Kobe Shoin Women’s University Repository
Title Some Syntactic Features of English- ING forms and Japanese-TE forms in Modification Structures
Author(s) Osamu Takahara
Citation 研究紀要（SHOIN REVIEW），第 8 号：1-33
Issue Date 1966
Resource Type Bulletin Paper / 紀要論文
Resource Version
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SOME SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF
ENGLISH-/NG FORMS AND JAPANESE-TE FORMS
IN MODIFICATION STRUCTURES* by Osamu TAKAHARA I. INTRODUCTION 1.1. PURPOSE
The purpose of the present article is to find some corresponding linguistic features between English-ING forms and Japanese-TE forms and to compare both forms in modification structures on the syntactic level.
Much has been said in traditional grammar concerning the fact that English-ING forms are widely used as inflected forms of infinite
verbs, while Japanese-TE forms have usually been considered as
auxiliary verbs, or sometimes as conjunctive particles. However, when one investigates what form of Japanese would be suitable or equivalent to the English-ING forms, it is assumed that the-TE forms of Japanese might have a high frequency of correspondence to English-ING forms. The degree of correspondence will inevitably raise some problems in
teaching and learning the two forms on the syntactic level. Therefore, the necessity of a contrastive study is apparent.1 It is also a matter
of fact that we must admit that comparative analysis presents difficul-ties especially on the syntactic level. In this paper, it is the author's duty to give learners a better understanding of the difficulties and to
increase learners' awareness of productive linguistic patterning of structural areas found in both languages.
1.2. METHOD OF APPROACH
Prior to a contrastive analysis of both English-/NG forms and
* This paper is based on a thesis entitled A Descriptive Comparative Study of English-ING Forms and Japanese-7'E Forms, which was presented to the faculty of the ICU Graduate School, 1983.
1. Charles Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics (The Macmillan Co., 1958), p. 265.
Japanese-YE forms, it seems to be quite appropriate to work out a description of each language which is going to be investigated and to find out the more important facts about the nature of each one.1
Since the discovery of grammatical structures will be presented by first looking for fundamental patterns, it is necessary (1) to look at the linguistic facts of the sets of patterns of each language and (2) to investigate both types of forms as to distributional differences.
With the modification structures worked out, the function classes can be identified more precisely on a syntactic basis. After these preliminary investigations, a contrastive study can be undertaken more effectively. In other words, the theoretical analysis will precede the
contrastive study.2
1.2.1. USE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL TECHNIQUE WITHIN THE
FRAMEWORK OF DESCRIBING BOTH FORMS
The problem will be approached mainly from the distributional viewpoints and by transformational technique. Consequently, the follow-ing criteria are to be taken into account :
1) Form (Transformational—((henceforth, TR))—Technique)
2) Meaning 3) Distribution
One of the recent developments in the study of grammar is
Generative Transformational Grammar which has proved to be useful in providing another way of dealing with syntactical relationship.3 Though Structural Linguistics has common points with TR Grammar in that both recognize identities and contrasts in the result of their descriptions, the former is not sufficient in many instances. The latter describes the language structure in ways which the former cannot explain. Therefore, it will perhaps be helpful here to adopt the theory
1. J. J, Katz, The Philosophy of Language (Harper & Row, Publishers, 1966), p. 107: "Linguists study the details of particular natural languages, formulating their facts in linguistic description."
2. H.A. Gleason, Linguistics and English Grammar (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1965), p. 186.
3. Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (Mouton & Co., 1962), p. 107. J. D. Bowen, "Applications of Grammatical Analysis to Language Teaching," On Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (NCTE, 1965), p. 58.
of TR Grammar as a technique of description.
1.2.2. COMPARISON
It goes without saying that languages have their own peculiar patterns which are settled by habits and which contrast with those of other languages in their functions. Such an idea leads us to compare the structurally different mother tongue with a foreign language by revealing the grammatical relationship. The results will help us finding out the difficulties in teaching and learning foreign languages. In this comparison, we limit our material to the structural patterning of English-/NG forms and Japanese-TE forms in verbal expressions.
II. PATTERNING OF ENGLISH-ING FORMS
2.1. SOME FEATURES
According to the traditional views of verbal English-ING forms, it is usually said that the verb inflection has such main forms as (A) infinitive (B) past (C) past participle and (D) perfect. There is also a peculiar form, (E) the-ING form' as one of the four inflexional affixes of verbs as in the following examples :
e.g. (A) The boy goes to school every day. (B) He went for a walk. (C) He was struck by a stone. (D) The man has gone to America.
(E) That man is (was, will be) walking on the street.
In addition, English-/NG forms have the following types includ-ing the functions of tense and aspect.
A. The present progressive form is used to describe an action which is now being undertaken by various function words.
a) Be+ V erb-ING She is writing a letter.
b) Verb+Verb-/NG He kept working.
B. A participle has such forms as a), b) present participle and c) past participle.
1. E. Klein jans, A Course in Modern English Grammar (1CU Freshman English Manuscript, 1961), p. 130: "The form can appear in past and future as in present time expression. So we call it -ING form."
a) A running dog, A dog is running. (V.) b) His features are very striking. (Adj. quality) c) He was striken with age.1 C. A gerund has also -ING forms attached to the ending of the root form of the verb, but since it functions like a noun, we will not treat this form here. a) Teaching is learning. b) The shooting of birds.
2.2. VERBAL ENGLISH-ING FORMS IN MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
Grammatical description has been primarily divided into (1)
inventory of the classes2 and (2) distribution of these classes in constructions.°
From the distributional viewpoint, the important thing is to look at the facts to see how-ING forms function in various spots of the modification structures.
In many languages different classes of words have different positions in attribute (i.e. modifying) relationships.4
It is proper to pay attention to the kinds of combination which occur and to see how such combinations operate in the structures. In order to describe the relation between one sentence and another, we should start with theoretical base forms in contrast to which we progress through TR technique. As for the base rules we followed Thomas's ones.5
The most important criteria in the study of modification structures are 1) functions6 and 2) types of modifiers7 or word order.
