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(1)

「大気化学と地球環境」

先導物質化学研究所

応用化学(機能)

塩田 淑仁・吉 澤 一 成

グリーンケミストリー

平成2㻣年㻢月25日

(2)

天然ガス(メタン)を利用した


エネルギー戦略

塩田淑仁


先導物質化学研究所


応用化学(機能)

レポート:メタンについて


“資源 エネルギー 用途 環境など”

(3)

メタン (methane) は最も単純な構造の炭化水素で、1個の炭素原子に4個の水素原子 が結合した分子である。化学式は CH4。和名は沼気(しょうき)。分子は炭素が中心に 位置する正四面体構造をとる。�

C

H

H

H

H

mp –183°C bp –162°C

(4)

1. 天然ガス(ガス田)�◎

2. 発酵(メタン菌)�△

3. シェールガス(頁岩の隙間)�○

4. メタンハイドレート�(海底)�△

メタンの製造、採掘方法�

メタンの利用方法�

1. 燃焼�◎

2. 水素製造�◎

燃料電池、NH3 の原料

3. 化学原料�△

C-H結合変換

メタノール�→�石油代替物

(5)

天然ガスとは、�

油田地帯、ガス田地帯か

ら産出するメタンを主成

分とする可燃性ガス

硫黄分、その他の不純物を含

まないため、燃やしてもSOxや

ススを発生しない��

クリーンなエネルギー�

世界各地に存在し、可採年数は67

年と石油の41年に比べて約30年

長くなっています。�

豊富に存在�

(6)

嫌気性条件下における水素と二酸化炭素を用いたメタン生成 CO2 + 4H2�→�CH4 + 2H2O�ΔG°(標準自由エネルギー変化)= -131 kJ/mol

メタン菌によるメタンの生成�

汚泥・水田・沼や哺乳類の消化管などに分 布し、代謝産物としてメタンを発生(メタン 発酵)する嫌気性の古細菌� ・人体に棲むメタン菌 ・水田のメタン菌��

(7)

メタン発酵システムの概要

メタン菌によるメタンの生成�

北海道でのメタン発酵実証プラ ント�

(8)

メタンハイドレート�

日本近海におけるメタンハイドレートの 分布

ガス相当量7.35兆m3日本が消費する 天然ガスの約96年分に相当

(9)

メタンハイドレートからのガス分離作業を開始した

地球深部探査船「ちきゅう」�

(10)
(11)
(12)

水圧破砕

�水の圧力でひび割れを作る�

水平抗井

地下2000−3000mを水平に掘り

進める

マイクロサイスミック

�地震波の観測技術

問題点

�水質汚染

�地震の増大

3つの革新技術

(13)

K. Yoshizawa, Acc. Chem. Res., 39, 375 (2006).

アルカンのC–H 結合のエネルギー

1°C–H bonds

2° C–H bonds" 3° C–H bonds" Benzylic C–H bonds" B3LYP/6-311++G**

Methane C–H bond

(14)

バクテリアによるメタンの酸化過程

J. D. Lipscomb, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 48, 371 (1994).! Methanotrophic bacteria use methane as their sole source of carbon and energy

Methane

Methanol!

Formaldehyde! Formic acid!

(15)

触媒化学の10大テーマ

"

Low-temperature oxidation of SO2 to SO3"

Selective oxidation of methane to methanol"

Decomposition of NOx to molecular nitrogen and oxygen"

Selective production of ethylene, propylene, and styrene from alkanes" Oxidative coupling of methanol to ethylene"

Direct oxidation of benzene to phenol using molecular oxygen"

Direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from hydrogen and oxygen" Epoxidation of ethylene by molecular oxygen"

Direct synthesis of aromatic amines via aromatics and ammonia" Anti-Markovnikov addition of water or ammonia to olefines"

C&EN, May 31 (1993).!

(16)

朝日新聞

2007年5月29日

バイオエタノールに可能性はあるか?

