On Teaching English Pronunciation in the
Junior High Schools −With Special Reference to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation−
著者 YONEKURA Hiroshi
journal or
publication title
奈良教育大学紀要. 人文・社会科学
volume 32
number 1
page range 1‑12
year 1983‑11‑25
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10105/2281
On Teaching English Pronunciation in the Junior High Schools
With Special Reference to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation
Hiroshi YONEKURA
{Department of English, Nara University of Education, Nara, Japan) (Received April 21, 1983)
Summary
Fundamental skills in English are hearing, speaking, reading, and writing. Of these Hfour skills", it is said to be very difficult to master a skill of hearing. In order to develop a skill of hearing it is very important to get pupils thoroughly familiar with the English sound system‑stress, sound sequence, rhythm, and intonation. Therefore, what is most important is to systematically give pupils basic training of such English sound system in every lesson at the first stage of junior high school level.
I
The chief function of English teaching in Japan as an integral part of national ed‑
ucation is personal enrichment by developing fundamental skills in English, especially that of reading comprehension. At the present time, in Japan, English textbooks authorized by the Ministry of Education are used in the junior high schools, and about forty or forty‑five pupils in one class are uniformly taught English for three hours per week. In such lessons it is quite natural that reading comprehension comes to be the nucleus of teaching. Consequently, listening and speaking are rather secondary in teaching except in the elementary course of teaching.*
Since the system of three‑hour‑teaching per week has been introduced, the number of English teachers who lay great stress on the cultivation of reading comprehension has increased. There are, also, many who place special emphasis on acquiring grammatical knowledge in order to master English. I believe, however, that the first stage in teaching English as a living language is to get pupils thoroughly familiar with the English sound system‑stress, sound sequence, rhythm, and intonation. It is impossible for pupils to learn English sound sequence, rhythm, and intonation at home. At the first stage of junior high school level, therefore, what is most important is to systematically give pupils basic training in English pronunciation in every lesson. I realize keenly that it is of great importance for the teacher to make a three‑year‑program for teaching English sound system on the basis of the linguistic materials used in English textbooks (from the first
1
to the third grade) which he has chosen.
II
English textbooks for junior high schools are very good for linguistic materials for teaching stress, rhythm, and intonation. In view of the current situation, however, it is not until they enter colleges that college students who major in English linguistics or iterature study the differences in pronunciation between /s, z/ and /0,ら/. It is no wonder
that such a situation should produce Mrs, Ryoko Nakatsu's sharp criticism against the English teaching which has been given in Japan as follows:
It is to be hoped that all the English teachers can pronounce a certain English sound in a given breath. Though phonetic symbols are taught at schools, most of the English teachers know only phonetic symbols and cannot pronounce the sound correctly. ‑ I hear that in the training course for English teachers in universities the students are
given a general knowledge of English phonetics. It is doubtfiユ., however, whether it
can be said that they are adequately trained in pronouncing English sounds. ‥. In
other words, this is equivalent to the construction work which has been done without the important and fundamental process.1
We cannot help but say that it is regrettable that the students who specialize in English linguistics or literature must ̀unlearn' their English pronunciation in universities.
Generally speaking, the university students of today cannot bear for the monotonous pro‑
nunciation training which must be repeated. It is certainly significant that much pronun‑
ciation training is given in their childhood. At the first stage of junior high school a teacher should give systematic pronunciation training to pupils through the use of English words which have been made part of Japanese vocabulary. It may be said that this method is efficient for mastering English sound system.
What is most important in teaching English in Japan is that junior high school teachers make a complete comparison of phonological structures between Japanese and English, so that the teachers themselves understand many phonological resemblances and differences, which are suitably presented to their pupils in the lessons.
Junior high school teachers in Japan are faced with tremendous difficulties with
fewer teaching hours per week. But even under such difficult circumstances as we are in,
the teacher must not cut down such fundamental training of English sounds. If training
of English pronunciation were not presented during junior high school days, it would be
quite impossible for the pupils to master English sounds. It must not be forgotten that
the discipline of English pronunciation is the nucleus of teaching English in junior high
schools.
