Definition and Process of Conservatism in Turkey

continued with Industrial Revolution. Conservatism, which formed its political attitude and philosophy against the emergence of class-based capitalist societies, equipped itself with opinions against universality and abstract ideas.¹³⁴

political and philosophical environment, into which new conservative attitude of the Republic was born. ¹³⁶

Defining the Turkish Revolution as "conservative modernization," Tanıl Bora argued that Turkish modernization developed in company with a conservative attitude and thinking. Set of values dominating Turkish modernization is Kemalism, which has an opposing attitude to positions that perceive themselves as conservative. CHP never accepted the fact that it is a conservative party or it has conservative tendencies. The party is revolutionary, modernist, and progressive. But, this has never been the dominant principle of the party. Positing Turkish modernization and conservatism as opposite elements stem from the fact that conservatism is generally reduced to religious traditionalism. ¹³⁷

According to Mahmut Akpınar:

"Conservatism in Turkey contains a little religiousness, a little nationalism, and a significant amount of statism, praising and glorifying the state. Unfortunately, conservatism values in Turkey are not about preserving and protecting history and culture but abusing them. Also, conservatism has always been in the mouths of the leaders and has been used for Machiavelist purposes in order to gain the support of masses. Several conservative leaders, including Kenan Evren, who positioned themselves in the right wing, abused religious symbols, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, posed for photographs while doing prayer or with Holy Quran in their hands.

Right parties in Turkey have always been religious, statist, and Turkist. Almost all centre-right parties had negative attitudes towards Alewi people, Kurds, and other minorities, and had preferred to develop intimacy with them only to the extent that they

Nazım Irem, “Kemalist Modernizim ve Türk-Gelenekçi Muhafazakarlığının Kökenleri”, Journal of 136

Toplum ve Bilim, No: 74, 1997, p. 52-53.

Tanıl Bora, “Muhafazakarlığın Değişimi ve Türk Muhafazakarlığının Bazı Yol İzleri”, Journal of 137

Toplum ve Bilim, No: 74, 1997, p. 5-16.

can receive their votes. Conservatism in Turkey came about as a reaction to CHP's practices during the single-party period. It is reactionary.” ¹³⁸

The concept of "conservatism," which is widely used in the political literature of Turkey, but does not have the same political applications with that of Western countries, is generally perceived as religiousness and commitment to traditions. However, western civilizations perceive that the concept of conservatism is a political ideology, which does not want radical changes, and is especially in favor of preserving class distinctions in the social structure. As ¹³⁹ distinct from England, conservatism in Turkey is not based on all dynamics of industrial society. It was conceived in a society, the majority of which was the rural population, which must be modernized and industrialized by the ruling class. Nuray Mert argued that conservatism is, on the one hand, an effort to ¹⁴⁰ keep the system away from "criticism and questioning", while, on the other hand, it is activating its own breaking mechanisms to maintain balance for preventing transformations from being traumatic. According to Mert, a centre-right party, which represents the conservative political attitude, bears both of these qualities. In other words, it confronted the criticism and judgments from left and also attempted to soften the reactions to Republican Revolutions. ¹⁴¹

Ahmet Çiğdem described Turkish conservatism's the most important characteristic, which distinguishes it from the conservatism in the West as follows:

“Compared to the examples in the West, the formation, which is to be posited in the opposing side of Turkish conservatism, will surely

The interview with Mahmut Akpınar, 09.07.2017.

138

Murat Sezik, Muhafazakar Siyaset İdeolojisi ve Türkiye’de Muhafazakarlık, I. Türkiye Lisansüstü 139

Çalışmaları Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı, 29 June-1 July 2012, p. 113.

Nuray Mert, “Muhafazakarlık, Fundamentalizm Değildir!”, Karizma: Muhafazakarlık Yeniden Özel 140

Sayısı, Issue: 17, January-February-March 2004, p. 36.

Mert, ibid., p. 34.

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be Republic. Turkish conservatism's relationship with republic is identical to modernity's relationship with conservatism. Turkish conservatism is a republican ideology and has formed its existence in this process. However, the conservative Turkish intelligentsia did not seek confrontation with the republic like the conservative, who gave a reactionary response to the French Revolution. Here, the fundamental characteristic of Turkish conservatism becomes evident; it is nothing but a political-cultural reactionism.” ¹⁴²

During my interview, Bill Park, an academician at King's College London, Department of Turkish Studies, compared the conservatism in Turkey with conservatism in the west as follows:

“Conservative or centre-right parties in Europe are generally pro-free market, less welfare and egalitarian oriented. It is perfectly compatible to hold these views and be tolerant towards minorities, women, personal freedoms etc. Also, European conservative parties are generally supported by the materially better off. This is not the case in Turkey, where conservative = religiously conservative, negative towards personal freedoms – and is more common among the poorer sections of society. Old style European Christian Democratic parties were once conservative in a way that resembles current Turkish conservatism, but this is hardly the case any longer.