2.2.1. ENGLISH-ING FORMS IN VERB MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
The English verb can be modified in so many ways that verb
1. Martin Joos, The English Verb (The University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), p. 46.
2. P. Roberts, "Transformational Grammar," Introductory Readings on Language (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1966), p. 444: "Word classes can be identified by their distribution."
3. Distribution has a deep relation with a structure and a system of a language. 4. E. Nida, Learning a Foreign Language (Friendship, 1957), p. 192.
5. 0. Thomas, Transformational Grammar and the Teacher of English (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1965), p. 140. p. 141.
6. can be expressed as 'Internal Structure' in Phrase Structure of TR Grammar. 7. can be expressed as ' Rrdes' in Phrase Structure of Ti? Grammar.
modification structures are said to be one of the most complicated parts of English Grammar.
2.2.1.1. Be+ V -ING Forms
These forms may be used in a variety of meanings and functions according to the context in which they occur. They are to be treated as predicative here. The patterning has the priviledge that Be (as Aux .) always occurs before-MG forms as in : 1. VP--->1 (Tn) Aux+MV 2. VP —+Tn (be+ING) +V . It can be active or passive, but only the present and the past tense of verbs occur in the passive. It functions as a subjective complement and can be classified from tense as follows:
1) Present Continuous Tense Patterns
a) Continuity-VP-->Present+be+ING+MV(The sun is shining now.)
b) Future Action-VP—>Present+be+ING+MV (I'm leaving for Tokyo tomorrow.)
2) Present Perfect Continuous
VP-->Present+have+en+be+ING+MV(What have you been
doing all day?)
3) Past Continuous
VP-->Past+be+ING+MV+NP (We were just discussing the
matter.)
4) Past Perfect Continuous
VP—÷Past+have+en+be+ING+MV + NP (She had been
expecting it for a long time.)
5) Future Continuous
a) Simple Future — VP +Tn +M+Aspect + MV +NP (I shall be flying to Spain.)
b) Immediate Future—VP +Tn+Aspect+MV+NP (He is (was)
going down to Italy.)
c) Future Perfect—VP+Tn+M+Aspect+My (By the end of
May he will have been working two months.)
6) Passive Constructions
VP--->Past+be+ING+be+en+Vt (by+NP1) (We were being
isolated.)
1. >stands for rewriting X as Y.
2.2.1.2. V+ V -/NG Forms
These also function as subjective complements and consist of finite verbs (except for Aux. Be) and present participles. It is justifiable here to divide this type of pattern into the following three groups according to function :
1) V. as head words and V-ING as modifier
This is the case in which V-ING modifies the main verb which corresponds to the head word. Form: 1. #S# >NP+MV+Aux+MV
2. 0S4 >NP+V+V—ING Head word Modifier
D : 2 # She came(went) 3i-tinning.' #2 Meaning : They function as predicate adj. though these cases should
not commonly be called complement. Two kinds of predicates are
taken by one subject at the same time : they are not connected, but embedded.
As in the Embedding TR: 1. #S#—,-NP+en+V
Its!' 2. #S:,`—>NP±en+be-ING±pres+run #S#—>3.NP
:.kuAug 1.1' + en + come-ING + pres + run > She +
Au x.
itkrTVIS:
came-ING
+run
.-/A-
came fixi105 .1run
NO Came — She (was) running.She came running.
The suprasegmental phonemes indicate that modifiers ordinarily have primary stress and no breath group or pause can be perceived between the verbs.
2) V. as modifier and V-/NG as head word F: 1. #S#-->NPH-VP 2. #S#—>
F:7,0 NP + en + keep +ING+ mourn
NP+en+get+ING+say
ILA
Arx
nws+" * kept 3mo'urning.1 Pero en3 v"1"' V.D : 2 Wevk • •• ruourngot (say) saying .
M: This pattern appears virtually identical with 1), but its function is
1. R. Long, Third Texas Conference on Problems of Linguistic Analysis in American English (the University of Texas Press, 1962), p. 72: "Everything
attached to verbs including subjects, complements and adverbs"
2. Suprasegmental symbols are used by following A. A. Hill, An Introduction to Linguistic Structures (Harcourt; Brace & World, Co., 1958), pp. 13-30.
different. In many cases the verbs which become modifiers are used as Vt., which enables the substitution of a headword for Pr. or N.1 3) V. in the Passive Constructions2
This type of construction can be changed by the passive TR.
1. .itSg-->NPi+Vt+NP2-1-Comp+NP3 4i3 NP2+end-be+en+ see+
F : Comp+NP3 (+by+NP1)
2.;;S!..,-->They ± en + see ±him-ING
+ sit+ at+ the 1- window He +Sg+ en + be ± en + see-ING + sit -I- at +the +window
They saw him sitting at the window. -=> He was seen sitting at the window.
2.2.1.3. Verb Phrases
1) :erSti: --->NP+V+NP±V-ING This pattern leads to many ambiguities since the sentences are identical in the surface structures. Therefore , it will also be of some use to distinguish between modifiers and comp-lements by means of TR technique.
(a) :S.#—>NP ± V +NP-ING± VP ±NP
I have a car waiting for me.--=>*A car was had waiting for me. st; >NP +V + NP-ING + VP *A waiting car
I saw the man going.=>*The man going was seen (by me) .
The man was seen going (by me).
This cannot be a modifier, and it has a participle phrase as an object.
(b) #S# >NP -I- V -1-NP-ING+ VP
I found my family crying. My family were found crying .
*My family crying were found .
I found the book interesting.>The book was found interesting .
*The book interesting was found .
These can be modifiers since the transformed sentences are gramma-tical ones. Accordingly, (b) has a participle phrase as modifier rather than as objective complement.
1. Cf. V-ING forms function as object not modifiers as in 1 gave up doing it. Please sioP working hard.
2. N. Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, pp. 81— 82. 3. The double arrow identifies the rule as being TR.
2) Prt. ±NP-ING+ VP Some kind of pause, a minor pause, can be perceived before VP. I can't wait with you P- standing there.
