f f e c t i ve ne s so fvi deosi nf ac i l i t at i ngl anguagel ear n‑
1 ngandac qui s i t i on.
The r ear e, howe ve r ,af e we mpi r i cals t udi e st ha thavei nve s t i ga t e d t hee f f e c t i ve ne s sofus i ngvi de osi nt e ac hi ngEngl i s hf o rvar i ouspur pos e s . I nhi se xpe r i me nt als t udyofr a pi dr e adi ng,Se ki ya( 1 9 8 1 )r e por t st he e f f e c t i ve ne s sofus i n gvi deosf ors pe e dr e adi ng. Ther e s ul t so fhi ss t udy s how s i gni f i canti mpr o ve me nt si ns t ude nt s 'r e adi nga bi l i t yi nt e r msof s pe e dandcompr e he ns i on.
Whe nvi de oshavebe e nus e di nt hec l as s r oom,t he i rpur pos ehas al mos tal waysbe e nf o ri mpr o vi ngl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i o ns ki l l s . The r e ha vebe e ns omee mpl r l C als t udi e si nve s t i ga t i ngt hee f f e c t i ve ne s sofvi de o us e donl i s t e ni ngc o mpr e he ns i on. Ac c or di ngt oEda s awae ta l .( 1 9 8 9 ) , Yo s hi da( 1 9 7 6 )Co mpar e st hee f f e c t i ve ne s sofus i ngt wodi f f e r e ntki ndsof f i l msont wogr oups:O negr o upi spr e s e nt e dwi t honl yt hes oundt r ackof t hef i l ms ,andt heot he rgr oupvi e wst hef i l mswi t ht hes oundt r ac k . She r e po r t st ha tt hegr ouppr e s e nt e dwi t hbot hf i l msands oundt r ac kt o ge t he r s howsbe t t e rr e s ul t sonl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i o nt e s t st hant heot he rgr oup wi t ht hes oundt r ac ko nl y. Sheal s or e po r t st ha tt her e s ul t sar et hes a me f orbot hgr oups ,i ft hec ont e ntandvo ca bul a r yoft hevi de oar ehi ghl y a bovet hes t ude nt s '1 a ngua gepr of i c i e nc yl e ve l s .
Takai( 1 9 8 4 )i nve s t i gat e dt hee f f e c t i ve ne s sofvi deo sa ndc onve n‑
t i o nalaudi ot ape so nl i s t e ni ngc o mpr e he ns i o n. Her e por t e dt hatt he r e wa snos i gni f i cantdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wome di a. Howe ve r , mo t i va‑
t i o n wass i gni f i c a nt l y hi ghe rwhe n us i ng vi de os . He al s o dr e w t he c onc l us i o nt hatt het e ac he ri sno tr e pl ac e a bl ewi t h anyme di ai nt he c l a s s r oom. Thi ss t udywas ,ho we ve r ,c r os s ‑ s e c t i o nala ndt he r ewe r eno pr e‑o rpos t ‑ t e s t s . Thepe r i odunde re xa mi na t i o ns houl dbel o nge rt o yi e l ds i gni f i ca ntr e s ul t s .
Edas a wae tal .( 1 9 8 9 )di s c us st hee f f e c t i ve ne s sofus i ngavi de ot o
mot i vat es t ude nt si nt hel anguagec l as s r oom ands t at et hate ve nt ho ugh
t he r ei snos t at i s t i c als i gni f i canc ei nr e s ul t soft e s t si nl i s t e ni ngcompr e‑
he ns i on,t hevi de omot i vat e ss t ude nt st os t udyEngl i s hi nt hec l a s s r oo m.
The r ear e,ho we ve r ,s omes hor t c omi ngsi nt he i rs t udi e sast he ys t at e di n t he i rpape r . The yus e dt hr e edi f f e r e ntt ea c he r st oc ompar et hee f f e c t i ve‑
ne s soft heme di a. I ts e e mst hatt hr e et eac he r sha vet he i rownt e ac hi ng pr i nc i pl e sandi ndi vi dualt e ac hi ngs t yl e s ,whi c hmayhaveaf f e c t e dt he r e s ul t s oft he s t udy. The e xpe r i me nt alpe r i od wasnot e d ast hr e e mont hs ,whi c hmayha vebe e nt oos ho r tt oyi e l ds i gni f i c antr e s ul t s .
日.HYPOTHESESTO BETESTEひ
Re vi e wl ngt het r e ndsi nt heus eo fvi de ome di aandmos tr e c e nt e mpi r i c als t udi e s ,wec anr e c ogni z emanyadvant age si nus i n gvi de osi n t hel angua gec l as s r oo m. Themos tpo we r f ulad vant agei st hee f f e c t i ve‑
ne s sasanat t e nt i o n一 ge t t e rwhi c he ve nt ual l ymo t i vat e ss t ude nt st oe ngage mor eac t i ve l ywi t hl anguagel e ar ni ng.Se cond,l anguageus e di nt hevi de o i sal wa ysco nt e xt ual i z e dwi t has i t uat i onando t he rnon‑ ve r balcommuni ‑ ca t i ons uc h asf a c i ale xpr e s s i o nsandbody l a ngua ge. Thi scont e xt ‑ e mbe dde dor i e nt at i o nhe l pst omaket hel a nguagei nus emo r ec ompr e he n‑
s i bl et os t ude nt s . Thi smus te nha nc emaki ngs t ude nt s 'l i s t e ni ngcompr e‑
he ns i one as i e rt hanl i s t e ni ngc o mpr e he ns i one xe r c i s e swi t houtvi deo s . Theaut ho rwo ul dl i ket os t at et hehypo t he s e st obet e s t e di nt hi spa pe r asf ol l o ws:
Hypo t he s i s1:Thoughs omeJapa ne s euni ve r s i t ys t ude nt shave be e nhe a r ds ayi ngt hatt he i ra bi l i t yi nEngl i s hhasde c l i ne ds i nc et he y e nt e r e dauni ve r s i t y,t he i rl i s t e ni ngcompr e he ns i ons ki l l swoul di mpr o ve byus i nga udi o‑ vi s ualme di a.
Hypo t he s i s2:Us i ngvi de osi nt hel angua gec l as s r oom gi ve smor e
co mpr e he ns i bl ei nputt os t ude nt st hanus i ngonl ycas s e t t et ape sf orl i s t e n‑
1 ngC Ompr e he ns i onpr a c t i c e . The r e f or e , t hegr oupus i ngavi de ome di um s ho ul dgai nhi ghe rs cor e st hant hegr o upus i ngonl yc as s e t t et ape son l i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i o nt e s t swi t ht hepr e t e s tandpos tt e s tr e s e ar c h de s i gn.
Hypot he s i s3:Ac co r di ngt ot heCummi ns 'mode l( Cummi ns ,1 9 8 3 ) and Kr as he n' s I nput Hypo t he s i s ( Kr as he n a nd Te r r e l l , 1 9 8 3 ) ,l e s s ‑ adva nc e ds t ude nt sa r ea bl et oe nj oyt hebe ne f i t sofvi s ualc ont e xtf or be t t e rco mpr e he ns i bi l i t y o ft hel anguage. I n l e s s ‑ adva nc e d l e vel so f l a ngua gepr o f i c i e nc y,t he r e f or e ,t hegr o upus i ngavi deome di um woul d gai nhi ghe rs c or e sonl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i o nt e s t st hant hegr oupus i ng onl yc as s e t t et ape s .
Hypot he s i s4:I nadva nc e dl e ve l so fl anguagepr of i c i e nc y,ho w‑
e ve r ,t he r ewo ul dbenodi f f e r e nc ei nt hegai ns c or e sbe t we e nt het wo gr OupS ･
Hypot he s i s 5: As many r e s e ar c he r s advoc at e , us l ng Vi de os mot i vat e ss t ude nt st os t udy l angua ge. The r e f o r e , mot i va t i on a mong s t ude nt si nt hec l as sus i ngvi deoswoul dbehi ghe rt hant heone sus i ngonl y c as s e t t et ape s .
l V.METHOD
yea r )We r ec hos e ni nor de rt oi nve s t i gat egai ns co r e sbe t we e nt hef i r s tt e s t
( he r e af t e rc al l e dt hepr e t e s t )andt hes e condt e s t( he r e af t e rc al l e dt hepos t
t e s t )i nt hi ss t udy. St ude nt si nt he s ec l as s e sar eal lf r e s hma ni nt heni ght
co ur s ec ur r i c ul um att heOt a r uUni ve r s i t yofComme r c e,J uni orCol l e ge .