(17)

ダイレクトメタノール燃料電池�

2009年10月22日

29,800円

(18)

Conversion of methane to methanol

(1) Commercial process for the production of methanol from natural gas (Step 1)

CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)

Δ

H0 = 49.3 kcal/mol Ni catalyst, heat

(Step 2)

CO(g) + 2H2(g) → CH3OH(g)

Δ

H0 = –21.7 kcal/mol zeolite catalyst, heat

(2) Direct conversion of methane to methanol

CH4(g) + 1/2O2(g) → CH3OH(l)

Δ

H0 = –30.7 kcal/mol

• Enzymatic alkane hydroxylations by methane monooxygenase (MMO)

• Gas–phase methane–methanol conversion by transition-metal oxide ions,

(19)

Methanotrophic bacteria

CH

4

+ O

2

+ NADH + H

+

→ CH

3

OH + H

2

O + NAD

+ Fe O O Fe H2O N HN O O H O O H O O H N N Glu114 Glu144 His147 O O

(Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) and Methylosinus trichosporium (OB3b))

His246

a carboxylate-bridged diiron center

Glu243

Glu209

MMOH

Active site

Active site

(20)

メタンモノオキシゲナーゼ (MMO)

CH4 + NADH + H+ + O2 → CH3OH + NAD+ + H2O

•Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) •Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b

Cytoplasmic ("soluble") MMO

Membrane-bound ("particulate") MMO

Hydroxylase (251 K) containing diiron centers that have direct reactivity to methane

Reductase (38.6 K) containing Fe2S2 cluster and FAD

Coupling protein (15.5 K)

(21)

Role of transition metals in dioxygen activation

M O O M X M O M O M O M O M O O 3O 2 + 1S → 1SO 2 1 3O 2 + 22.5 kcal/mol → 1O2 1O 2 + 1S → 1SO 2 1

The principal kinetic barrier to direct reaction of dioxygen with an organic substrate arises from the fact that the ground state of the dioxygen molecule is triplet.

Spin-forbidden reaction

Transition metals play an important role in the activation of dioxygen for biochemical reaction with a substrate.

3O

2 + 2e– → 1O22–

M O O

(22)

可溶性メタンモノオキシゲナーゼの活性サイト構造

Fe(III) O C O Fe(III) O O C N NH O O C H O O H2 O C O N H N O H H E114 H147 E243 E209 E144 H246 Fe(II) O C O Fe(II) O O C N NH O O C H2O O C O N H N E114 H147 E243 E209 E144 H246 H2O

A. C. Rosenzweig, P. Nordlund, P. M. Takahara, C. A. Frederick, and S. J. Lippard, Chem. Biol., 2, 409 (1995).

(23)

可溶性メタンモノオキシゲナーゼの活性構造

Fe O Fe O O O C 1.77 Å 2.05 Å

Structural data from Mössbauer and EXAFS measurements

of intermediate Q that has a direct reactivity to substrate

methane

• A pair of short Fe–O bonds of 1.77 Å

• A pair of long Fe–O bonds of 2.05 Å

• Unusually short Fe–Fe distance of 2.46 Å

• 4.5 O/N per Fe

2.46 Å

L. Shu, J. C. Nesheim, K. Kauffmann, E. Münck, J. D. Lipscomb, L. Que, Jr.

Science, 275, 515 (1997).

+4 +4

(24)

MMOHQ Fe O Fe H CH3OH Fe O Fe O H CH3 Fe O Fe O CH3 H CH4 CH4 Fe O Fe HO CH3 Fe O Fe CH3OH CH4 H+ Fe O Fe O H CH3 Fe O Fe O H H3C Fe O Fe HO CH 3 Yoshizawa (1997) Siegbahn (1999) Morokuma (1999) Friesner Lippard (2000) Siegbahn Crabtree (1997) H+ H+ H+ Fe O Fe O

可溶性メタンモノオキシゲナーゼによるメタンの水酸化機構

(25)

K. Yoshizawa, T. Yumura, Chem. Eur. J., 9, 2347 (2003);!

(26)

膜結合型メタンモノオキシゲナーゼのX線構造

R. L. Lieberman and A. C. Rosenzweig, Nature 434, 177 (2005).!

Mononuclear copper site

Dinuclear copper site

Mononuclear zinc site

pMMO X-ray structure: There are three metal centers per protomer in the crystal structure. Two of these are modeled as mononuclear and dinuclear copper species. The third metal center is occupied by zinc in the crystal. The zinc is derived from crystallization buffer and it is probably occupied by another metal ion in vivo such as copper or iron.