2.2.2. ENGLISH-ING FORMS IN NOUN MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
Noun modification consists of-ING forms, attributively used, and has the following types :
2.2.2.1. Pre-Posed Noun Modification Structures
V-ING forms as modifiers here have the characteristic that they always occur before N. head in view of their distribution and the funcions of each type of construction.
1) Active functional participles from Vi.
The dog sleeps. the sleeping dog The stone rolls. -7> the rolling stone The dog barks. the barking doe
Cf. The baby lay in the bed. *The lying baby in the bed
*The baby lay .3
2) Passive functional participles from Vt.
The dog bites men. >the man-biting dog The girl loves fun. the fun-loving girl The novel interests the reader very much. --->
the very interesting novel4 Cf. The boy uses scissors.
*the using boy ...
2.2.2.2. Post-Posed Noun Modification Structures
This type of construction is not modified with an adj. or any other intensifier, so it may be said to be a verb or a participle. The modifying verb forms usually have other structures(or words) accompany-ing them, but they can also appear alone as adverbial, adjectival, prepositional or other. The noun head is, in general, the notional subject of the modifying verb.
Restrictive use in which modifying word groups are not set off by a pause. No man living—No man (who) lives
is living
1. # stands for a pause here.
2. H. A. Gleason, op. cit., p. 294.
3. R. B. Leeds, The Grammar of English Nominalizations (Mouton & Co., 1964), p. 8.
4. H. A. Gleason, op. cit., p. 274.
Relative-Be is deletable before anything which can occur after Be.1 2.2.3. ENGLISH-ING FORMS IN SENTENCE MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
The so-called participial construction functions as the modifier of the whole sentence. The following is the order or position of the modification structure.
(Watching this scene, he felt his anger melting away.) 1) Present
Participle
moon having risen, we out the light.)
reports, he must be an (The put from (2) Perfect (Judging Adverbial b) I) Pre-posed position man.) able
2) Medial position (The boy, running swiftly, fell.) 3) Final position (He is very strong, considering his age.)
It might also be necessary to distinguish uses of complementation
and participial construction. Whereas some kind of pause occurs
before-ING forms, it follows that it might function as a sentence modifier. Yet we are not allowed to draw the conclusion that when a comma occurs, some pause inevitably occurs.
Among suprasegmental phonemes, junctures are closely related to participial constructions. It is for this reason that junctures had to be checked with actual usage among some English speaking people to take into consideration the pause as a grammatical signal. The position in the modification structures changes when the change of the tentative pause is signalled by having a comma.
e.g. The man, carrying a bag, came home. The man carrying a bag came home.
The function of this type of construction is different from that of N. modification in that the former obviously has some pause while the latter has none. When a participle is used as a predicate appositive,
it will have an adverbial function as in:
There he sat reading. (V. Modif.) He sat there_ reading_ (S_ Mndif 1
1. R. B. Leeds, op. cit., p. 91, p. 93.
J. J. Katz & P. M. Postal, Integrated Theory of Linguistic Description (The NI. L T. Press. 1964). 13. 120.
The following result was obtained out of the investigation of
presence or absence of juncture.
1) The presence or absence of pause almost always coincides with
that of commas in writing.
2) Pre-posed participial construction always ends with a major
pause.
Mid-posed
participial construction
sometimes ends with a
minor pause.
Post-posed participial construction has usually no pause when
it has no comma.
The distribution of occurrences of junctures in the examples are
shown in Table 1.
The next step is to investigate the frequency of occurrences of
participal construction in 1) Pre-posed positions (including a) absolute
construction b) with Prt.)
2) Medial positions and 3) Post positions.
The following chart 2 denotes that participial construction has a higher
instance of occurrence in the pre-position than in the mid and
post-positions.
Table 1
Table 2
F
F of
Positionof
occurrence%Doubtful
96TotalPosition:occurrence"
Pre
129
65.0 I
31
14.1
160
Pre
150
73.8
Mid
12
5.8
2
0.9
14
Mid I
24
11.7
Post
23
11.2
7
3.0
30
Post
30
14.5
Total
164 1 82
40
18
204
I Total
1 204 100
- - _2.3. IDENTIFICATION OF FUNCTION CLASSES OF ING FORMS
The nature of English-ING forms has led us directly to attempt to describe the distributional classes of the English-LNG forms in their positioning in the sentences.'
For the purpose of proving the formal distinctions among English-ING forms the following procedure may be used to establish several
1. N. Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (the M. I. T. Press, 1965) , p. 79 : "subcategorization"
criteria on which to base a decision.
(A) Determiners (Intensifiers)1 by their distribution
1) by adding some qualifiers: very2, so, too etc.
2) by adding comparative or superative forms: -er, -est, more, most 3) by putting the frame .1y, seems
(B) TR test 1) NomT (The Nominalization) predication
2) by putting the frame: It animate noun. (C) Juncture
2.3.1. VERB STRUCTURE
2.3.1.1. Verb-in Be+V-ING Forms
(A) With the previous criteria, out of the whole 144 examples we could get the following adj. characterized verbs. We might conclude that their adjectival character is seemingly prominent from their distribution : disappearing, disappointing, striking, amusing, interesting,
changing, suffering, increasing and winning.
(B) All Be+ V -ING forms can be tested as in :
1) The child is sleeping.sleeping child 2) *It sleeps Mary.
amusing book*the book will amuse... It amused Mary.
interesting book=>*the book will interest... It interests Mary.
In view of the above fact, it may be said that 'interesting' and `amusing' seem to be adjective .
We summarize that the Be+V-/NG forms may belong to another form class since they are not filled by their determiners in their positions. As a matter of fact, until we can investigate the case of the functions of modification, we classify the Be+V-ING forms in the following two types :
Table 3 No. of T ype Ioccurrence Adjectival19 5.6 Purely V.1135 __ _ 94.4
TotalI144
100
1. H. A. Gleason, op. cit., p. 130.
2. N. Chomsky, op. cit., p. 151.
2.3.1.2. Verb Phrases
VI-V-/NG forms and as Objective Complement
These types of constructions do not need to be distinguished by
classifying, since they obviously hold the function of verbal participles .