Eac hc l a s si shel donc eawe e k . I nt he s ec l as s e s ,Engl i s hi st aughtasa
r e qui r e ds ubj e c ti nt hege ne r ale duc at i onc ur r i c ul um. Thes t ude nt sa r e
ma j or l ngl ne i t he rEc onomi c sorBus i ne s s;t he r ea r enoEngl i s hma j o r s
i nt hi sc ol l e ge. The s ec l as s e swe r et aughtbyoneJa pane s et e ac he ro f Engl i s h( t hea ut horhi ms e l f )f ort heaca de mi cyearof1 9 9 0us i ngt wo di f f e r e ntme di a:a udi ot ape sandavi deo. Thel angua geofi ns t r uc t i on i nt hec l a s s e swa sEngl i s he xc e ptf orde t ai l e de xpl ana t i onsofEngl i s h gr amma ra ndi t sus age . Engl i s hi sus e dappr oxi mat e l y9 0pe r c e ntof e ac hc l a s ss e s s i on.
A Ta s k‑ Ba s e dLi s t e ni n gCo ur s e:Li s t e nFo rZ tbyJac kRi c har dse t a l .wasus e df ort hec l as sofI MB ( he r eaf t e rc al l e d" Audi ogr oup" ) . I t cons i s t sofaudi ot ape s ,andat e xt bookwhi c hco nt ai ns1 7di f f e r e ntt opi c s i ndai l yl i f ei nanAme r i c anc ul t ur alc ont e x t . Thes pe e doft hedi al ogue s ont heaudi ot apei s1 1 6wor dspe rmi nut e.
20neoft heob j e c t i ve sf or i mpr ovi ngl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i ons ki l l si nt hi sgr oup' Sc our s epl anwas t obea bl et ounde r s t andc ol l oqui alEngl i s hwi t houtr e adi ngdi al ogue s . Cl as sac t i vi t i e smai nl yf ol l owe dt hes eq ue nc eoft hee xe r c i s e spr e s e nt e di n t het e xt boo k.
Fort hec l as sO HFC( he r e af t e rc al l e d" Audi o‑ v is ualgr oup" ) , Yo ur Li f eZ nYo urHa nd s : av i de oc o up : s ef o rhZ ghb e gi nne r s ,s t ud e n t ' sb o o k1 wr i t t e nande di t e dbyJ os e ph∫ .De l i s owasus e d. Thi sc our s e,who s e t he mei sar omanc es t or y,Come swi t havi deot apea nds t ude nt ' sbook wi t he i ghtuni t s . Thet he meo ft hevi de oi sbas e donAme r i c ane ve r yday l i f ewi t ha no r i e nt at i ont o war dAme r i ca ncol l o qui alEngl i s h. Thes pe e d oft hedi al ogue si s1 3 9wor dspe rmi nut e s .
3Bot hgr oupss ha r et hes ame o bj e c t i ve:t obea bl et ounde r s t andc ol l oq ui alEngl i s hwi t houtr e adi ng
2
Fo rt hi sme a s ur e me nt ,di a l o gswe r et a ke na ndt r a n s c r i be df r o m t hef i r s t u ni to ft hebo oki no r d e rt oc o mpl ywi t ht heo t he rgr o u p.Th e n,t he n umbe r so fwo r d swe r ec o u nt e dp e rmi nu t e .
3
i b i d.
t hedi al ogue s . Cl as sac t i vi t i e sf ort hemos tpar tf ol l o we dt hes e que nc eo f t hee xe r c i s e si nt het e xt boo k . I n o r de rt o co mpl y wi t h o neo ft he o bj e c t i ve si nt he s ec l a s s e sofi mpr o vl ngl i s t e ni ngcompr e he ns i ons ki l l s , audi ot ape swe r epr e par e dbyus i ngt hevi de os ound t r ac k. Thec l as s ac t i vi t i e swe r ebas i c al l ydi vi de di nt ot hr e ephas e s:vi e wi ngt hevi deo wi t houts ound,l i s t e ni ngt ot heaudi ot a pef o rt hel i s t e ni ngco mpr e he ns i on pr ac t i c e ,and vi e wi ng t he vi deo wi t h t he s o undt r ac k. The gr oups , c l as s e s ,ands ubj e c t so ft hi ss t udyar es ummar i z e di nTa bl e 1 .
TheJ ACETl i s t e ni ngco mpr e he ns i o nt e s tf or m A :par t1t hr ough 4( he r e af e rcal l e dt heJ ACETt e s t )wasus e df o rt hepr e‑andpo s t ‑ t e s t st o meas ur es t ude nt s 'pr o gr e s si nl i s t e ni ngco mpr e he ns i o n. Thet o t als co r e ont het e s tf r om par t1t hr ough4i s4 0poi nt s . Thef i r s tt e s t( pr e t e s t )was co nduc t e di nMay,1 9 9 0,a ndt hes e co ndt e s t( pos tt e s t )i nFe br uar y,1 9 9 1 . St ude nt swe r egi ve nmar kc ar dsf ort heans we rs he e t , a ndt hei ns t r uc t i o ns andpr obl e mswe r egi ve nt hr ought hepr e‑ r e c or de dt apewi t hanaudi o c a s s e t t et apei nt heAV Hal l( Audi o‑ Vi s uale qui ppe dc l as s r oo m) . St u‑
de nt sl e f tt her oom wi t ho utanyi nf o r mat i o nont hecont e nt soft het e s t wi t ht he m. Themar kc ar dswe r ecol l e c t e d,andnot e swe r enotal l owe d t obet ake nwhi l el i s t e ni ng. Si nc et heni nemo nt hpe r i odbe t we e nt het wo t e s t swa sl o nge noughf ors t ude nt st of o r ge tt hec ont e nt so ft het e s t ,t he f i r s tt e s two ul dno tne gat i ve l y af f e c tt her e s ul t soft hes e c ondt e s t . St at i s t i c ss ho wi ngt hehomo ge ne i t yo ft hes t ude nt s 'l i s t e ni ngc ompr e he n‑
s i ons ki l l samo nggr oupsar es howni nTa bl e2.
Tab一 e 1. Gr o u p s,Cl a s s e s,an dSu b j ec t s
Au d i o ‑ Vi s ua lGr o up Ⅰ FC,1 9 9 0 n‑3 3
No t e:' n's t a nd sf o rt hen u mbe ro fs t ud e n t s.
Tab l e2.T‑ t e s tf orHomo g en ei t yo ft wogr o up sf orPr o f i ci e n c y.
Va r i a bl e:Pr e t e s t
Gr o u p N Me a n STDDEV S TDEr r o r Mi n i mu m Ma x i mu m Au d i o ‑ Vi s u a l 3 0 2 0. 5 3 6. 6 3 1. 2 1 8. 0 0 3 5. 0 0 Au d i o 2 8 1 8. 2 5 5. 8 9 1 . 1 1 4. 0 0 3 1. 0 0 Va r i a n c e s T DF Pr o b>l T l
Un e q u a l 1. 3 8 8 8 5 5. 9 0. 1 7 0 4 Eq u a l 1. 3 8 3 0 5 6. 0 0. 1 7 2 2
Fo r HO: Va r i a nc e sa r ee q ua l , ■ F ‑ 1. 2 7 wi t h 2 9 a nd 2 7 df
No t e:' N's t a n d sf o rt henu mbe ro fs t ud e nt s , ' STD DEV'S t a nd sf o rt he St a nda r dDe vi a t i o n,' T' s t a n d sf o rトva l u e,' DF'( o r' d f ' ) s t a n d sf o rt he d e gr e eo ff r e e do m,a nd' Pr o b's t a nd sf o rt hepr o ba bi l i t y. Theval u e s a r er o u n de do f ft ot hene a r e s thund r e d t h.