III
The English word pipe is equivalent to three‑syllable‑word pa‑i‑pu in Japanese. When we pronounce paipu in Japanese, the English word which has closed syllables CVC (consonant + vowel + consonant) is changed into the Japanese word which has open syllables CV (consonant + vowel). There have been many scholars13'who have tried to ex‑
press English phonetic symbols in kana (the square Japanese syllabary). In this case, what comes into question is that Japanese is made up of open syllables and English of closed syllables. The word street /stri: t/ (one syllable in English) comes to be a five‑syllable‑
word when the word is written in kana /sutoriito/. This fact shows that ordinary com‑
munication cannot be made. A New Course of Study presented by the Ministry of Ed‑
ucation remarks that as an auxiliary means in teaching English sound system, if necessary, phonetic symbols may be used. This modification is greatly estimated for teaching English pronunciation.
Among the English textbooks authorized by the Ministry of Education which have
been used in the junior high schools, there are some textbooks for the first grade where
phonetic symbols are employed in Lesson One. What is quite important is not to learn phonetic symbols but to master English pronunciation. It is of no importance for junior high school pupils to distinguish /e/ from /t/, or /a/ from /a/. Such sounds as /a:/, /ae/, /f/, /v/, /vv/, /G/, /si/, /ti/. /r/ and /!/ are not pronounced in Japanese. Therefore, it is necessary that these sounds are presented to pupils with adequate consideration.
However, it may safely be said that, if pupils have no trouble in understanding English sentences, the similar sounds are used in substitution for the English sounds listed above.
Mr. Takao Suzuki has asserted that the Japanese people should talk with foreign people in 'Englic. He states14'that the opinion that the English language which the Japanese people speak has a particular speaking habit or a particular accent should be fixed internationally. To put the matter in its proper light, Mr. Suzuki, who expresses such an opinion, never speaks ̀Japanese English'. On the contrary, he has a fluent command of 'British English'. In English teaching in the junior high schools, it is of urgent necessity for pupils to receive a daily drill of the pronunciation of present‑day standard English.
The first stage for listening and speaking in the junior high school is that the teacher thoroughly trains pupils to master pronunciation, pause, intonation, and stress in standard English.
IV
Pupils have acquired the Japanese sound system. Therefore, when the teacher trains
pupils to master English pronunciation, he should take into consideration the influence
of the Japanese language over the pupils.
(1) Rhythm in English
English forms rhythmic units, based on weak and strong stress with pitch phonemes.
The stress pattern in the sentence changes when the pattern is out of harmony with the rhythm inherent in our utterance. This is generally called euphony. When the utterance lacks euphony, there is a tendency to taking normal euphony with the change of original stress pattern. To give an example, when the utterance consists of the pattern 'the word
with the phoneme /′/ in the last syllable + the word with the phoneme /′/ in the first
syllablè, the requirement of normal English rhythm places the phoneme /a/ on the fisrt syllable in the first word.
Japanese Jdpanese gえrden
fou rteen‑fdu rt∂en years
He went Jverseas for his dvers∂as job.
Our ∂vernight guests didn't stay dvernight.