2.3.2. V-ING FORMS IN NOUN MODIFICATION STRUCTURES
2.3.2.1. Pre-Noun Modification Structure
This is the most typical pattern in Noun modification structure,
yet we have some problems in identifying the function classes here.
From the hypothesis, this type of construction
can be said to be
divisible into four groups of form classes as follows:
(1) group— By means of the preceding three factors, the following
distinctive features were identified :
(A) No determiners functioned with them.
(B) The-ING forms used as modifiers in this group are made most
simply from the present tense by changing their forms as in:
The rain falls.falling
rain
It falls Mary.
The dog barks.>barking
dog
*bark dog *It barks Mary.
In this respect, the possibility of TR into V. means on the one
band that it belongs to V. not to other form classes. On the other
hand, the difference of word order makes the function of the-iNG
forms change as in:
Smiling, the man nodded. (S. Modif.) The smiling man nodded .
(N. Modif.)
(C) There occur some ambiguities between (1) group and (2) group
because of the difference of their accentuation:
Table 4
(I) Group
(2) Group
- -
1) 2a3/dancing\lgirl-a girl performing 2a3/danc\ ling girl-a girl whose
the act of dancing ession is dancing
2) 2a3/hunting\ 1-dog-a
dog performing 2a3/hunt \ ling dog-a dog for hunting
the act of hunting
3) 2a3/moving vain-a van that is
aalmov \ ling van-a van is for moving
moving
4) 2the3/drinking\ 'cattle-the cattle that f 2the3/drinkVing water-the water for
,
is drinkingdrinking
In the examples given above, it is felt that the accent pattern of ( 1) group would be C/. i J fixed verb phrases, while (2) group j represents fixed noun phrases.1
( 2 ) group
(A) This group of verbs always functions with determiners except `grouping' and 'charming' .
( B) Most of them cannot be transformed.
( C) The accent pattern of the fixed adjectival phrase is C D. ( 3 ) group
(A) They do not function with any determiners.
( B) The transformation is impossible : 1) 2the3 reading room *room reads. 2) the resting place *place rests. 3) the singing book
*book sings . ( 4 ) group
N. always appears in the position immediately preceding N. or, before the V-ING, N. (when primary stress is on the verb, not on N.) is joined to N. usually in a writing system.—internal modification 2
(A) Though the compounds can be adjectival in expressing a state or quality, formally no determiner can function with them.
( B) Some TR might be possible by the objectives preceding the V-IiVG. 1) a cattle-raising rancher => The rancher raises cattle.
2) some psalm-singing seaman :=> The seaman sings psalms. ( C) This pattern has the fixed type of the stress mark.
From the above characteristics, the distribution of each group could be listed as follows :
Table 5
Factors Determiners TR Juncture Total
Group
Occurrence
No Occurrence
No Occurrence
No I Examples
_ XX XX21 (2)X X X 29 (3) X X X 15 (4)XX X X15 Total80
1. Pitch mark was followed by Fries' since it shows the difference more clearly. 2. A. E. Nichols, English Syntax(Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1965), p. 60.
As far as the data are concerned, V-ING forms as participles might have less frequent occurrence than they have as adjectives . The V-//VG forms in Pre N. Modification structure are to be distinguished
from each other because they have different distributions and also function differently in their syntactic structures. Thus it might be preferable to keep (1) group with the form class of verbs, which function as participles, (2) group of verbs which are not yet fullfledged pure adj.s but which may safely be called Adjectival V.s, (3) group which will be called Verbal N.s, and (4) group which are to be called Adjectival V. being different from (2) group.
In conclusion, it is worth mentioning that various complexities
develop among V -ING Pre-N. Modification structures which were
classified, to some extent, into some reliable groups through the distributional analysis.
2.3.2.2. V -ING Forms in Post-N. Modification
(A) This type of construction does not occur with any determiners;
(2) group of verbs never occurs in the post position. (B) The man standing ,E› the standing man *stand man
a house burning a burning house
(C) No special features of accent and juncture can be perceived if any pause occurs between V -ING and N.. Its function is to be
different ; accordingly, this type of V. coincides with the (1)
group of verbs.
III. PATTERNING OF JAPANESE -TE FORMS
3.1. SOME SIGNIFICANT ASPECTS OF JAPANESE-7'E FORMS
Traditional grammar states that Japanese-TE forms originated
from the renyoo form (a kind of V. inflection.) to in written Japanese , while in colloquial Japanese it is now maintained that they function as Aux. V.s since they often occur with other verbs. Japanese-TE forms have a great significance both in being one of the types of inflected forms that every predicate contains and in being ending suffixes . They have various conjugations in their types which raise some problems in their uses.
This inflected-TE form, which is called participle or gerund, shows one of the important aspects of Japanese Grammar, and its function is more like that of the participle in English even though the Japanese verb is different from the English one in many respects. In view of the fact, it seems certain that English-ING forms and Japanese-TE forms have suitability for the following contrastive study.
3.2. JAPANESE-TE FORMS IN MODIFICATION STRUCTURES
To begin with, various types of Japanese-TE forms will be
treated by finding some distributional features and functions in each type of the construction. By following the division by Bloch,1 it must be proper to divide-TE constructions into a) V. inflection and b) Adj. inflection.
It would also be justifiable to call them either-TE forms or the participial forms since they possess a group of inflection.2
a) V. inflection
It is of some use to see in what classes of V. inflection-TE forms appear before proceeding with the descriptions of each type of
construction.
(1) The most important and commonly used one is that of Yodan (a kind of V. inflection) in which irregular- TE forms occur:
hanasu hanasite3
oyogu--oyoide4
(2) -TE forms of itidan (a kind of V. inflection)
This form is regular and only made by adding -7'E to the second base; taberu tabete, akeru- akete
1. B. Bloch, "Studies in Colloquial Japanese Inflection," Readings in Linguistics (LSOA, 1958), p. 159.
2. -TE or -DE is sometimes called a gerund, as in the English-ING forms, but English and Japanese have such different functions of the gerund that the term is misleading; the English gerund is a noun substitute, while the Japanese one is never used for such a purpose.
