the fact that the teacher's utterances were not meant to evaluate the students or give them instructions. This ambiguity of teacher's utterance encouraged the student to speak in an everyday manner and to maintain the conversation.
The injection of humor into the conversation constitutes another type of E.B.. The attempt to create humor is necessarily an entrusting behavior, as one can never be sure whether or not one's utterance will be interpreted as humor by one's interlocutor. Thus the teacher's unexpected utterance combined with the students' reaction to that utterance creates a special type of E.B.‑G.B.. Though this type of E.B.‑G.B. may not be common in the classroom, it is a normal part of everyday conversation. In a sense, the behavior of the JTE in Chapter 2 and the ALT in Chapter 3 may be far from the typical teacher's behavior. In addrtion, it could be said that as this type of behavlor devlates from the conventional classroom practices, it may confuse the students. However, the two teachers' speech and behavior are consistent with those found in everyday communication which is characterized by E.B. and G.B.. Furthermore, the students did not appear to be confused by the teachers' entrusting utterances.
It is interesting to note the fact that the absence of clear instructions by the JTE in Chapter 2 and the ALT in Chapter 3 Ied the students closer to the goals of English language education, that is to develop students' ability to conduct praetical communication. This may be misinterpreted to mean that the teacher should stop giving instructions all together. However, these teachers did not simply leave the students to talk freely. They gave grammatical practices and sometimes corrected student's errors even in the middle of conversation.
Furthermore, most of their lessons were conducted in the I‑R‑E (F) fashion.
The belief that communication rarely occurs in pattern practice seems to be
widely held by teachers. However, even the simple Q & A practice in Excerpt 12 appeared to be communicative in that E.B.‑G.B. were used by teacher and student just as they are in everyday conversation. Some teachers observed in this thesis succeeded in creating and maintaining ikiga au and hanashiga hazumu conversation in the classroorn while others did not.
The author believes the difference between the classrooms lies not only in the special techniques teachers employ to maintain conversation with the students, but also in the horizontal teacher‑student power relationship found in successful classrooms. Usually in English classes, the students are so conscious of having to answer in line with the teachers' wishes that the timing of student's utterances gets delayed and silence continues longer. However, the asymmetrical relationship between students and teacher that is so obvious in most classroom interactions was not as apparent in the classes of the JTE mentioned in Chapter 2 and the ALT in Chapter 3. As the JTE and ALT created more horizontal relationship through E.B.‑G.B. and unique classroom rules, the students were released from their customary subordinate position in the conversation and were thus able to participate more equally in the conversation.
By analyzing teachers' speech and behavior directed toward the students in more detail, it is possible to discover how to conduct classes where instruction and communication do not conflict. The author would like to address this issue in her future studies.
Notes
Chapter 1
1 . Borrowing Wittgenstein's phrase "language game", Yako (2001) says, "In the language game called music, rhyihm becomes the basis fo'r the connection between those who create sounds and those who listen to them". Likewrse m the "English language game", the give and take of everyday English conversation, rhyihm has a similar importance.
2. However, Couper‑Kuhlen ( 1 999) reports that quantitative and rhyihnric repetition in English are not necessarily accompanied by time‑based accuracy and the rhyihnl varies widely even in the sequence of a piece of cornmunication.
3. Refer to 2.3.1 in Chapter 2.
4. The Greek words Kairos and Chronos are Greek translations of two concepts of time distinguished by ancient Hebrews. Originally, Kairos defined time on a cosmic scale, encompassing such things as birth and death. Chronos referred to the continuance of time in the normal space‑time.
5.This is called Arhythmia. The term indicates that some problem has occurred with the exchange of utterances, causing the participants to get embarrassed.
6. Just as there is an expression "one speaks as if one sings" or a theory that music originates from words, spoken language and music are closely related. The importance of musical elements such as pitch, sound volume and the timing of utterance in the act of speaking has been studied in the field of linguistics. However, it has not been clarified how such musical elements in language are organized in conversation. Erickson has shown it by transposing native English speaker's conversation into musical notation.