When the balance between the strong stress and the weak stress is lost, the speaker
tries to keep the balance smooth. When the interval between the strong stress (/′/ or
/A/) and the weak stress (/ち/) is equal, the balance is said to be maintained. In other
words, there is a marked tendency in English to keep the interval of the strong stress equal. This is called a stress‑timed rhythm.<5) In order to understand English rhythm much more, let us compare it with Japanese rhythm. In short, Japanese rhythm is rather monot‑
onous in comparison with English rhythm. This does not mean that in the Japanese language there is no existence of the stress which produces rhythm. The stress in the Japanese language is not so strong as the stress in the English language. To put it otherwise, the Japanese language is a language which is based on a syllable‑timed rhythm and a pitch accent. The Japanese people usually speak English in Japanese rhythm (without a big
difference between the weak and the strong stress). Therefore, the English sentences which the Japanese people speak sound very monotonous. For example, a native speaker of English pronounces on the basis of the stress‑timed rhythm as in "王come from WAshington." On the other hand, a pupil, who is not familiar with English rhythm, reads in the syllable‑
time rhythm as in H王come from W云shington." The pupil pronounces with a small breath and in a level tone which is without a weak‑strong rhythm. The teacher should train pu‑
pils to pronounce consonants and vowels clearly and to be familiar with English rhythm. He should also show them the difference between the weak and the strong stress. Moreover,
he should pay particularattention to training the pupils to speak speedily and with a weak stress the words which have no strong stress.(2) Strong Form and Weak Form
The same word is pronounced weakly when the strong stress is not placed, but when
the strong stress is put, the word is pronounced strongly. The former is called a weak
form and the latter a strong form. In a weak form, the phone is pronounced weakly. When the phone is a vowel, the vowel is pronounced in /a/ or /i/. Occasionally, part of the word is dropped. There are some cases where a vowel as well as a consonant is dropped.
A few examples are sufficient for the illustration :
I know him /im/
It̀s more than /5(s)n/ enough.
I bought some /s(a)m/ books.
The words on which stress accent is not placed are called function words‑determiners, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions, and relative pronouns‑and Je‑verbs are also con‑
sidered to be function words.
(3) Consonant Clusters
In the Japanese language some consonants do not occur in sequence. The phonetic situation where several consonants occur in sequence is generally called consonant clusters.
Pupils are familiar with Japanese phonetic habits, so that they often insert vowels within consonant clusters when they pronounce the words which contain consonant clusters. When the teacher trains the pupils to pronounce the consonant clusters, he should pay particular attention so that they do not pronounce the words drink, drive, tree, train like /dorinku/, /doraibu/, /tori/, /torein/・
(4) Pronunciation of Consonants
It is said that in English there are about twenty‑four consonants, some of which are never used in the Japanese language. So it is noteworthy that the consonants which do not occur in Japanese are sometimes substituted for the Japanese consonants which are most similar to English consonants in articulation. To take the examples, such consonants
as /f/ and hi are not used in Japanese. Therefore, pupils employ bilabial fricative /S/
instead of /(/, and /b/ instead of /v/. The word full /ful/ is pronounced in /¢ul/, which does not occur in English. Another word vest /vest/ would be equal to the word best /best/. In order to reform this kind of bad pronunciation, it is important for pupils to pronounce so that the upper front teeth may touch the under lip. The consonants /%/
and /a/ do not occur in Japanese. Pupils may confuse /G/ with /s/ and /5/ with /d, z, 3, d3‑ dz/. Some examples will suffice for this illustration:
thank /Oaeqk/‑/saeqk/ (sank)
thick /Gik/ /S(s)ik/(/s/ sometimes changes into /%/ before /i/.)
they /凸ei/ /dei/(day)or /(d)zei/
other /sdar/ /adar/ or /a(d)z9iy
When the fricative sounds /0/ and /a/ are pronounced, (1) the soft palate is raised so
that all the breath is forced to go through the mouth, (2) the tip of the tongue is close to the upper front teeth: this is the narrowing where the friction is made, (3) the noise made by the friction for /9/ and /a/ is not very great, much less than for /s/ and /z/. Pupils put the tip of their tongue close to the cutting‑edge of his upper front teeth. In a mirror they will be able to see the tip. They should blow air through this position so that they get some friction, but not too much, not so much as for /s/. /9/ should make the same
amount of noise as /〃 not more. They should try /〟 and /0/ alternately until they get the friction right for /0/. Now they should make less friction for /a/ by pushing the air more gently. The friction for/a/ when it is properly made can only just be heard. There are three sounds in English which are represented by nasal consonants, /m, n,り/. These consonants are very important for training pupils to pronounce English words. When the
nasal sounds /m/ and /n/ are pronounced, (1) the soft palate is lowered for both /m/ and /n/, (2) for /m/ the mouth is blocked by closing the two lips, for /n/ by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, and the sides of the tongue against the sides of
the palate. When the third nasal consonant /g/ is pronounced, (1) the soft palate is lowered and aH the air passes out through the noise, (2) the mouth is blocked by the back of the tongue pressed against the soft palate.