(27)

T. Kamachi, T. Toraya, and K. Yoshizawa, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 13908 (2004).

ONIOM-QM/MM approach to large molecular

systems"

Quantum Molecular

• QM = Quantum Mechanics

• MM = Molecular Mechanics

Mechanics Mechanics K PDO

• QM region (B3LYP DFT method) • MM region (Amber Force Field)

His143 Glu170 K ribose PDO 1.052 1.643 2.736 2.740 2.759 1.578 1.021 1.430 1.457 1.509 1.2971.381

An optimized structure of TS for an H-atom abstraction. ribose moiety His143 Glu170 Gln141 Ser362 Gln296 Glu221 13,543 atoms QM region

ONIOM (Morokuma and coworkers) B12-dependent"

(28)

量子化学計算から求めた膜結合型メタンモノオキシゲナー

ゼの銅単核活性サイトの構造�

Resting state CuIII-oxo species"

K. Yoshizawa and Y. Shiota, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128, 9873(2006).!

Glu75 His48 His72 Gln404 1.843 2.197 2.078 2.186 1.297 1.250 Glu75 His48 His72 Gln404 1.931 1.931 4.281

(29)

膜結合型メタンモノオキシゲナーゼの銅単核活性サイトにおけ

るメタンの水酸化

1R m 2.061 3TS1 m 1TS2 m 1TS1 m 1TS2 m 0 –1.2 16.6 3.9 –11.8 –3.4 –52.9 Oxo complex + CH4 Triplet 11.2 3Int m 1Int m 3Int m 1P m 1P m 1Int m 3R m 3Radm 3.9 2.6 18.8 Singlet 3TS1m 3R m 3.7 3Rad m 1Rad m 1Rad m 2.023 2.042 1.970 1.847 2.498 2.091 2.064 1.998 1.841 1.184 1.321 2.066 1.964 1.865 0.971 3.323 2.048 2.073 2.227 1.842 2.060 2.062 1.964 1.867 3.423 0.971 4.416 1.925 1.948 1.958 1.830 0.976 1.976 3.774 2.074 2.052 1.838 2.002 1.932 1.927 3.551 2.227 1.423 Cu-O = 3.787 In kcal/mol

!

(30)

量子化学計算から求めた膜結合型メタンモノオキシ

ゲナーゼの銅二核活性サイトの構造�

Resting state" Bis(µ-oxo)CuIICuIII species"

O-O = 2.405 2.030 2.024 2.757 1.902 1.762 1.933 1.804 1.998 1.972 1.243 1.335 His33 His137 His139 Glu35 His33 His137 His139 Glu35 2.038 2.474 2.061 2.266 1.972 1.301 1.250

(31)

膜結合型メタンモノオキシゲナーゼの銅二核活性サイトにおけるメ

タンの水酸化�

2P d 2R d 2 Intd 2Pd 2TS1 d 2Radd 2TS2d 2TS2 d 2Int d 2Rad d 2R d 2TS1 d 12.5 17.6 0 –1.3 –4.1 21.5 –49.2 Oxo complex + CH4 Doublet 1.972 1.992 2.136 2.613 2.829 1.132 1.396 1.985 2.027 1.917 1.871 1.918 1.868 2.739 2.063 2.058 1.846 1.870 2.059 2.112 2.118 2.006 2.023 1.988 3.834 1.882 2.009 2.735 2.065 2.059 1.976 1.868 1.975 1.918 1.805 1.932 1.884 1.779 2.748 2.057 2.038 3.717 1.790 1.920 2.067 1.940 1.900 1.869 2.093 3.141 2.112 3.906 3.110 1.917 2.012 1.787 1.797 1.898 2.135 In kcal/mol

!

(32)

Methane hydroxylation by the bare iron-oxo

complex

"

Chem. Eur. J., 3, 1160 (1997); J. Am. Chem. Soc., 120, 564 (1998); Organometallics, 17, 2825 (1998); J. Biol. Inorg. Chem., 3, 318 (1998); J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121, 147 (1999); J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121, 5266 (1999); J. Chem. Phys., 111, 538 (1999); J. Phys. Chem. A, 104, 2552 (2000); J. Phys. Chem. A, 104, 9347 (2000); J. Am. Chem. Soc., 122, 12317 (2000); Organometallics, 20, 1397 (2001); J. Phys. Chem. A, 106, 621 (2002); Coord. Chem. Rev., 226, 251 (2002); J. Chem. Phys., 118, 5872 (2003).!