Chapter 2
l . The instructor was Mr. Goro Taj iri who was in the Matsue Municipal Daiichi Junior High School at the time. (At present he is in the Hirose Municipal Hida Junior High School.) The class consisted of 17female students and 20 male students. They used Sunshine English Course 3, Reading I "Love is Action". The class I observed was the sixth hour ofthis lesson. the theme of whole lesson was "charity projects".
2. When the beats are coordinated and integrated by periodically setting a psychological stress every certain number of beats a rhyihm is created. This is realized by repeating an act every certain number of beat and at certain points. The strong and weak beats rarely signify the loudness ofthe sound itself. Instead, they are primarily
intended to raise psychological consciousness by the relative the sound.
strength and height of
Chapter 3
l . This is the same teacher who gives the lessons discussed Chapter II .
2. This kind of JTE's behavior that brings up anticipated answer was observed also in his Spanish class. See Appendix 9.
3. Freire (1968) questioned whether knowledge is established through dialogue or by way of transmission. The word transmission is used in this instance to describe the acquisition of knowledge as explained by the gas station model, whereby knowledge is poured into the head of the learner just as gas in the container is poured into a car.
In short, this model corresponds to the individual competence model which regards the cognitive system of human beings as a closed information processing system.
This system characteristically focuses on the receptiveness of the learner to new knowledge: how fast the learner can acquire knowledge, how large a quantity of knowledge the learner can acquire and how long the learner can maintain newly acquired knowledge.
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Appendix 1: Voice analysis of conversation between JTE and female student
T‑>‑>‑ ‑>‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ S ‑ ‑ ‑>‑ ‑ ‑ ‑> ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑> ‑ ‑> ‑ ‑ ‑>‑ ‑> ‑> ‑>‑>‑ ‑ ‑> ‑ ‑>‑ ,･ )‑ ‑ ‑> ‑ ‑>‑>‑>‑ ‑
O . 78, . O .97 5,¥' I .07secs.
‑ F‑ ‑ ‑ )‑ T‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑>
Voice analysis software used rAmadeus II j
(T teacher S : student)
Martin Hirer, Switzerland
T‑ ‑>‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ S ‑ ‑>T‑>‑ S ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑‑>‑ ‑> ‑> ‑ ‑ ‑>
1020ms 975 998 771 I088 884 635 612 658 17.69 703 771 726 658
= =
794
‑ ‑
794
‑ ‑ 794
‑>‑ ‑>‑ ‑>
794 1 020
‑>‑> ‑>
794 771
>
771
‑>‑>
884
635‑794‑953ms.
: I OOOms=1 seo.
T‑
726
Anycne else? Anyoue else? Yes, Kentaro lwas surprised ph hiatH [,s : lb readit frst because ah if ifwe hmm grv, 100 yen to Indianpeq)le indianpeople will be more
Voice analysis software used
happy So lwassurpri d Hiunl,HimnO
(T : teacher, S: student)
rAmadeusH J Martin Hirer, Switzerland
Appendix 3: JTE and students conversation score with beats 3‑1. Excerpt 3: Yukiko's case
Yukiko
Which put your coins in?
3 would you
A:h
I can't,
machine or a
6
So I will
8T You wiu away trom this place?
And I will
another place vending
J1
different In a
ifferent place .
11
different
A n: way juice .
you would buy 121 3T Thank Q .
(T : Teacher, S : student, ' ̲ : The underhne denotes a stressed syllable.) : pause,
3‑2. Excerpt 4: Tomo‑chan's case
(3)
be a re port‑
Matsumoto
(T : Teacher, S : Student, ' : pause, ̲ : The underhne denotes a stressed syllable.)
3‑3. Excerpt 5: Hayato's case
(3) contri‑
2 How" '
3S Yes.
(T : Teacher, S : Student, ' The underline denotes a stressed syllable.) : pause,
; The horizontal numbers from ( I )‑(4) represent one of the four beats. The vertical numbers show the progress of conversation.
Appendix 4 (Excerpt male student
(1)
Conversation
(2)
between
7
teacher and
(3)
T
s
OK. So, do you know the ans‑wer? OK? Yes?