At the beginning of English words there are sometimes three consonants in sequence.
These are /spr, str, skr, spj, stj, skj, spl, skw/ and are a combination of the /sp/ type of sequence and the /pr/ type. To train these consonants is also important for junior high school pupils,
/spr‑/ : spring ; /strソ strong
/skr‑/: screen; /spj‑/: spew /stj‑/: student; /skj‑/: skew /spl‑/: splash; /skw‑/: square
(5) Pupils may confuse simple vowels with diphthongs. In particular, the teacher should pay close attention to the pupil's pronunciation so that he does not substitute tl‑e diphthong for the length of the simple vowel. For this direction the use of phonetic symbols may be effective.
bought /b〇:t/‑bost /bout/
get /get/ gate /geit/
caught /k〇:t/ coat /kout/
saw /s〇:/‑so, sew, sow /sou/
walk /w〇:k/ woke /wouk/
(6) The clear distinction between the following vowels is very important for training
pupils to pronounce English words.
bait, bate /beit/ bet /bet/ bat /baet/
bard /baa:d/ bird /bs:d/
deed /di:d/ did /did/ dead /ded/
gull /gAl/ girl /g9:l/
hut /hat‑hot /hat/ hat /hast/
pit /pit/ pet /pet/‑pat /pact/
seat/si:t/ sit/sit/ sheet/Si:t/
(7) The length of vowels is influenced by the adjacent sound and other factors.
Vowels are made by voiced air passing through different mouth‑shapes; the differences in the shape of the mouth are caused by different positions of the tongue and of the lips.
Vowels must be learned by listening and imitating. In English the length of the vowels is uncertain and is always associated with other phonetic factors.
i. The difference in length between the vowels is associated with the quality of the sounds. Generally speaking, in English vowels, long vowels are as long as diphthongs and are longer than short vowels. But the difference between long and short vowels is
true not only in the length but also in the quality. Also, in general, the open vowels (/a, a:, a,a/) are rather longer than closed vowels (/i:, i, u, u:/). When the mouth is open
we can pronounce freely, so that the sound is naturally long. Some examples will be suffi‑cient for the illustration:
/a:/ > /i:/;/記/, /3'/>/[/, /U/
art /a:t/ > eat /i:t/
bad /ba∋d/ > bid /bid/
pot /pat/ > put /put/
ii. The length of the vowels is influenced by the adjacent sounds.
a) When no sound comes after the vowel, the vowel carries the biggest length in
pronunciation.
car /ka:/ > card /ka:d/
holv /hau/ > house /haus/
sea /si:/ > seat /si:t/
high /hai/ > hide /Ilaid/
blue /blu:/ > bloom ′blu:m/
(b) The vowel is longer when it is placed before a voiced consonant than when it is
put before a voiceless consonant.
card /ka:d/ > cart /ka:t/
hide /haid/ > height /hait/
bed /bed/ > bet /bet/
save /seiv/ > safe /seif/
seed /si:d/ > seat /si:t/
iii. The length of the vowel is associated with the stress.
a) When the word stress is put:
In comparison with import (n.) /import/ and import (v.) /imp5:t/, the same sound /a:/ is longer when the stress is placed on the sound. The same thing is true of the following examples :
record(v.)/nk〇 :d/ > record(n.)/rek〇 :d/
notable /noutsbl/ > notation /nouteiSan/
organ /6:gan/ > organic /a:gゐnik/
(b) When the sentence stress is put:
When we say 'He is my friend', the sentence stress is not placed on the word He /hi/.
When we say ̀He did.'as the answer for the question ̀Who said so?', the sentence stress is put on the word He /hi:/. In other words, the vowel in the latter He is longer than the vowel in the former. The same thing is true of the difference between This in the sentence 'This is a book.' and this in the question 'What is this?'