Tabl e 2 s ho wst ha tt het wogr o ups ' means cor e sont hepr e t e s twe r e co mpa r e da ndt e s t e dt os e e i ft he r ei sas t at i s t i cal l ys i gni f i cantdi f f e r e nc e be t we e nt het womea nsus i ngi nde pe nde ntgr o upsトt e s t . Thef ol l o wi ngi s ane xpl anat i onofTabl e 2:
Thei nde pe nde ntva r i a bl ei st heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupc ompar e dwi t h
t heAudi ogr oup,andt hede pe nde ntva r i a bl er e pr e s e nt st hes c or e soft he
pr e t e s t . Thenul lhypo t he s i ss t at e st hatt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o updoe snot
di f f e rf r om t heAudi ogr o upf r o m t her e s ul t soft hepr e t e s t ( HO:Me an
ofAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup
‑Meano fAudi ogr oup) . Thenumbe ro fs ampl e s
i n t heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o up i s 30 ,and i n t heAudi ogr o up 28. The s e
numbe r sar edi f f e r e ntf r om t henumbe r ss howni nTa bl e1 , be c aus et hr e e
s t ude nt si nt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o upa ndf ouri nt heAudi ogr oupdi dnot
par t i c i pat ei nt hepr e t e s t . The s enumbe r so fabs e nts t ude nt sc annotbe
r e adbyt heSAS c o mput e rpr o gr ams( t heSAS pac ka geo fs t a t i s t i cal
pr o gr a ms ) .
I nt ‑ t e s t sf ors mal ls a mpl e s ,c al c ul a t i onoft het ‑ t e s ti sdi f f e r e nt ac c or di ngt ot hef ol l owi ngcas e s:1 )Twovar i anc e sdono tdi f f e rbyan amountt ha ti ss t at i s t i c al l ys i gni f i cant ,and2 )t he ydodi f f e rs t at i s t i cal l y, The r e f o r e, ac c or di ngt ot her e s ul to ft heF‑ t e s t , t heappr opr i a t et ‑ t e s twi l l bec hos e nandc al c ul at e d.
Thenul lhypot he s i s ,s t a t i ngt ha tt hevar i anc e sofbo t hgr o upsar e e qual( HO:var i anc e sar ee qual ) ,i st e s t e dbyus i ngt heF‑ t e s t . Asa r e s ul t , t heF‑ r at i o( F ‑ 1 . 2 7 )i so bt ai ne dwi t h2 9and2 7de gr e e so ff r e e do m.
Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t yo ft heF‑ r a t i oi sl ar ge rt hant he. 0 5co nf i de nc el e ve l oft hec r i t i calval ue( Pr[ F>1 . 2 7 ]‑0. 5 3 5 5 ) ,t henul lhypot he s i si sno t r e j e c t e d,whi c hme anst hatt hedi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wovar i a nc e si s nots i gni f i c ant . The r e f or e ,t het ‑ t e s tunde rt hee qualvar i a nc e si nTa bl e 2i sa ppr o pr i at et obec hos e nf ort hecal c ul at i on( t ‑ 1 . 3 8 3 0wi t h5 6de gr e e s off r e e dom) . Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t yoft het ‑ val uei sl ar ge rt ha nt he. 0 5 c onf i de nc el e ve lo ft hec r i t i c alval ue( Pr[ I tl>1 . 3 8 3 0 ]‑0. 1 7 2 2 ) , t henul l hypo t he s i s( HO:Me a no ft heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o up‑ Me a no ft heAudi o gr o up)i snotr e j e c t e d,whi c hmeanst ha tt he r ei sahomoge ne i t ya mo ng t he s et wogr oupsunde rt her e s ul t so ft hepr e t e s t .
I nor de rt os t r e ngt he nt heho moge ne i t yo ft hegr oups ,t hes t ude nt s ' mo t i vat i o nwa si nve s t i gat e dbygi vi nga3 2 ‑ i t e m que s t i onnai r ei nFe br u‑
ar y,1 9 9 1 . Ea c hque s t i onal l o we ds t ude nt st or ankt he i rans we r sona
f i ve‑ poi nts c al e( s e eTa bl e3be l ow) . Thef ol l o wi ng5que s t i onswe r e
c ho s e nt ode f i net hemo t i vat i o n i nt hi ss t udy:Theque s t i o nsi nc l ude
whe t he rs t ude nt sl i keEngl i s hornot( Q5i nt heque s t i onnai r e ) , t hene e df o r
Engl i s ht oday( Q6 ) ,t hene e df orEngl i s hi nt hef ut ur e( Q7 ) ,whe t he rt he y
l i ket hec ont e nto ft hemat e r i al si ne ac hc l as s( Q1 2 ) ,andt hepe r c e nt a ge
oft he i rat t e ndanc ed ur i ngt heyear( Q3 2 ) . I nt hecas eo ft he s eq ue s t i ons ,
Tabl e3.Que s ti on sConcer ni ngMo ti va ti on.
Q 5.Doyou, 1 i keEng li s h?
Ve r ymuc hdi s l i ke Ⅰl i kei tVe r ymuc h
1 2 3 4 5
Q6.Doyouf e elyoune e dEngl i s hno w?
Nota tal l Ye s,Ve r ymuc hs o.
1 2 3 4 5
Q 7.Doyouf e e lyouwi l lne e dEngl i s hi nyourf ut ur e?
Nota tal l Ye s,Ve r ymus hs o.
1 2 3 4 5
Q1 2. Ar e ̲ youi nt e r e s t e di nt hecont e nt soft het e Xt bookyoua r eus i ngi n t hecl as s?
Bor i ng Ve r yi nt e r e s t i ng.
1 2 3 4 5
Q3 2.Wha ti st hepe r c e nt ageo fyo urat t e ndanc ei nt hi sc l as s?
Le s st han4 0% Mor et ha n8 0%
Tabl e4.T‑ tes tf orHomogenei t yofTwoGr oup sf orMo ti vati on.
Var i a bl e:Mot i va t i on
Gr oup N Mean STDDEV Mi ni mum Maxi mum Audi o‑ Vi s ua1 3 3 4. 1 2 0. 3 4 3. 6 0 4. 8 0 Audi o 3 2 4. 0 4 0. 4 9 3. 0 0 4. 8 0 Var i a nc e s T ‑ DF Pr ob> lT l
Une qual 0. 6 7 7 0 5 5. 2 0. 5 0 1 2 Equal 0. 6 8 0 7 6 3. 0 0. 4 9 8 6
For HO: Var i a nc e sar ee qual ,F‑2. 0 6 ､ wi t h31a nd3 2df
Not e:Theval ue soft hede s c r i pt i ves t at i s t i c sa r er ounde dof ft ot hene ar e s t
hundr e dt h.
t hehi ghe rs co r e si ndi ca t ebe t t e rorhi ghe rmot i vat i o n.
Sc or e swe r ea dde dup,anddi vi de dby5t oo bt ai na na ve r ages cor e us i ngf ort hehomoge ne i t yt e s tofmot i vat i oni nt het wogr oups . The r e l i a bi l i t yf o rt heac c ur ac yf ort hef e at ur e so fmo t i vat i o nwi l li nc r e as ea s t henumbe rofr e l at e di t e msi nc r e as e s . St a t i s t i c sont hehomoge ne i t yt e s t oft hemot i vat i onar es howni nTa bl e4abo ve.
Ta bl e4s howst hatt het wogr o ups ' me ans c or e sofmot i va t i onwe r e c ompar e dandt e s t e dt os e ei ft he r ei sas t at i s t i c al l ys i gni f i c antdi f f e r e nc e be t we e nt het wome ansus i ngi nde pe nde ntgr oup' sLt e s t . Thei nde pe n‑
de ntvar i a bl ei st heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupc ompar e dwi t ht heAudi ogr oup , andt hede pe nde ntva r i a bl ei st hes c o r e so nmo t i vat i o n. Thenul lhypo t h‑
e s i ss t at e st hatt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupdoe snotdi f f e rf r om t heAudi o gr oupi nt e r msofmo t i vat i ona mo ngs t ude nt s( HO:Me ano fAudi o‑ vi s ual gr oup
‑Me anofAudi ogr oup) . Thenumbe rofs ampl e si nt heAudi o‑
vi s ualgr o upi s3 3 ,a ndi nt heAudi ogr o up3 2. TheF‑ r at i o( F‑2. 0 6i s o bt ai ne dwi t h31and3 2de gr e e so ff r e e do m. Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t yoft he F‑ r at i oi ss mal l e rt hant he. 0 5conf i de nc el e ve loft hec r i t i c alval ue( Pr [ F>2. 0 6]‑0 . 0 4 6 3 ) ,t henul lhypot he s i s( HO: va r i anc e sa r ee qual )i s r e j e c t e d. The r e f or e ,t het ‑ t e s tunde rt heune q ualvar i anc e si nTa bl e4i s us e df orc al c ul a t i on( t‑0 . 6 7 7 0wi t h5 5. 2de gr e e soff r e e dom) . Si nc et he pr o ba bi l i t yoft het ‑ val uei sl ar ge rt ha nt he. 0 5c onf i de nc el e ve loft he c r i t i c alval ue( Pr[巨 l >0. 67 7 0
]‑0. 5 01 2 ) ,t henul lhypot he s i s( HO:
Me ano fAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup ‑ Me anofAudi ogr oup)i snotr e j e c t e d , whi c hme a nst ha tt he r ei sahomo ge ne i t ybe t we e nt he s et wogr oupsi n t e r mso fmot i vat i on. Thus ,t heho mo ge ne i t ybe t we e nt het wogr oups o nc eo bt ai ne dbyt hepr e t e s t( t heJ ACETt e s t )ass ho wnbyt hea bo vewa s c onf i r me d.