3. Japanese symbols are used in morphophonemic representation. (tu=CtsuD, si=0;iD)
4. S. Martin, Essential Japanese (Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1954), p. 86: "-DE occurs after -g, -h, and -d stems and -TE after all others,"
(3) -TE form of irregular V.s, which are two in number :
kuru kite, suru site
b) Adjective inflection
This type of expression also inflects for nine categories in V. inflection: yokute, kurakute, tadasikute, nemukute, yasasikute etc.1
3.2.1. JAPANESE -TE FORMS IN VERB MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
In Japanese verb phrases, verb inflection-TE forms have some connection with other verbs. This feature of their complicated functions makes it difficult for learners to study Japanese : Here comes the most difficult one. e. g. (1) Mado ga aite iru. *(2) Mado ga aite aru.
(3) Mado ga akete aru. *(4) Mado ga akete iru. They can be explained by TR technique.
(1) PS Marker (3) Derived P Marker
ass _ VP P4VAux Nomf •N^49‘
)4P1
VIn VIPrcd AT In II Mado ak L - i - ru 1,1-10'F.,1 JAC 4 a/aiteiru/ is from ak-te-iru, so that (2) is ungrammatical.
(3) is transformed from NP-ga-mado-o-ake-ru; iru cannot be used after Vt. and (4) is said to be ungrammatical.2
From the patterns of-TE forms in verb phrases, it is important to observe what kind of supplementary V. can be conjoined with the preceding -TE forms. Consider the following viewpoints :
1) Kinds of V.s in conjoining with-TE forms 2) Ways of their distribution 3) Kinds of inflection of form classes with-TE
forms. In this respect, they are to be divided into :
a) V-TE+V 102
b) V-TE+V-TE+V 44 (No. of Occurrence)
146
1. B. Bloch, op. cit., p. 104.
2. Y. Isami, "A Generative Grammar of Japanese No. (1)," The English Teachers' Magazine (Taishukan, 1965), Vol. XIV, p. 24.
a) V-TE+V is partially identical with #S#--->NP+V-TE+V
This type of -TE forms have co-occurrences with various kinds of V.s
(1) V-TE+iru(oru) or aru—F: $#S#—÷NP+V-TE+jarruul
M: Progressive, Continuous, Changed, Complete—State D: Hana ga saite iru. Mado ga akete aru.
(2) V-TE+simau—F: VP—>V-TE+V M: Completion
D: Kaite simau. Gakkari site simau.
(3) V-TE+oku—F: #$S# >NP+V-TE+oku M: Non-Volitive
D: Gotisoo o kosiraete oku. Kare o matasete oku.
(4) V-TE+miru(miseru)—F: #Si# >NP4 V-TE+Mita (miseru)
M: Volitive D: Boosi o kabutte mita. Sore o hanasite miseru. (5) V- TE+iku(kuru)—F : #S#---->NP+V-TE+iku(kuru) M: Orientation
D: Watakusi wa aruite kuru. Mado o simete kuru.
(6) V-TE+kudasai—F: #Sg—>NP+V-TE+kudasai M: Polite request
D: Tyotto matte kudasai. Mado o simete kudasai. b) V-TE Forms +V
V-TE forms can also be used like conjunctions by conjoining two or more V-TE forms as in English; They constitute the so-called
major sentences. F: #S#--->NP+V-TE+V-TE+V M: Continuation
D: Isoide aruite itte simatta. Ano hito ni kiite mite ageyoo.
3.2.2. JAPANESE-TE FORMS IN ADJECTIVE MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
This type of phrases have a great similarity to the verbal-TE forms and they are also made by adding -TE as -nakute (Negative) to the adverbial forms. The suffixes tend to be irregular.
There are four types of adj. phrases as follows:No. of Occ.
a) 10
a) V-TE+Adj—F: VP- >V-TE +nai M: Negation b) 2
D: Aite nai. Okite nai. Tabete nai.c) d) 3 5
b) V+Adj. -TE—F: itSt$ >NP+VP+Adj. -TE ___ 20
1. E. Bach, An Introduction to Tumsformational Grammar (Holt, Rinehart Winston, Inc., 1963), pp. 91-94.
M: Assumption D: Eigo o sukosi naratta rasikute— c) Adj. -TE+Adj.— F: VP-->Adj. -TE+Adj. M: Reason
D: Tiisakute takai. Omokute warui.
d) Adj. -TE+V— F: VP —>Adj. -TE+ V M: Cause (Reason) D: Katakute Komatta. Isogasikute yaseta.
3.2,3. JAPANESE-TE FORMS IN PARTICLE PHRASES
MODIFICATION STRUCTURES
a) The case in which particles occur after -TE forms
(1) kara—F: #S# >NP +VP-TE(DE) 1-kara +VP M: The described action as a limit in time. It is equivalent to English "After.. (-ING)." D: Sigoto ga sunde kara kaetta. Yuugohan o tabete kara mairimasu. (2) wa—F: VP >VP-TE+wa +VP M: Emphasis
D: Yamete wa doo desu. Akete mite wa ikemasen.
(3) mo—F: #5# >NP+VP-TE+mo— M: Paradoxical condition
D: Mado o akete mite mo— Korewa itu tabete initemo— b) The case in which particles occur before -TE forms
F: VP-->Prt.+V-TE M: Conjunctive use D: to itte, to site, ni taisitc.
Various types of Japanese-TE forms such as inflected ones are
included in the modification structures, among which the most
distinguished ones will be a) -TE forms in N. Modification Structure and b) -TE forms in S. Modification Structure.
3.2.4. JAPANESE- TE FORMS IN NOUN MODIFICATION STRUCTURES
The characteristic feature in this structure is that modifiers always precede the non-modifiers as in Sizuka ni nagarete iru kawa.