(4) (5)
r= 3 ‑7
(6)
‑3=
T
Do you ? Do you ?
3 ‑
OK, What count‑ryis Kumi in?S
T
Yes, yes.
(7)
Yes, I do.
(8) (9)
,‑ ‑3
Why do you think so?S
She, she lives in Canada.
T
shows the student sways side to side.
shows the student stands still.
(10) (1 1)
(T: teacher S:
(12)
student)
sl
7Because um, American coin
is
not er twe‑
T
(13)
( (shaping money with his fingers) )
(14) (15)
‑3
s v 7
Five cents, yeah.
er, twe‑
( 1 6)
‑ 3 ‑
five cents five cents
( 1 7)
five cents
( 1 8)
T
S
twenty five cents? Five cents? OK. Um.
r‑‑3
Twenty five centS.
( (shaping money with his fingers) )
But
T
S
( 1 9) (20) (2 1 )
r‑‑3‑‑1 r‑ 3 ‑' r‑‑3'‑l ‑‑‑3'='‑]
Canadian coin is all all all coins OK. Twenty five cents and one dollars.
( (turning around his fingers three times) )
(22) (23)
(24)T S
Mm hrn. How about America?
i
Two dollars.
T
S
(25) (26)
America is
( (scratching his nose) )
(27)
Pa per.
one dollars one dollars is
um, pa‑ per
( (making a gesture for paper money) ) Pa per.
(28
T JL
Hum, ok.
S
(29) (30) (3 1 ) (32)
r‑‑3‑=1
This this tape says all coins four charin charin charin.
r ‑3‑‑1
( (pointing at the tape recorder) )
(33) (34) =3 =3
(35)T
Hum very good.
S
It's per‑ fect.
r‑3 ‑‑'
Very good, good.
Thank you.
( (giving a high‑five to the teacher) )
in which there is no pause in turn‑taking
(T teacher S student ･ : pause)
IT 2
) 3S
4T 5
IT 2 3
3S 4 5
6T 7
IT
C2
IS 3 4T15
Hey, Anyone ,please
I
make Uh‑hm,uhhm .
What did you Your comment
Yes.
because eighty seven
Hmmm.
less than (! in i,
it's very didn't
Hmmm.
( ) ‑‑
anyone, please tell me your
think Contri‑
OK.
think?
please.
Kaori.
yen OK.
under
((opening his arms))
little
send
( 3) ‑
tell me your im pression.
we
bution Good How did you
Anyone is I was
zero don't full
Yeah.
Yes, Saori
because More than
Im pression.
Yes,Mei.
can Uh‑hm .
???
feel?
OK., Yeah,
shocked point one yen.
It's
IT
@2
IS 34
4T
Right?
surprised to richer than we should make
Anyone else?
hear the fact India.
contributions
Yes, Yuri.
because So more.
Hmmm.
Yes, Kentaro.
read it
if
yen to
more Hmm, hmm,
I felt
we
one‑yen.
less than.
IT IS IT
R 2S
34 5 6
6T
Anyone else?
Please look at me.
because give Indian people
So
Anyone else?
I was surprised to
ah one hundred
will be I was surprised.
I was Japan is much
I think
R i. h. ̲y s.
IT
@3
IS 5T 5SYes, Kazuki.
If we
from Each person
make a
each of from each person
yeah,
contribution our
Ah ,
: The horizontal numbers from (1)‑(4) represent one of the four beats.
Show the progress of conversation.
I was surprised
OK.
f irst
if we Indian people
ha p py.
OK.
Please say that
Ah
ten‑yen person
the n
The vertical numbers
Appendix 8 (Excerpt 12) : Conversation male student in Spanish elass
=3
T
between ALT
(3)
an d
S
Hola!
(Hello ! ) Como
(HOW
es‑ tas? Um muy gracias
are you?) bien,
(Um very fine thank you.)
5
‑3=
(4)Hola!
(Hello !)
'‑3 l
Bien, gracias, y tu?
(Fine, thanlk you, and you?)
(5)
=3=
(6)=3=
T ?.
tu fami‑lia?