Turkey has not undergone the revolution in social attitude and behavior that Europe has experienced." ¹⁴³

Demir Murat Seyrek made the following statements in the same comparison during my interview:

Ahmet Çiğdem, Taşra Epiği: Türk İdeolojileri ve İslamcılık, Birikim Publication, Istanbul, 2001, p.

142 58.

The interview with Bill Park, 22.08.2017.

143

“While conservatism in the West is mostly at peace with secularism and the system, we observe that this hasn't been achieved in Turkey completely. Attempts to abuse politics with religion and abuse religion with politics still continue. With this statement, of course, it is important to emphasize that there are two types of conservatism in Turkey. The first is the group of conservative persons, who do not have any problems with the system and secularism, and who found a place for themselves within the centre-right tradition to a large extent. The second group is the conservatives, who come from a political Islam background and have a problem with secularism and the system. Of course, there are also similarities. When we look at the conservative parties, especially in Central and East Europe (the same applies to Greece and South Cyprus), we can see an effort to shape religion, religious values, and policies around these values. It must also be stated that democracy culture is not well-established in these countries. However, this situation is observed in subject-based policies (abortion, LGBT rights, and women’s rights, supporting the church, immigration, anti-refugee movements, and Islamophobia) rather than changing the secular state.” ¹⁴⁴

It can be argued that CHP, which was the leading actor of Kemalism, which was a modernization project specific to the conditions in Turkey, tried to implement a radical modernization project throughout the single-party period.

Kemalism incorporated many elements, foundations of which were laid in French Revolution, therefore posited against conservative thought, within its political tendencies due to its Unionist political thought, which continued throughout its existence to a large extent. But, it must not be forgotten that different and opposing political tendencies can co-exist. For this reason,

The interview with Demir Murat Seyrek, 20.09.2017.

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opposing political ideologies, traditionalism, modernity, conservatism, radicalism co-existed since the early periods of the Republic. ¹⁴⁵

Bora, who described the Turkish revolution as "conservative modernization," argued that Turkish modernization was developed for the accompaniment of a conservative attitude and thinking. The paradigm ¹⁴⁶ prevails that Turkish modernization is Kemalism and has an attitude, which is opposite to positions that define themselves as conservatives. CHP never admitted being a conservative party or the fact that it has conservative tendencies. The party is revolutionary, modernist, progressive. But, this principle was not always the prevailing attitude. Assuming Turkish modernization and conservatism as opposing elements generally results in reducing conservatism to religious traditionalism.

Another dimension of conservatism during the single-party period is: In Turkey, while conservatives also regard Islam as an educational institution, they also believe that removing religion from social life undermines family bonds and reprobates the moral level of youth. They especially attributed the ¹⁴⁷ decrease of respect for elder individuals and increase of materialism to the moral degeneration of young people. According to Turkish conservatives, the best means of education for restoring the moral of society and youth is Islam.

Resorting to providing religious education at schools as a solution to the decrease in commitment to traditional values, CHP defended giving religious education at school by making changes in a manner that fundamental principles of Secularism are not violated, and opening shrines of Sultans to visits. ¹⁴⁸

When developments that took place from the establishment of Republican regime until 1990's are analyzed, it will be observed that although a level of

Özgür Gökmen, Tek Parti Dönemi Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkasında Muhafazakar Yönelimler (Ed. A.

145

Çiğdem), Muhafazakarlık, Iletisim Publication., Istanbul, 2004, p. 132.

Tanıl Bora, Three Status of Turkish Right, Iletişim Publication., Istanbul, 2003, p. 71-72.

146

Karpat, ibid., p. 75.

147

Karpat, ibid., p. 229.

148

attention changed from time to time, "the regime maintained its politically revolutionary, socially conservative" character as it was during CHP period. ¹⁴⁹

The 20^th century was an era, which witnessed the rise of conservative discourse. There were parties in countries, such as England and Turkey, particularly the United States, which used the name and arguments of this ideology. In Turkey, DP, JP and particularly ANAP are centre-right wing parties, which used conservative arguments explicitly. I will discuss this subject in further detail under the title Centre-Right Wing Parties in Turkey.

3.2 Centre-Right Wing Parties in Turkey