In this sentence kawa is the head word which is preceded by modifiers. Such modification is made by inflection and by other gram-matical forms. The inflected expression that constitutes or ends with a clausual modifier is the predicate of the modifier.
e.g. :;;:Si$ >NP+V-TE+V NP+VP+NP
Heitai ga kado ni tatte iru. Kado ni tatte iru heitai `A soldier is standing on the corner .' 'The soldier standing on
the corner'
JapaneseEnglish ttlt 44" rile .+11 AurL.Th' Nam V. V be. t!A v Der,N NAsp Tn.
II1
1 I
- YRI.IL
1I
HeNitaiRaubni tat,u.ThtMikrd•isjit
L?
c coirntr
Rel+be (who is) is deleted.=>
The soldier standing on the corner
The orders of English and Japanese are just vice versa, so the direct translation from one language to another is usually impossible. The fundamental rule of Japanese construction is that qualifying words precede the words they qualify. Thus the different arrangement of modifiers presents a problem to learners.
3.2.5. JAPANESE-TE FORMS IN SENTENCE MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
This type of construction has usually been treated in traditional grammar as the function of conjunctive particles. Yet this paper treats -TE forms as the suffix morphemes of verbs.
e.g. #S# >NP+V-TE+(NP+)VP
Hara ga hette sinisooda. Ame ga futte kaze ga fuku.
3.2.5.1. The Importance of the Suprasegmental View in Japanese-TE Forms
By comparing 1) DeNsya ni notte ikimasita! 'I went by streetcer.' with 2) DeNsya ni notte, ikimasita. "I got on a streetcar and went.", we notice that they are different only in the presence or absence of a pause. The fact indicates that the meaning of the constructions are different. Consequently, it was necessary to consider the presence or absence of pause of all types of -ING form constructions in connection with sentence modifiers. Here we asked a few Japanese to say the following
phrases or sentences in natural way.
Table 6 X X X X X X X X
Nani o kaite imasuka.
Boku wa ima tegami o kaite imasu.
Mado ga akete aru.
Kuni e kaette hataraku. X
Motto yukkuri itte kudasai.
Hidoku tukarete kurusii. Kaze ga futte samui. X
Nakanaka fune ga konakute modokasii. X
Hidokute komarimasu. X
Okite wa iru desyoo.
Ima notte iru.
Kadoni tatte iru heitai. X
Hataraite iru kooba.
Ame ga futte, kaze ga fuku. X
Hara o kakaete waratta.
Kaminari ga natte ame ga furu. X
Okane ga arimasen node nani mo kaenai. X
Person Pattern V— TE +V (iru) V— TE +V(aru) V— TE +V V— TE+ Adj. Adj.— TE +V V—TE+Prt. N+V—TE N. Modif. S. Modif.
From the examples given above, it should be noted that there are varieties in the way of placing of pauses even in sentence modification structures where the verb suffix-TE forms have no major pause and only some minor ones. This must be one of the features which distinguishes Japanese-TE forms from English-MG forms .
3.2.6. IDENTIFICATION OF FUNCTION CLASSES IN
JAPANESE-TE FORMS
Through the preceding discussion of various types of Japanese-TE forms construction, it was pointed out that Japanese-TE forms have a
similar function to that of Japanese Adj.s in that both forms are put at the end of a non-final clause and add the meaning of `and' therefore'
or 'moreover' in English. Furthermore, it is also assumed that they are to be classified into the following:
(1) group of V.s
V.ssimau, akeru, taberu etc. can make -TE forms by adding only
-TE to the stem.
(2) group of V.s end with one of the following eight endings. -au, -bu , -gu, -ku, -mu, -ru, -su, -tu can make irregular-TE forms.
Adj.s end with the ending -ku.
Japanese-TE forms are various and are flexible in their functions and patternings. We are able to observe some of their distinctive features from the distributional viewpoints.
IV. SOME CONTRASTIVE FEATURES OF ENGLISH-ING FORMS
WITH JAPANESE- TE FORMS
4.1. IMPORTANCE OF DISCOVERING THE EXAMPLES OF
SIMILARITY AND DISSIMILARITY1
Each language possesses its own unique system. No one can deny the fact that the system of modern English is quite different from that of Japanese. Both languages vary in many respects. However, striking correspondences in their uses and principles are to be observed.
It is a matter of fact that this kind of contrastive study cannot let learners shut their eyes to the difficulties. As more difficulties arise, the evidence of the necessity of this type of study increases.2
In this sense the question of possibilities for comparison of the two languages consits in determining whether we can find a common element or not. Accordingly, we want to know to what degree English structure interferes 3 with that of Japanese. We can determine this by noting to what point the native language and the foreign language
correspond. When the second language corresponds very closely to an analogous pattern in the learner's native language, the learner will probably have very little, if any, difficulty in the production and recognition level of his new language.
4.2. THE WAY OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
This analysis will procede according to Lado's approach,4 and the
1. J. Ellis, Toward a General Comparative Linguistics (Mouton & Co., 1966), p. 14: "The notion of comparison of course comprises resemblance and contrast."
2. W. G. Moulton, "Applied Linguistics in the Classroom," Teaching English as a Second Language (McGraw-Hill, Co., 1966), p. 82: "By means of a contrastive analysis it is possible to predict the difficulties..."
3. U. Weinreich, Language in Contact (Mouton & Co., 1964), p. 1.
4. R. Lado, Linguistics Across Cultures (The University of Michigan Press, 1959), p. 49.
following description is to be taken into account:
1) to investigate the similarity or dissimilarity of Form, Meaning and Distribution in each language.
2) to describe the fact in the recognition and production levels which will be necessary in the description of the problem of
labeling each.
4.3. SURVEY OF SOME INTERFERENCES CAUSED BY
SYNTACTIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH-ING
FORMS AND JAPANESE-TE FORMS IN MODIFICATION
STRUCTURES
No two languages can be described in the same way in all details, for no two languages are completely alike in their structures; but although the functions of English-ING form and Japanese-TE forms are so different, it is to be assumed that both forms have much correspondence. In this view, a hypothesis will be set up; in the process of description English-ING forms have equivalent Japanese-TE forms. The characteristic features of both structures are to be referred to in the following contrastive process.