Linking (or Liaison), Elision, and Assimilation
When we speak English slowly and clearly, each vowel or consonant is pronounced accurately. When we speak at a normal speed (in particular quickly), two or three words are pronounced in sequence. The last sound in the first word and the first sound in the next word are pronounced as if they were one word. In this occassion such phonetic phenomena as linking, elision, and assimilation are observed. It is important in mastering English pronunciation that pupils understand these phonetic phenomena.
a) Linking (or Liaison)
Linking is the pronunciation of an otherwise silent final consonant of a word when the following word begins with a vowel sound. In English the silent final consonant of a word /r/ is pronounced with the first vowel sound of the following word. This is called
̀r‑1inking'.
Eid
far away /fa:rawei/; cheer up /tSi。rるp/
石tiロ oe
there is /Seanz/; more and more /m59ranm6a/
However, when the pause occurs or when another sound /〟 is contained in the
syllable which is put immediately before the silent final consonant /〟, ̀トIinking'does not
occur.
Come here / in a minute.
I don't care / if you do.
a rare animal; a roar of laughter
When the final nasal consonant of a word comes immediately before the vowel of the following word, the nasal consonant /n/ is linked with the vowel. This is called 'n‑1inking' after ̀r‑1inking'.
I5iZI I5d
an egg /snneg/; clean up /kh:nn6p/
コ
ran away /r金nngwei/; in all /inn6:l/
(
one of those /wAnnsvdouz/
(b) Assimilation
If the two phonemes are adjacent, the alternate phoneme influences the other phoneme as in English haf to for have to, so that a new phoneme is created. Occasionally the two phonemes influence each other and acquire common characteristics or become identical.
Such phonetic processes are called assimilation. Assimilation is generally divided into two large groups: the established assimilation and the accidental assimilation.
i. Established Assimilation
In the word newspaper/n]u:spとipsr/, /s/ shows that /z/ in the word news /nju:Z/
becomes voiceless due to the phonetic influence of the voiceless bilabial plosive /p/ in the following word paper. The letter ‑s which denotes the third person singular in the indicative or the letters ‑ed which denotes the preterite form of the regular verb becomes voiced as in plays /‑z/ and played /‑d/ when the ending of the verb is a voiced phoneme
When the ending of the verb is a voiceless phoneme, the above letters ‑5 and ‑ed become voiceless as in asks /‑s/ and asked /‑t/. The same thing is said of the noun plural ‑s as in apples /‑z/ and books /‑s/.
ii. Accidental Assimilation
ln the phrase ten minutes, the nasal sound /n/ of the word ten is phonetically influenced by the bilabial nasal /m/, so that ten minutes is pronounced like /temminits/. In the sentence 'Don't you...?', /t/ in Don't /dount/ is reciprocally influenced by /]/ in the following word you /ju:/, so that Don't you is pronounced like /dountSu:/. The assimila‑
tion of this sort occurs accidentally.
c) Elision
When the assimilation occurs completely, there are some cases where certain sounds are absorbed into the other sound. In this occasion the omission of sounds is observed.
This phonetic phenomenon of this kind is called elision. The elision is divided into two
groups: the established elision and the accidental elision.
i. Established Elision
This is the phonetic phenomenon where a certain sound disappeared in a historical process.
cupboard /kAbard/; blakquard /blJga:d/
castle ′/k6:sl, (American) k盛sl/
bustle /bAsl/; mortgage /m5:rgid3/
waistcoat /weiskout/
ii. Accidental Elision
postman /pousmsn/ ; bookcase /bdkeis/
a blind man /abl6inman/; Good day! /gudei/
It is important for pupils to know that the change of word stress in the word group brings forth a difference of meaning.
blえck bird (kuroi tori) bl云ckbird (tsugumi) green house (midori no ie)‑greenhouse (onshitsu) white house (shiroi ie) White Hduse (daitoryo kantei) pえle f云ce (aojiroi kao) palefえce (hakujin)
sleeping b云by (nemutteiru akanbo) sleeping cえr (shmdai‑sha) That d云ncmg 云dy is Alicès d云ncmg teえcher. (ano odotteiru fujin wa arisu no buyo no kyoshi desu)
V
W. S. Allen16) points out as follows:
Music has its stress in the regular recurrence of beats; it has its own Rhythm; and melody is its Intonation. Spoken language behaves in a broadly similar way.