Ba s e dont heconf i r me dhomo ge ne i t ya mongt het wogr oups ,t he
e f f e c t i ve ne s si nt heus eo faudi ot ape sa ndvi deo si nt heEngl i s hc l as s r oom wasf i r s ti nve s t i gat e da c c o r di ngt ot hegai ni ns cor e s . The n,as t udywas co nduc t e dt os e ewhe t he rt he r ewasas t a t i s t i c aldi f f e r e nc ei nt hegai ns be t we e nt het wogr oups . Fi nal l y, t hee f f e c to ft hedi f f e r e ntme di ao nt he s t ude nt so fdi f f e r e ntpr o f i c i e nc yl e ve l swa si nve s t i gat e d.
Ⅰ nt hef i nalanal ys i s ,t hes t ude nt swe r edi vi de di nt ot hr e edi f f e r e nt pr of i c i e nc yl e ve l sa c c o r di ngt ot he i rpe r f or ma nc eont hepr e t e s t . The c r i t e r i aoft hedi vi s i onwasbas e do nt hedi s t r i but i ono fme ans:t he s ubj e c t swi t ht hegai nsmor et han + 1s t andar dde vi a t i on f al li nt he t o p‑ l e ve l;one sl e s st ha n‑1s t andar dde vi at i o nf al li nt hel ow‑ l e ve l;
ando ne sbe t we e n + 1a nd‑1s t anda r dde vi a t i onsf al li nt heme di um‑
1 e ve l . Ho we ve r ,duet ot hes mal ls ampl ei nt hi ss t udyt hes t ude nt swe r e di vi de di nt ot wogr o ups:a nadvanc e dgr oupwhoea r ne ds c or e sof5 0%
ora bo veont hepr e t e s t ,andt hel e s s ‑ adva nc e dgr oupwhoea r ne ds c or e s ofl e s st ha n5 0% ont hepr e t e s t( s e eTabl e5 ) .
Tabl e 5. Le v el sAcc or di n gt ot h eRe s ul t so ft h ePr e t e s t . Gr o u p Lo w Me d i u m To p ( Th r e el e V e l s )
Au d i o ‑ Vi s u a l Ⅹ<( o r =) 2( n‑3 ) 2<Ⅹ<2 0( n‑1 3 ) Ⅹ>( o r ‑) 2 0( n‑1 7 ) Au d i o Ⅹ<( o r ‑) 2( n‑4 ) 2 <Ⅹ<2 0( ∩‑1 7 ) Ⅹ>( o r ‑) 2 0( n‑l l )
( Twol e V e l s )
Au d i o ‑ Vi s u a l Ⅹ<2 0( n‑1 6 ) Ⅹ>( o r ‑) 2 0( n‑1 7 )
Ⅹ:Thep r e t e s ts c o r ee a r n e dbye a c hs u b j e c t .
V.RE SUL TS
Fort hes t at i s t i c ala nal ys i s ,t heSASpa c kageofs t a t i s t i c alpr o一 gr a mso nOt ar uUni ve r s i t yofComme r c e' sFuj i t uM‑ 7 6 0 / 6co mput e rwas us e d.
4Ta bl e6s howst her e s ul t so ft hes t at i s t i calanal ys i si nve s t i gat i ng whe t he rt he r ewasas i gni f i cante f f e c ti nus i ngaudi oa ndaudi o‑ vi s ual me di ai nt heEngl i s hc l as s e s .
Ta bl e6compar e st hegai nsf ore ac hgr o up. Bot ht heAudi o‑ vi s ual gr o upandt heAudi ogr oupwe r et e s t e dus i ngt het ‑ t e s tt os e ewhe t he ra s t a t i s t i c al l ys i gni f i c a nti mpr o ve me ntoc c ur r e dwi t ht het r e at me nt . The nul lhypot he s i ss t at e st hatt he r ei snogai namongt hes t ude nt si nagr o up orgr oupsbyus i ngt heaudi ot apeorvi de o( HO:gai n‑0 ) . Thenumbe r ofs ampl e si nt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o upi s3 0,andi nt heAudi ogr oup2 8.
The s enumbe r sar edi f f e r e ntf r o m t henumbe rs howni nTa bl e1be c aus e t hr e es t ude nt si nt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupandf ouri nt heAudi ogr oupdi d notpa r t i c i pa t ei nt hepr e t e s t . TheSAScomput e rpr ogr am cannotr e ad t he s enumbe r s .
Ac cor di ngt ot her e s ul toft het ‑ t e s t ,t hepr obabi l i t yoft het ‑ val ue s f ore ac hgr oup( t‑4. 0 6f orAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o up;t ‑5 . 1 5f orAudi ogr oup) andbot hgr o ups( t ‑6. 41 )a r el a r ge rt ha nt he. 0 1c onf i de nc el e veloft he c r i t i c alva lue( Pr l JtJ>4 . 06 ]‑0 . 00 0 3,Pr l Jtf>5. 1 5
]‑0. 00 0 1 , Pr
lI tJ>6 Al ]‑0. 0 0 01 ) ,s ot hatt henul lhypot he s i s( HO:gai n‑0 )was r e j e c t e d.
4
Thea ut ho ri sg r a t e f ult oPr o f e s s o rWa ka ba ya s hiNo buo,h e a do ft he
l n f o r ma t i o nPr o c e s s i n gCe n t e ro fOt a r uUn i ve r s i t yo fCo mme r c ea ndi t s
s t a f ff o ra s s i s t i n gt h ea ut ho ri nt heu s eo ft heSASpa c ka g eo fs t a t i s t i c a l
p r o gr a mso nt hec o mp u t e r .
The r e f or e ,t he r ewasas i gni f i ca nte f f e c to n t hegai nsi nbo t h gr oupsac co r di ngt ot her e s ul t so ft het ‑ t e s t . As i gni f i ca ntgal nWasal s o f o undamonge ac hgr oup( s e eTa bl e6 ) . Thi smeanst hatbo t hgr o ups i mpr o ve ds i gni f i cant l yi nt he i rl i s t e ni ngcompr e he ns i onabi l i t i e s .
Ne xt ,t het ‑ t e s twasut i l i z e dt os e ewhe t he rt he r ewasas i gni f i ca nt di f f e r e nc ei nt hee f f e c t sbe t we e nt het wogr o upsi nt e r mso ft hegai ns . Thet e s twa spe r f or me dbyc o mpar i ngt het wome ansoft hegr o ups ' gai ns ass howni nTabl e7 .
Ta bl e7s howst hatt het wogr oups 'meangai nsi ns c or e swe r e c o mpar e dandt e s t e dus i ngi nde pe nde ntgr oup' st ‑ t e s tt os e ewhe t he rt he r e wasanys t at i s t i c al l ys i gni f i cantdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het womeans .
I nTa bl e7 ,t hei nde pe nde ntva r i a bl ei st heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup co mpar e dwi t ht heAudi ogr o up,a ndt hede pe nde ntvar i a bl ei sr e pr e s e nt ‑ e dbygai nsi ns co r e s . Thenul lhypot he s i ss t at e st hatt heAudi o‑ vi s ual gr oupdoe snotdi f f e rf r om t heAudi ogr oupi nt e r msoft hegai ns( HO:
Me anofAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup‑ MeanofAudi ogr o up) . Thenumbe rof s a mpl e si nt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupi s 3 0 ,a ndi nt heAudi ogr oup 2 8 .