Fe

+

FeO

+

CH

4

HO–Fe

+

–CH

3

CH

3

OH (41%)

FeOH

+

+ CH

3

(57%)

FeCH

2+

+ H

2

O (2%)

N

2

O

N

2 Helmut Schwarz's group

(33)

Fe+ CH4 HO +Fe CH 3 31.1 +Fe H O 22.1 +Fe O H 0.0 CH3 -22.2 6.4 15.1 -21.1 -23.9 O +Fe H C H3 CH3 6.4 -27.2 31.4 10.2 22.8 28.6 FeO+(4Δ) + CH4 Fe+ (4F) + CH3OH FeO+(6Σ) + CH4 Fe+ (6D) + CH3OH O

K. Yoshizawa, Y. Shiota, and T. Yamabe, Chem. Eur. J. 3, 1160 (1997); J. Am.

Chem. Soc. 120, 564 (1998). Energy in kcal/mol TS1 TS2 Product complex Hydroxo intermediate Methane complex Spin inversion Quartet Sextet Spin inversion

Energy diagram for the conversion of methane to

methanol by FeO

+"

(34)

O CH4 Sc+ O H CH3 Sc+ HO CH3 Sc+ Sc+ HO CH3 O Sc+ CH3 H Triplet TS2 -13.5 12.3 41.3 23.9 28.6 73.5 0 50.4 Reactant complex Product complex TS1 Hydroxo intermediate Singlet -20.7 93.4 (76.2) (32.6) ScOH+ +CH3 ScO+(1Σ+) +CH4 41.8 Sc+ + CH3OH 57.9 (52.7)

Energy diagram for the conversion of methane to

methanol by ScO

+"

(35)

Energy diagrams for the conversion of methane to

methanol by CuO

+

"

The dotted lines in the region of CuO+, CuO+(CH

4), and TS1 indicate the use of the spin-unrestricted method.

Values in parentheses are energies in the open-shell singlet.!

H-atom abstraction

Oxygen-rebound step

Y. Shiota and K. Yoshizawa, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 12317 (2000).

Cu+ CH4 O O +Cu H C H3 HO +Cu CH 3 +Cu O H CH3 +Cu H O CH3 -45.8 -13.0 32.3 (0.1) TS1 -45.6 -64.8 -102.2 0 -61.1 -12.6 TS2 Singlet Triplet -56.1 -50.0 -17.6 (-11.8) (-36.5) CuO+(3Π) +CH4 -3.2 Cu+ + CH3OH Spin inversion In kcal/mol!

(36)

Reactivity to methane of bare transition-metal

oxide ions

Y. Shiota and K. Yoshizawa, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 12317 (2000).

Atomic spin density ΔE (kcal/mol)

MO+ State BDE (kcal/mol)

M Ο ScO++ 1 Σ+ 156.1 0.00 0.00 73.5 TiO+ 2Δ 155.1 1.14 –0.14 72.4 VO+ 3Σ– 137.2 2.33 –0.33 54.5 CrO+ 4 Σ– 81.3 3.65 –0.65 –1.3 MnO+ 5Σ+ 56.4 4.75 –0.75 –26.2 FeO+ 6Σ+ 75.2 3.86 1.14 –12.6 4 Δ 69.4 3.62 –0.63 – CoO+ 5Δ 73.3 2.68 1.32 –25.6 3 Π 49.9 2.61 –0.61 – NiO+ 4 Σ– 69.3 1.53 1.47 –26.5 2 Σ– 57.9 –0.23 1.23 – CuO+ 3Π 37.6 0.47 1.47 –50.0 1 Σ+ 0.00 0.00 –

(37)

Reaction efficiencies

φ

(%) and product branching

ratios (%) for the reactions of methane with MO

+

MO

+

φ

MOH

+

+ CH

3

MCH

2+

+ H

2

O

M

+

+ CH

3

OH

MnO

+

FeO

+

CoO

+

40

20

0.5

100

57

2

< 1

41

100

NiO

+

20

100

参照

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