He emphasizes that it is important that pupils master the speech flow as a lvhole. In English teaching in Japan the reason why pupils cannot have any adequate comprehension of English intonation is that the teacher takes little interest in sentence stress and intona‑
tion. Rhythm forms a close connection with sentence stress and have a good harmony with intonation. In English teaching adequate attention should be directed to the relation
between the meaning of an English utterance and patterns of intonation. For learners of
English, the first step to be taken isto be able to produce normal intonation and rhythm.
At the same time, it is important to know, in connected speech, how sounds are modified in a given phonetic environment. As has been mentioned above, the intonation is colsely related to its meaning. The sentence, "Mr. Smith is over fifty" can be read in five
different ways with five different meanings, which may be illustrated as follows:1(a) Mr.ISmith is over f:壁:
The implication is "Is it Mr. or Mrs. Smith who is over fifty?"
tb)堕」諒珂js over f些
The implication is HWho is over fifty?"
(c) Mr. Smith同型旦牡
The implication is HIs Mr. Smith really over fifty?"
(d) Mr. Smith地旦牡
The implication is ‖Is he over or under fifty?
is over
The implication is "What age is Mr. Smith over?"
Let us take other examples:
(a) Is that ヽ so? (so desu ka)
(b) Is that J so? (sonna koto aru no desu ka)
(c) You haveflovtely ㌔ eyes, (anata wa kireina me o shiteru ne)
(d) You have鞄ftf eyes.
The implication<8) is "I admit your eyes are lovely. That's a fact. But the other fea‑
tures of yours are not quite up to much."
(e) Are you busy? Not m really.
The implication is …Well, I am; but not so busy that I caǹt talk to you."
Notes
(1) Hideshi Sato, Chugakko Sotsugyo Dankai de Kitai subeki 'Kiki‑Hanasu Chikara'" (Eigo Kyoiku) p.21.
(2) Ryoko Nakatsu, Nande Eigo yaruno? p. 408.
(3) Sanki Ichikawa, "Eigo no Hatsuon o Kana de kakiarawasu koto" (Eigo Seinen, 1935.)
(4) Takao Suzbki, Tozasareta Gengo・Nihongo no Sekai, p. 224.
(5) C. Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics, pp. 52‑3.
W. S. Allen, Living English Speech, p. xm.
(7) Takashi Shimaoka & V.E. Johnson (eds.), Gendai‑Eigo no Tokucho to Haikei, p. 75.
(8) Kumhiko Imai, "Onsei to Bunpo (Eigo Kyoiku to Eigogaku), pp. 102‑3・
References
Allen, W.S., Living English Speech. London : Longmans, 1954.
HocketL C.F., A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York : Macmillan, 1958.
Ichikawa, Sanki, "Eigo no Hatsuon o Kana de kakiarawasu koto', Eigo Seinen, 1935.
Imai, Kunihiko, "Onsei to Bunpo", Eigo Kyoiku io Eigogaku, Tokyo : Taishukanshoten, 1976.
Nakatsu, Ryoko, Nande Eigo yaruno? Tokyo : Gomukan, 1974.
Sato, Hideshi, "Chugakko Sotsugyo Dankai de Kitai subeki ̀Kiki・Hanasu Chikara'", Eigo Kyoiku,
Tokyo : Taishukanshoten, 1978.
Shimaoka, Takashi & V. E. Johnson (eds.), Gendai‑Eigo no Tokucho to Haikei. Tokyo : Kenkyusha, 1980
Suzuki, Takao, Tozasareia Gengo・Nihongo no Sekai. Tokyo : Shinchosha, 1975.