Thenul lhypot he s i ss t at e st ha tt heva r i anc e sofbot hgr oupsar e
Tab l e 6. T‑ t e s tf ort h eEf f ec t i v en e s si nt h eUs eo ft h eMe di a.
Va r i a b l e:Ga i n
Gr o u p N Me a n 喜三吉 Er STD r o r Mi
m un
mi ‑ Ma
m ux
mi ‑ T Pr o b>i T I
Au d i o ‑ Vi s u a 1 3 0 2. 9 3 3. 9 6 0. 7 2 ‑6. 0 0 1 3. 0 0 4. 0 6 ** 0. 0 0 0 3 Au d i o 2 8 5. 2 915. 4 4 1 . 0 3 ‑6. 0 0 1 5 . 0 0 5. 1 5 ** 0. 0 0 0 1
** Pr o b< . 0 0 1 , Fo rHO:ga i n‑0
No t e:Theva l u e sa r er o u nd e do f ft ot i l ene a r e s thu n dr e d t h.
e qual( HO:var i a nc e sa r ee qua l ) . Ⅰ twast e s t e dus i ngt heF‑ t e s t ,a nda s ar e s ul t ,t heF‑ r at i o( F ‑ 1 . 8 9 )i so bt ai ne dwi t h 2 7and2 9de gr e e so f f r e e dom. Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t y o ft heF‑ r at i oi sl a r ge rt han t he. 0 5 c onf i de nc el e ve loft hec r i t i c alval ue( Pr[ F>1 . 8 9 ]‑0. 0 9 6 5 ) ,t henul l hypo t he s i si snotr e j e c t e d. Thi smeanst hatt hedi f f e r e nc eoft het wo var i a nc e si sno ts t a t i s t i c al l ys i gni f i c ant . The r e f or e ,t het ‑ t e s tunde rt he e qualva r i a nc e si nTa bl e7i sa ppr o pr i at et obec hos e nf ort hecal c ul a t i on ( t ニー 1 . 8 9 3 6wi t h5 6de gr e e so ff r e e dom) . Si nc et hepr o babi l i t yoft he t ‑ val uei sl ar ge rt hant he. 0 5conf i de nc el e ve loft hec r i t i c alval ue( Pr
lI tl>1 . 8 9 3 6
]‑0. 0 6 3 4 ) ,t henul lhypot he s i s( HO:Me anofAudi o‑ Vi s ual gr o up‑ Me ano fAudi ogr o up)i snotr e j e c t e d. Cons e que nt l y, t he r ei sno s t at i s t i cal l ys i gni f i c antdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wogr oupsi nt e r msoft he gal nS .
Thet ‑ val ueoft het ‑ t e s ti nTa bl e7di dno tr ea c ht hec r i t i calval ue att he. 0 5c onf i de nc el e ve lbuts howst hatt hee f f e c t i ve ne s si nt heus eof t heme di ai nt het wogr oupsi sdi f f e r e nti nt heme angai ni ns c or e swi t h
Tab一 e7.T‑ tes tofTwogr oupsCompar edi nt heEf f ecti v enes s.
Va r i a bl e:Ga i n
Gr o up N Me a n STDDEV STDEr r o r Mi ni mum Ma xi mu m Au di o ‑ Vi s ua l 3 0 2. 9 3 3. 9 6 ‑0. 7 2 ‑6. 0 0 1 3. 0 0 Au di o 2 8 5. 2 9 5. 4 4 1. 0 3 ‑6. 0 0 1 5. 0 0 Va r i a nc e s T DF Pr o b> I T l
Un e q ua l ‑ 1 . 8 7 3 34 9. 1 0. 0 6 7 0 Eq ua l ‑ 1 . 8 9 3 65 6. 0 0. 0 6 3 4
Fo rHO:Va r i a n c e sa r ee q ual ,F‑ 1. 8 9wi t h2 7a n d2 9d f
No t e:Theva l u e sa r er o u nde do f ft ot hene a r e s thu nd r e d t h.
. 0 6 3 4pr o ba bi l i t yofe r r or . Theme angai ne dbyt heAudi ogr o upi s5 . 2 8 , whi c hi sal mos tt wi c easmuc ha st ha tgai ne dbyt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup.
Thi sme anst hatt hea udi ogr o upi mpr o ve di t sl i s t e ni ngcompr e he ns i on abi l i t i e smo r et hant heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o up.
Fi nal l y,t hes ubj e c t swe r edi vi de di nt ot wol e ve l sac c or di ngt ot he r e s ul t so ft hepr e t e s t:anad vanc e dl e ve landal e s s ‑ adva nc e dl e ve l( s e e Ta bl e5 );t het ‑ t e s twa spe r f or me do neac hl e ve l . Ther e s ul t sar es hown i nTa bl e s8a nd9.
Tabl e8S ho wst hatatt headvanc e dl e ve lde f i ne dabo ve( s e eTabl e 5 ) ,t het wogr o ups ' me angai nsi ns co r e swe r eco mpar e dandt e s t e dt os e e whe t he rt he r ei sas t a t i s t i cal l ys i gni f i cantdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wo me ansus i ngt hei nde pe nde ntgr oup' st ‑ t e s t .
I nTa bl e8 ,t hei nde pe nde ntva r i a bl ei st heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup c o mpar e dw it ht heAudi ogr oup,andt hede pe nde ntvar i abl ei sr e pr e s e nt ‑ e dbygal nS . Thenul lhypo t he s i ss t at e st ha tt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupdo e s no tdi f f e rf r o m t heAudi ogr o upi nt e r msoft hegai nsi ns c o r e s( HO:
Me anofAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup‑ Me anofAudi ogr o up) . Thenumbe rof s a mpl e si nt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupi s1 7 ,a ndi nt heAudi ogr oup ll .
Thenul lhypot he s i ss t at e st hatt hevar i anc e sofbot hgr oupsar e eq ual( HO:va r i anc e sar ee qua l ) . I twast e s t e dus i n gt heF‑ t e s t ,andas ar e s ul t ,t heF‑ r a t i o( F ‑ 1 . 1 2 )i so bt a ine dwi t h 1 0a nd 1 6de gr e e sof f r e e dom. Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t y oft heF‑ r at i oi sl ar ge rt ha n t he. 0 5 co nf i de nc el e ve loft hec r i t i calval ue( Pr[ F>1 . 1 2 ]‑0. 81 4 8 ) ,t henul l hypot he s i si snotr e j e c t e d. Thi smeanst ha tt hedi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt he t wovar i a nc e si si ns l gni f i c a nt . The r e f or e ,t het ‑ t e s tunde rt hee qual va r i anc e si nTa bl e8i sappr o pr i a t et obec hos e nf o rt hec al c ul a t i on( t ニ
ー0. 2 5 4 6wi t h2 6de gr e e so ff r e e dom) . Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t yo ft het ‑ val ue
i sl ar ge rt hant he. 0 5c onf i de nc el e ve loft hec r i t i c alval ue( Pr[ I t I >
Tabl e8.Res ul tsoft ‑ te s tatAdv anced Le ve J( Pr et es t= or > 20).
Va r i a bl e:Ga i n
Gr o up N Me a n STDDEV STDEr r o r Mi ni mu m Ma xi mum Audi o‑ Vi s ua l 1 7 2. 82 4. 46 1. 0 8 ‑6. 00 1 3. 0 0 Audi o 11 3. 27 4. 71 1. 42 ‑4. 00 1 1. 00 Va r i a nc e s T DF Pr o b> lT l
Une q ua l ‑0. 2 5 1 520. 6 0. 8 03 9 Eq ua l ‑0. 2 5 4 626. 0 0. 8 01 1
Fo rHO:Va r i a n c e sa r ee q ual ,F ‑ 1. 1 2 wi t h 1 0 a nd 1 6 d f
No t e:Theva l ue sa r er o u nd e do f ft ot hene a r e s thund r e d t h.
0. 2546
]‑0. 8011 ) ,t henul lhypo t he s i s ( HO: Me anofAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup‑
Mea no fAudi ogr oup)i sno tr e j e c t e d.Cons e q ue nt l y,t he r ei snos t a t i s t i ‑ c al l ys i gni f i ca ntdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wogr o upsi nt e r mso ft hegai ns i ns c or e sa tt headvanc e dl e ve l .