4.3.1. VERB MODIFICATION STRUCTURES
4.3.1.1. Be +V -ING
As far as this pattern is concerned, both forms almost always correspond to each other as in:
You are always finding fault Kimi wa itumo watasi no
with me. arasagasi o site iru.
I am writing a letter. Watasi wa tegami o kaiteiru.
However, some forms of English-ING forms do not correspond to Japanese-TE forms : These raise some important problems in teaching and learning the languages.1
Pattern English Japanese
1) -ING -ta
1. B. Banathy, E. C. Trager, and C. D. Waddle, "The Use of Contrastive Data in Foreign Language Course Development," Trends in Language Teaching (McGraw-Hill, Co., 1966), p. 37: "what the student has to learn equals the sum of the differences established by the contrastive analysis."
(de syoo) -ma su (-u) - TE -ING a. present b. passive
c. Be+Adv. Adj. (Perfect) d. (V.) + (Prt.) + (N.)
the in
-nagara (tutu) linguistic comparison, is style has advantages
a th in presenting cited2 since -ING style used Lado were 4) As for the rules set up by ease. with comparison rechecking the Japanese -ta 2) 3)
..no to lii gakite it u. Sizuka ni nasal,
Sensei ga ki (masi) ta. (
-ta (masu)
The same (result) The same
(for the Japanese learning English)
tend to say only in the past form.
-masu (de syoo) (-ru)
Jiki ni kimasu. Mata aimasu (syoo).
S. & Pron. may be omitted. The same
Kimasu has been set as usage. *Jikini kite imasu .
tend to use with-TE form.
The same Cf. The same is true of Be+going+to+V.
English
Pattern 1) -ING
Ex. The time is coming when.. Keep quiet, the teacher is
coming.
F: Be+V-ING
M: Durative progressive action D: occurs after Subj.
Problem: (for the English learning Japanese)
1. Recognition: inclind to say with -tutu.
2. Production : -TE form might usually be in high
probability.
Pattern 2) -ING
Ex. I'm coming soon.
I'll be seeing you again. F: S. 4-Be+V-ING M: Immediate future D: occurs after S. Problem: 1. R: Restricted to Be+V-ING No special problem
2. P: tend to use present form (Inf.).
2. R. Lado, op. cit., p. 73.
-TE (iru)
Sinbun wa hoojite iru. Sometimes (hoojiru)-TE form is prominent. The same
occurs as 1) -TE 2) Present.
sometimes tend to use without -TE form.
inclind to use-ING form.
The alternation of simple and progressive form is the most significant problematical feature.
Pattern 3) a. Present
Ex. The newspaper reports.
F: No-ING form
M: Statement
D: occurs as Present. Problem
1. R: No special problem
2. P : tend to use present form without -TE form.
Among the thousands of English verbs, some do not usually
constitute English-ING forms.1 From the lexical viewpoint, though these examples are limitless, there occur some interferences for Japanese in production. They are likely to use -/NG forms from the analogy of fukuNde iru, tigatte iru in Japanese-TE forms.
English Japanese
Pattern 3) b. Passive -TE
Ex. The window is opened. Mado ga aite iru (akete aru). -TE
: Be -I- P.P. form has transtivity & intranstivity.
M: The state of action The same
D: No -ING form -TE+iru (aru) occur.
Problem
1. R: No special problem The same
2. P: The kinds of Vt. & Vi. raise some significant problems for both the English & the Japanese; there is a case in. which usage is
reversed between English and Japanese.
Pattern 3) c. Be+Adv.(Adj. or V.) -TE (iru)
Ex. He is here (has come here). Kare wa koko ni kite iru.
She is present. Kanojo wa syusseki site iru.
1. consist, differ, include, resemble, belong etc
F: Be corresponds to imasu. M: State used predicatively D: Comp. occurs after Be. Problem
1. R: No special problem
2. P: Koko, desu, kits or juNbi desu will be used.
The same
V. resumes its ordinary function. V-TE+V
tend to say ni irnasu or de aru. -ING form will be used.
Pattern 3) d. VP or NP Ex. He comes up for it.
On his arrival F: V+Prt. or Prt.+V M: State and action D: Prt. occurs after V. &
before N.
Problem
1. R: No special problem
2. P: Present form without -TE form will be used.
-TE
Kare wa (ga) tori ni yatte kuru. 1/ tuku(tuite miru) to V- TE The same V-TE+V The same
-ING form and clause will be used.
Pattern 4) -ING
Ex. He spoke eating.
F: V-ING M: Continuation D: V +V-ING Problem 1. R: No special problem 2. P: // /1 -nagara (tutu) Kare wa tabe nagara hanasita. is used like Participle.
The same V-nagara (tutu)
*hanasite tabenagara
It is not so difficult since form will be understood spoken with ease by learners.
the and
The kinds of dissimilarity or in degree of correspondence will be
of partial similarity that are low difficult for learners.
Table 7
The Number of Occurrence of Be +V-ING
No. Present Present Perfect Past Past Perfect Future Future Perfect Total 211 12 18 41 14 10
1
306 68.9 3.9 5.8 13.7 4.5 3.2 100 No. iru aru oru arimasu 32 23 10 15 80 40 28.75 12.5 18.75 100 4.3.1.2. V+ V-ING FormsBoth English and Japanese have this verbal construction, and the following patterns are predicted:
Japanese has a variety of connections with other verbs. This fact causes some difficulties in using this construction.
In the comparison of this pattern a special note is to be taken in regard to the feature of word order, to the ways in which the relationship between words are indicated, and to the types which may be combined.
1) V. as head and V-ING as modifier English
Ex. He came running into the house.
F: Word order is came running.
M: Active continuation
D: V+V
Problem
1. R: Word order has to be taken into 2. P: The very intricacy of word order
difficulties. 26 care kita. Word Japanese wa ie no naka ni hasitte
order is hasitte kita.
The same 1/ /1
consideration.