Ta bl e9s howst ha tatt hel e s s ‑ adva nc e dl e ve lde f i ne da bove( s e e Ta bl e5 ) ,t het wogr oups ' me angai nsi ns co r e swe r ec ompar e dandt e s t e d us i ngt hei nde pe nde ntgr o up' st ‑ t e s tt os e ewhe t he rt he r ei sas t at i s t i cal l y s l gni f i cantdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het womeans .
Thei nde pe nde ntva r i a bl ei n Ta bl e9i st heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup c ompar e dwi t ht heAudi ogr oup,andt hede pe nde ntVa r i a bl ei sr e pr e s e nt ‑ e dbygai ns . Thenul lhypot he s i ss t at e st hatt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o updoe s notdi f f e rf r om t heAudi ogr oupi nt e r msoft hegai nsi ns c or e s ( HO:
Me a no fAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup‑ Me a no fAudi ogr oup) . Thenumbe rof s ampl e si nt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o upi s 13 ,andi nt heAudi ogr o up 17.
Thenul lhypo t he s i ss t a t e st hatt hevar i anc e sofbo t hgr o upsar e
e qual ( HO: var i anc e sar ee qua l ) . Ⅰ twast e s t e dus i ngt heF‑ t e s t ,anda s
Tabl e9.Resul t so ft ‑ tes tatLes s ‑ Adv ancedLe vel ( Pr etes t<2 0 ) . Va r i a bl e:Ga i n
Gr o u p N Me a n STDDEV STDEr r o r Mi ni mu m Ma xi mu m Audi o‑ Vi s ua l 1 3 3. 0 8 3. 3 5 0. 9 3 ‑3. 0 0 9. 0 0 Aud i o 1 7 6. 5 9 5. 6 0 1. 3 6 ‑6. 0 0 1 5. 0 0 Va r i a nc e s T DF Pr o b> lT l
Une q ua l ‑2 . 1 3 2 62 6. 7 0. 0 4 2 3 Eq ual ‑ 1 . 9 9 8 02 8. 0 0. 0 5 5 5
Fo rHO:va r i a n c e sa r ee q ual ,F‑2. 7 9wi t h1 6a nd1 2d f
No t e:Theva l ue sa r er o u nd e do f ft ot hene a r e s th und r e d t h.
ar e s ul t ,t heF‑ r at i o ( F‑2. 7 9 )i so bt ai ne dwi t h 1 6and 1 2de gr e e sof f r e e do m. Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t y oft heF‑ r a t i o i sl ar ge rt han t he. 0 5 c onf i de nc el e ve loft hec r i t i calval ue ( Pr[ F>2 . 7 9]‑0. 07 8 0 ) ,t henul l hypot he s i si snotr e j e c t e d. Thi smeanst hatt hedi f f e r e nc eoft het wo var i a nc e si si ns l gni f i cant . The r e f or e, t heLt e s tunde rt hee qualvar i a nc e s i nTabl e9i sappr opr i at et obec hos e nf ort hec al c ul at i on( t
ニ ー1 . 9 9 8 0wi t h 2 8de gr e e soff r e e dom) . Si nc et hepr o ba bi l i t yoft het ‑ val uei sl a r ge rt ha n t he. 0 5c onf i de nc el e ve loft hec r i t i c alval ue( Pr[巨 l >1 . 9 9 8 0 ]‑0 . 0 5 5 5 ) , t henul lhypot he s i s( HO:Me anofAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o up‑ Me ano fAudi o gr oup)i snotr e j e c t e d. Co ns e que nt l y,t he r ei snos t at i s t i cal l ys i gni f i c ant di f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wogr o upsi nt e r mso ft hegai nsi ns c or e satt he l e s s ‑ adva nc e dl e ve l .
Theトval ueoft het ‑ t e s ti nTa bl e9di dnotr eac ht hec r i t i c alval ue
a tt he. 0 5co nf i de nc el e ve lbuts howst ha tt hee f f e c t i ve ne s si nt heus eof
t heme di ai nt het wogr o upsi sdi f f e r e nti nt heme angai ni ns c or e swi t h
. 0 5 5 5pr o ba bi l i t yofe r r o r . Themeangai ne dbyt heAudi ogr oupi s6. 5 9 ,
whi c hi smo r et ha nt wi c easmuc ha st hatgai ne dbyt heAudi o‑ vi s ual gr oup. Thi smeanst hatt heAudi ogr o upatt hel e s s ‑ advanc e dl e ve lha s i mpr o ve di t sl i s t e ni ngc o mpr e he ns i ona bi l i t i e sc ompar a t i ve l ymo r et ha n t heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o up.
Thet e s t ss how t hatt hegai nsi ns cor e sbys t ude nt sa tbot hl e ve l s di dno ti ndi ca t eanys t at i s t i cal l ys i gni f i c antdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wo gr oups ,butwecanr e c ogni z et ha tt het ‑ val uef ort hel e s s ‑ advanc e dl e ve l s t ude nt sal mos tr eac he sa5% l e ve lofs i gni f i ca nc e .
Vl .DJ SCUSSl ON
Thef i r s thypot he s i swhi c hs t at e st hats t ude nt s 'l i s t e ni ngco mpr e‑
he ns i ons ki l l swoul di mpr oveus i ngaudi o‑ vi s ualme di ahasbe e ns uppo r t e d byt her e s ul t s( s e eTabl e6 ) . The r ewa sas t at i s t i c al l ys i gni f i c ante f f e c t
o nt hega i nsi ns c or e si nbot ht heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oupwhous e dt hevi de o i nt hec l as sandt heAudi ogr o upwhous e dt hec as s e t t et a pe si nt hec l as s . The r e f or e,i tcanbes ai dt hatt he s ec l as s e swe r es uc c e s s f uli nt e r msof e nhanc i ngs t ude nt s 'communi ca t i o ns ki l l s .
Anot he rf ac t o re xpl ai nswhyt he s egr oupsi mpr ove dt he i rl i s t e ni ng c ompr e he ns i ons ki l l st hi smuc h. Theme di um o fl anguagei ns t r uc t i oni n bot hc l as s e swasEngl i s h. AsKr a s he nandTe r r e l l( 1 9 8 3 )ando t he r s a dvoc at e,t het e ac he rs houl d us et het a r ge tl anguage ( i . e. ,l angua ge s t ude nt sar el e a r ni ng)andf i l lt her ol eofaf a c i l i t at ort oi nc r ea s ecompr e‑
he ns i bl ei nputi nor de rt oas s ur el anguageac qui s i t i o ni nt hec l a s s r oom.
Asme nt i o ne dbe f or e,t heJ apane s eMi ni s t r y o fEducat i o n advoca t e s i mpr o vl ngS t ude nt s 'c ommuni cat i o ns ki l l ss uc hasl i s t e ni ngco mpr e he n‑
s i o na nds pe aki ngs ki l l s . I fwes e toneo ft hegoal sf ort eac hi ngEngl i s h
a sc ommuni cat i o ni ns c hool si ncl udi nguni ve r s i t i e s ,us i ng a udi o‑ vi s ual
me di ai soneoft hebe s twayst ot e ac hEngl i s ha saf or e i gnl anguagei n
Ja pan.
Thes e co ndhypo t he s i swhi c hs t at e st ha tt heus eofavi de ome di um woul dbemor ee f f e c t i vei nl i s t e ni ngcompr e he ns i ont hant heus eofo nl y aca s s e t t et apehasnotbe e ns uppor t e dbyt her e s ul t s( s e eTa bl e7 ) . The r e s ul t ss howt hatus l ngC as s e t t et ape sO nl ywasmor ee f f e c t i vet hanus l ng vi de osi nl i s t e ni ngc o mpr e he ns i ont ho ught her e s ul t soft het ‑ t e s tdi dnot s howas t a t i s t i cals i gni f i c a nc e . Thi scoul dpe r hapsbee xpl ai ne dbys ome oft hedi s ad vant age sofvi de o sdi s c us s e di nt her e vi e w ofl i t e r at ur e .