2) V. as modifier and V-ING as head
Ex. He sat reading. Kare wa suwatte yonda.
F : Word order is the same. The same
M: Active continuation The same V. functions as Modif.
D : VH-V The same
Problem
1. R : Nagara (tutu) tends to be used. By + V-ING is used.
2. P: Usually and is used. No special problem since the
order of Modif. is the same.
3) V-ING in the Passive Construction and 5) Passive Construction are omitted because there is no problem in the Modification Structure. 4) V. as head and V-ING is to be given in 4. 3. 1. 4.
The Number of Occurrence V +V-ING
1) 20
2) 13
33
4.3.1.3. -TE Forms in Adj. a. V- TE Forms +Adj.
English Ex. He is not writing.
He has not grown. F: Be+V-ING & Perfect M: The state
D: There are two types. Problem
1. R : No special problem 2. p : No special problem
b. Adj.-TE+V
English
Ex. The river is sparkling flowing along. Use and V- TE+ V 27 101 128 Japanese Kare wa (ga) kaite inai.
ii ookikunatte (wa) inai.
V- TE+Adj. The same
V-TE occurs before Adj. nai.
The same
They do not always correspond to English-ING forms so that Japanese will have some problems.
Japanese
Kawa ga kirakira hikatte nagarete, iru.
Adj. -TE conjoins with V. The same
Pause is rarely put before-TE form. This is one of the greatest differences between English and Japanese. put state always of is And is used. : Explanation : Some pause before and. F M D same The problem special Problem 1. R: No changed into gives learners can be is fact They Th
same connection with S. Modif.; so-called narticinial constructions. 2. P: has
the
Japanese
no heya de dareka ga
o site iru no ga kikoeru. wa urusai to omotta. Tonari hanasi Hajime - TE+iru+Prt .+V with V. suffix. NP+VP functions
occurs after Subj.
V- TE
same
The
some difficulty.
4.3.1.4. The So-called Verb Phrases English
Ex. I hear somebody talking in the next room.
I found it very cunning at first.
F : NP+ VP +V-/NG
M: functions with V. Modif. & Obj. Comp.
D: V-ING occurs after Obj, Problem
1. R: No special problem
2. P : feel some difficulties cause of the difference of
word order.
Structure
-TNG Forms in Noun Modification
4_21_5.
Modification a) Pre-N.
Japanese Naku (ite iru) tori Miryokuteki na fujin Gooyoku na seisitu Soratohu eNhan
English
The singing birds A charming lady Grasping nature A flying saucer Ex. 1) 2) 3) 4)
V-(TE)+Adj.+N. The same
only in 1).
-TE form occurs
11 make it easy understand as 2.2.2 and 2.3.2. wi to in TR Technique for learners already shown (wa) Japanese
Asoko o hasitte iru hito ga watasi no ane desu.
Ima hanasite iru hito wa dai zetuka desu.
V- TE+ (iru) +N. The same
No similar form to English Modif.s occurs immediately before N.
F : V-ING+N.
M: 1) V. 2) Adj. 3) Adj. 4) N. D: occurs before N. head. Problem
1. R : 2) and 3) are difficult to distinguish.
2. P : The difference of intonation will, in fact, makes it hard
to distinguish since it is in a variety of meaning. b) Post-posed-Noun Modification English
Ex. The woman running there
is my sister.
The man speaking now is a great orator. F: N.+V-ING. M: Modification, Action of continuity
D: Modif.s always occur immediately after N.
Problem Japanese word arrangement is not appropriate from the
comparative point for 1) there are some differences in the order of thinking, and 2) the length and number of Japanese modifiers also make comparison difficult.
before N. tend to place-ING form
Pause raises a problem. is a problem. problem Word order No special R P 1. 2. mata
Modification Structure
Japanese
HeNji ga konakatta node
tegami o kaita.
ItigoNde itte (ieba) kare wa
koojiNbutu desu.
4.3.1.6. -ING Forms in Sentence
English
Ex. Not having received an
answer, I wrote again.
Shortly speaking, he is a simple minded fellow,
F : V-ING, S. -TE(DE) S.
M: Adv. Use as S. Modif. Adv. Conjunctive Use
D: occurs independently from The same
the main sentence.
Problem
1. R: There occurs no pause. The presence or absence of pause
will be a problem.
2. P: Word order also becomes a The same problem.
The most common correspondence between English-ING forms
and Japanese-TE forms is in their function as sentence modifiers. However, a distinctive feature is the fact that English-/NG forms have more junctures than Japanese-7'E forms do.
V. CONCLUSION
Thus far, we have, first, determined and described the distinctive features of English-ING forms and Japanese-TE forms. Distribution of their positional occurrence and transformational technique served as basic tools in this analysis. From further analysis of the first step, some important characteristics were noted by classifying the-ING forms and the-TE forms into several groups.
Second, we have brought out differences in the structural
patternings of both forms and have found through a contrastive
analysis some trouble spots which might be interferences for learners. Because this kind of study had some difficulties during the process of analysis, we were not able to deal with many other important problems which are yet to be solved. It may, however, be said that we were able to bring out some characteristics of both forms. As a result, this kind of analysis has its practical significance in application for teaching. In grammar teaching, above all, it is necessary to build up what is called a useful grammar. This analysis is expected to decrease the errors in complicated modification structures by comparing the grammatical system of English with that of Japanese. It should be noted that such recognition of the significant points on the syntactic level can be of
great aid in effective teaching.I
On the basis of such assumptions we administrated some tests. The results proved to us that the adequate application of the outcome of the analysis will reduce the number of errors of learners in the study of both 1anguages.2 And it is sincerely hoped that some clues for the solution of the problems involved in teaching and learning both English and Japanese have been given and also that aids for more effective teaching and learning of a foreign language can be found throughout the present work.
1. C. A. Fereuson, "Linguistic Theory and Language Learning," Series on Language and Linguistics, No. 16, (Georgetown University p. 121.
2, 77a assminplian of the thearelleal contrastive analysis Was administrating some tests, but I have omitted the resod. here.
Monograph Press. 1963),
validated by
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