AsLone r ga n ( 1 9 8 4 )s t a t e s ,vi s ual l y e nt e r t ai nme nti nhi bi t e dt he s t ude nt s 'cons c i ous ne s si n l i s t e ni ng c ompr e he ns i o n. The r e f or e , whe n s t ude nt swa t c he dt hevi de o,t he ypa i dat t e nt i ononl yt ot hes c e ne so nt he vi de oa nddi dnotl i s t e nt ot hedi al ogue s . Ont heo t he rhand, i nt heAudi o gr oup,S t ude nt ss pe ntmuc hmo r et i mel i s t e ni ngt ot hec as s e t t et apet han t heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr o updi d. Theac t ualt i mes t ude nt ss pe nti nl i s t e ni ng c o mpr e he ns i o nmus tha vebe e ndi f f e r e nti ne ac hgr oup. Thi sc oul dca us e t hegai nsi ns c or e soft heAudi ogr o upt obeal mos tt wi c easmuc ha st he Audi o‑ vi s ualgr o up.
Si nc et hevi s uali ss ynt he t i candi ns t ant ane ousasVi s s c he r( 1 9 9 0 ) s t at e s , t i mef orq ue s t i onsandans we r swasc ons ume dbydi s pl ayque s t i ons whi c har enots oco gni t i ve l yde mandi nga nddonotmat c ht hes t ude nt s ' ne e ds . Onc es t ude nt sunde r s t andt hes i t uat i onsandge tt heme s s a ge f r omt hes c e ne, t he r ear enomo r ei nf o r mat i o ngapsbe t we e nt hevi de oand t hes t ude nt s 'unde r s t andi ng. Thi sca us e ss t ude nt st ol os ei nt e r e s ti n l i s t e ni ngt ot hel anguages i nc et heco nt e nt sa r eal r eadyknownt ot he m.
Ont heo t he rhand,l i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i onwhe nus i ngac a s s e t t et apei s
muc hmor eco gni t i ve l yde mandi ngandc ont e xt ‑ r e duc e dt hanvi e wi ngt he
s i t uat i onsandot he rno n‑ ve r balc ue sf o rc o mpr e he ns i on. St ude nt smus t
l i s t e nt ot hel anguagec ar e f ul l yi nor de rt oge tf ul lme a ni ngo ft hecont e xt .
Thi sca ngr e a t l yaf f e c tt her e s ul t so ft hi ss t udy.
Thes pe e doft hedi al o gue swasdi f f e r e ntbe t we e nt hevi de oma t e‑
r i al( 1 3 9wor dspe rmi nut e )andt heaudi omat e r i al( 1 1 6wo r dspe rmi nut e ) . Thi sdi f f e r e nc emi ghtal s oaf f e c tt her e s ul t si nt hi sr e s e ar c h.Howe ve r , t hemat e r i al sus e di nt hi ss t udywe r e , ac c o r di ngt ot he i raut ho r s , pr oduc e d i nanor mals pe e c h. I naddi t i on,t he r ewasnoa t t e mptt oco nt r olf o r Japa ne s es t ude ntus e.
Thet hi r dhypot he s i swhi c hs t at e st hatt heus eofavi de ome di um onl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i oni nt hel e s s ‑ advanc e dl e ve l sofl anguagepr of i ‑ c i e nc ywoul dbemor ee f f e c t i vet hant heus eofo nl yac a s s e t t et apeha s notbe e ns uppor t e dbyt her e s ul t s( s e eTa bl e9 ) . Ont hec ont r ar y,t he r e s ul t ss how i nl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i ont ha tus i ngac as s e t t e ‑ t a pe‑ or l l y wa smo r ee f f e c t i vet hanus i ngavi de ot ho ught het ‑ t e s tr e s ul t sdi dno t s ho was t at i s t i cals i gni f i canc eatt he. 0 5co nf i de nc el e ve l . Thi sal s oc oul d bee xpl ai ne dbys omeoft hedi s ad vant age sofvi de ous ec i t e da bovei nt he di s c us s i onoft hes e c ondhypo t he s i s . Thes i t ua t i onalc ont e xt spr o vi de d byt hevi de oasanai df orco mpr e he ns i bl ei nputi si mpor t antatt he be gi nni ngl e ve l ,butamo r ei mpo r t antt hi ngf orl angua geac qui s i t i o ni n t hec l as s r oom s e e mst hec r eat i o no fi nf or mat i ongapsf orwhi c hs t ude nt s ne e dt one go t i at ef ormeani ng( Ri c har d‑ Amat o,1 9 8 8 ) .
Li s t e ni ngt ot hec as s e t t et a pe si ns t e adofvi e wi ng t hevi de oi s
co gni t i ve l yde mandi ng( Cummi ns ,1 9 8 3 )i ft hes t ude nt sa r eno tf ami l i a r
wi t ht hel i s t e ni ngac t i vi t i e swi t ho utr e adi ngt het e xt boo k . I ti swe l l
known among t e ac he r st ha tJ apane s es t ude nt sar eor i e nt e d t owar ds
wr i t t e nl anguaget hr o ugho utt he i rEngl i s he duc at i o n. The r e f or e ,t he y
ar enotus e dt ol i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i onwi t houtr e adi ngt het e xt . The s e
di f f i c ul t i e sc r e at et hene c e s s ar yi nf or mat i o ngapsf ors t ude nt st one got i ‑
at ef ormea ni ng. Thi si sano t he rpl a us i bl ee xpl anat i onwhyt her e s ul t so f
t hegal nSi ns cor e sbyt heAudi ogr oupwasmor et hant wi c ea smuc has t hos ebyt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oup( s e eTa bl e9 ) .
Thef o ur t hhypo t he s i swhi c hs t at e st hatt he r ewo ul dbenodi f f e r ‑ e nc ei nt hee f f e c t i ve ne s sbe t we e nt heus eofc as s e t t et a pe sandt heus eof vi de osi nt headvanc e dl e ve lofl a ngua gepr o f i c i e nc yhasbe e ns uppor t e d byt her e s ul t s( s e eTa bl e8 ) . Onepl aus i bl ee xpl anat i o ni st ha ts i nc et he i r l anguagepr of i c i e nc yi sal r e adyhi gh,t hes t ude nt sgai ne dhi ghs cor e son t hepr e t e s ta ndmai nt ai ne dt he s ehi ghs c or e so nt hepos tt e s ta swe l l . Thi ss e e mst obewhyt her e s ul t ss ho w nodi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wo gr OupS ･
Thef i f t hhypot he s i swhi c hconc e r nst hehi ghe rmot i vat i o nwi t h vi deous eha sno tbe e ns uppor t e dbyt her e s ul t s( s e eTabl e4 ) . The mot i vat i onde f i ne di nt hi ss t udyi sba s e do nt hef ol l owi ngc ha r ac t e r i s
‑t i c s:s t ude nt s 'pr e f e r e nc ef o rEl l gl i s hl anguage ,t he i rpe r c e pt i o noft he ne e dsofEngl i s hatpr e s e ntaswe l la si nt hef ut ur e, t he i rde gr e eofi nt e r e s t i nt hecont e nto ft hema t e r i alus e di nt hec l as s e s ,a ndt he i rde c l ar e d pe r c e nt a geofat t e ndanc e.
Tho ughma nyr e s e ar c he r s( Eda s a wae ta1 . ,1 9 8 9,1 9 9 0;Takai , 1 9 8 4;For s dal eandDyks t r a , 1 . 9 6 3 )i de nt i f i e dmo t i vat i o na sanadvant age ofus i ngt hevi deome di um,S t ude nt ss e e m t of i ndc as s e t t et ape se q ual l y mot i va t i ng. Thei mpac toft hes t ude nt s ' i ni t i ali nt e r e s t si nt hevi deomay ha vebe e ne no r mo usasFor s dal eandDyks t r a( 1 9 6 3 )s ugge s t e d,butt he s t ude nt s 'f oc uswast henat ur alf l ow oft hedi al ogue si nt hes o undt r ac ks i nbot ht heAudi oandt heAudi o‑ vi s ualgr oups .
Tot akeane xampl e ,Takai( 1 9 8 4 )di s c us s e dt headvant ageofus i ng
vi deoi nmot i vat i ngs t ude nt st ol e ar nEngl i s hbyus i ngf r e q ue nc yda t a
f r om t hel a ngua gel a bor a t or y:How ma nyt i me sdi ds t ude nt sus et he
VTR ( vi de ot aper e c or de r )i nt heEngl i s hc l as sandout s i dei noneac a‑
de mi cye ar? Her e por t e dmor et han6 0% o ft het ot alnumbe ro fs t u‑
de nt swhoc a mei nt ot hel anguagel a bo r at or yus e dt heVTR( Takai ,1 9 8 4 , p.1 1 5 ) . Ho we ve r ,t hi snumbe ri nc l ude dt henumbe rofs t ude nt swho camet ovi e w movi e sdu bbe di nt oJ apa ne s eo rs ubt i t l e d i nJa pane s e.
The s es t ude nt sar ei nt e r e s t e di nt hef i l m' se nt e r t ai ni ngval ue. Ass ome r e s ea r c he r s( Vi s s c he r ,1 9 9 0;Lone r ga n,1 9 8 4 )s t at e,pe da go gi c ale f f e c t s cannotbee xpe c t e do utoft he s ef a c t or s ,a nds uc hvi e wi ngs houl dbe di s t i ngui s he df r om mo t i vat i o nf o rl anguagepur pos e s .
Vl LSUMMARYANDCONCLUSI ONS
Looki nga tt her e c e ntt r e ndsi nEngl i s hl angua get e ac hi ngi nJ apan , communi ca t i ons ki l l sar es t r e s s e da te ve r yl e ve lofEngl i s he duca t i on f r om j uni orhi ghs c hoolt ouni ve r s i t y. Us i ngt heaudi o‑ vi s ualme di um i n t heEngl i s hc l as s r oo m hasbe co mea ni mpor t antt o pi camongt eac he r sa nd r e s e ar c he r si ne ve r yr e c e ntl anguageconf e r e nc e . Thi sca nbea t t r i but e d t ot her e c e ntr a pi dde ve l opme nt si ne duc at i onalt e c hnol o gy. Ho we ve r , appr opr i at eme t hodol o gyf ori t sus ei nt hel angua gec l as s r oo m ar ef ar be hi ndd uet oal ac ko fs ound,s c i e nt i f i cs t udi e soni t se f f e c t i ve ne s s .
I nt hi sc ompar at i ves t udyofe f f e c t i ve ne s soft heaudi o‑ vi s uala nd t heaudi ome di a, t wogr o upsofs t ude nt swhohadj us tgr adua t e df r o mhi gh s c hoolwi t happr oxi ma t e l yt hes amel anguagepr of i c i e nc yandmot i va t i o n s pe ntoneac ade mi cyearunde rt hes a met eac he rus i ngt wodi f f e r e nt t e xt books:o neus i ngavi deoasanaudi o‑ vi s ualme di um ;andt heot he r us l ngCa s s e t t et ape saSanaudi ome di um. Ther e s ul t sofl i s t e ni ngc om‑
pr e he ns i ont e s t ss howe dcons i de r a bl ei mpr o ve me nt si nus i ngbot ht he
audi oandaudi o‑ vi s ualme di ai nt hel angua gecl as s r oo m. Howe ve r , t he r e
maybeano t he ri mpo r t antf ac t or:us i ngEngl i s hi nt hec l as s . Thi smus t
ha vec ont r i but e dt ot hes t ude nt s ' i mpr o ve dl i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i ons ki l l s . Cons i de r i ngt her e s ul t soft hi scompar at i ves t udyoft het wome di a , t hemor et i me st hes t ude nt ss pe ntont hel i s t e ni n ga c t i vi t y( i nt hi sc as e , us i ngt heca s s e t t et apeonl y) ,t hemor et he yi mpr ove dt he i rl i s t e ni ng compr e he ns i on. Thepi c t ur e son t hes c r e e n maymakei te as i e rf o r s t ude nt st ounde r s t andt hel angua ge ,butonc et he yunde r s t andt hecon‑
t e nt soft hevi de o,t he r ei snone e df o rs t ude nt st opa ys omuc hs e r i o us at t e nt i ont ot hes oundso ft hedi al ogue s . Thei ns t r uc t ori nt heAudi o‑
vi s ualgr o upma yal s ot e ndt omi s unde r s t a ndt hatt hes t ude nt sco mpr e ‑ he ndt hec ont e nt st hr o ugh l i s t e ni ng ac t i vi t i e ss uc h asc he c ki ng t he i r compr e he ns i onbya s ki ngque s t i ons , butac t ual l yt hes t ude nt smayal r e ady know t hea ns we r sf r om t hevi s ualcont e xtbyt het i met he yl i s t e nt ot he s o undt r ac k. AsKr as he n' S' i + 1' c onc e pt( Kr as he nandTe r r e l l ,1 9 8 3 ) s ugge s t s , 5ade quat et e ns i onands o mec ogni t i vede ma ndsar ei ndi s pe ns ‑ abl ei n gr e di e nt si nl e ar ni ngac t i vi t i e sf ort hepur pos eofe nhanc i ngs t u‑
de nt s 'l i s t e ni ngco mpr e he ns i on.
Thought he r ear emanys c hol ar sa ndr e s ea r c he r swhos t at et ha tt he vi deome di um 壬 l i ghl ymot i vat e ss t ude nt si nt hel angua gec l as s r oo m,t hi s s t udyf oundt hatt he r ewasnodi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wogr oups( Audi o‑
vi s ualandAudi ogr o up)i nmot i va t i oni nt e r msofs t ude nt s ' pr e f e r e nc et o Engl i s h,t he i rpe r c e pt i onoft he i rne e dsatpr e s e nta ndi nt hef ut ur e ,t he i r de gr e eo fi nt e r e s ti nt heco nt e ntoft hema t e r i al s ,andt he i ra t t e ndanc e . I ti sc o mmo nl yknownt ha tvi deoca ni ni t i al l yc apt ur et heat t e nt i onoft he s t ude nt s ,butt heque s t i o ni swhe t he rt hi si st hes amemo t i vat i o ns t ude nt s ne e df orl anguagel ear ni ng. I ts e e mst ha tt henat ur eoft hi smot i vat i on
5
Ac c o r di n gt oKr a s he n' sl npu tHy po t he s i s ,O p t i mali n p u to fl a n gua gei sa
l i t t l ebe yo ndt hes t ud e n t s 'c u r r e n tl e ve lo ft h el a n gua gep r o f i c i e n c y.
i sdi f f e r e ntf r om t hemot i vat i o nwhi c ht hi ss t udyi nve s t i gat e d:t hef o r 一 me ri snon‑ pe dagogi cal ,andt hel a t t e ri spe dago gi ca l .
V日.l MPLI CAT1 0NS
I ft hegoalofl anguagel e ar ni ng a ndt eac hi ngi sac q ui s i t i o n of l anguageandi t scommuni ca t i ons ki l l s ,ho w canwet e ac he r sc hange s t ude nt s 'be havi o ro fpayi ngat t e nt i ononl yt ogr ammarco ns t r ai ne dby t hegr a mmar ‑ t r a ns l at i o n me t hodt omo r ec ommuni c at i vec l as sac t i v‑
i t i e s ? Asar e s ul toft hi ss t udy, t hea ut horwoul dl i ket or e co mme ndt he f ol l o wi ngaspe da gogi c ali mpl i ca t i ons .
1 .Whe r eco mmuni c at i o ni st hegoalo ft e ac hi ngEngl i s hi ne i t he rhi gh s c hooloruni ve r s i t y,i ns t r uc t or ss houl dus eEngl i s hf ort hec l as sac t i vi t i e s s uppor t e dbye i t he rvi deosorc As s e t t et ape s .
2 . Mot i va t es t ude nt swi t havi de oe ve nt hought hemo t i vat i ona tt hi spoi nt hasmor ee nt e r t ai nme ntt ha npe da gogi c alval ue. Thevi s uale f f e c ti sa powe r f uls t i mul usi ni t i al l y.
3 .Cr e at eac t i vi t i e swhi c hr e qui r el anguageus e. Fore xa mpl e,us ei nf o r ‑ mat i o ngaps 6i nac t i vi t i e si nor de rt oi nc r ea s ec o gni t i vede mandsont he s t ude nt s .
4 .Di s t i ngui s hbe t we e nvi s ualandaudi oac t i vi t i e s: i fe xpe c t i ngbe t t e r l i s t e ni ngc ompr e he ns i on, conc e nt r a t eonl i s t e ni ngac t i vi t i e sus l ngCas s e t t e t ape s .
Thi ss t udyi ndi c a t e dt hats t ude nt swe r ee qual l ymo t i vat e di nl ea r n‑
i ngl anguagebyt hevi de oa ndt hea udi o. Themos ti mpor t a nti mpl i ca‑
6