(your family?)
Um
( (looking at the student's album) )
S
big fami‑ly! Um tu aboe‑ra
(um,your
grand‑mother.)
3
r‑ '‑t (7)
r‑3 ‑‑i (8) 3
r‑ *‑'
(9)
T S
tu abie‑ro, tu‑ a‑ ma‑d‑re
(grandfather, mother, Tio, tio Wha! Quantos tios tienes?
many many.) (HOW many uncles do you have?)
( I O) (ll)
,‑3‑‑‑,
(T: teacher
( 1 2)
=3‑
S: student)
l‑ 3 ‑1
T
Un ti‑o, (one uncle,
un ti‑o.
one uncle.)
Ha, (I yo no have no
Tengo (1 have
(13)
=3‑
uno one
,= 3‑‑,
tio.
uncle.)
(14)
3‑
r‑‑3‑‑'( 1 5)
S T
=3 ‑
tengo tios.
uncle.
1?
) (?
? no tengo tias.
? have no uncles.)
Y tias? Cuantas tias tienes?
(HOW about aunts?)
(HOW many aunts do you have?)
T r‑3‑1
(16) ( 1 7)
l‑3=t
Tengo
(1 have (18)
‑3=
S
Tres tias. Ah (Tree aunts.)
una dos (one, two
tres tias.
three aunts.)
Ah, su‑nombre (her name
tres tias.
three aunts.)
T
(19)
(20) (2 1 ) (28)
‑3 ‑
(29)(30)
=3‑
r‑‑3T 11
es?
is?) 3
r= ]
Mayumi.
I= 3 ‑‑ '
Ha. Tie‑nes dos pri‑mos
(You have two cousins.) y her‑ma‑nos? Tienes (HOW about brothers?)
(DO you have
nerma‑nos?
brothers?)
S S
T
Su nombre es (Her name is
(22)
Mayumi.
Mayumi.)
(23)
Su nombre es Akiko.
(Her name is Akiko.) (24)
r= 3 T
Ha
(31)
Um
,‑=‑3(32) r‑3 '‑'
(33)
Masako. Ha beauti‑ful name. Ha,
S
un hermano. Ah‑huh.
(one brother.)
S
r‑3‑=1
Su nombre es (Her name is
(25)
=3=
,‑‑'3‑1Masako.
Masako. )
(26) (27)
T T
Un hermanos, hermano.
(One brother, brother.)
(34) (35)
=3‑
r‑ ‑‑l 3Su nombre es (His name is
(36)
=3‑
Konki.
Kouki.)
r‑3 '=‑1
Um y tienes primos?
(DO you have cousins?)
3‑
Kouki, ah nlce. Mira mira, yo ten‑go(Look,look) (1 have
un her‑mano, one brother,
dos her‑manos two brothers,
S S
Si, tengo.
(Yes, I do.) Una
(One, dos two
primos.
cousins.)
(37) (38) (39)
=J
r‑‑ ‑‑I 3(46) (47)
=3
(48)T
T
una hermanE dos hermanas. Ah one sister two sisters.)
( (tuming the page of the album) )
su nombre es (her name is
Adori‑a‑na.
Adoriana.)
S
Maria (Maria
y
and
Vicen‑te.
Vicente.)
Um .
S
( (nodding) )
(40)
'‑‑3 ‑‑l
(41)
=3=
(42)T
Adori‑a‑na. Su nombre es Seisa.
(Her name is Seisa.)
Seisa ,‑3'‑‑,
S
Adori‑a‑na.
(43) (44)
Seisa.
( (turning the page) )
(45)
T
Dos.
(Two.)
( (tuming the page) )
S
C uantas
(HOW many abuelos grandparents
tienes?
do you have?)
Appendix 9:
Spanish class
(1)
Conversation
T‑3 ‑‑1
between
(2)
JTE
r‑3 ‑'
and sutdents in
(3)
r‑3‑‑1
( I O)
=3
T
(11)
3
r‑‑3'‑‑](T: teacher S : (12)
=3
student)
T
So, cuan‑tos
(how many cars au ‑ tos
tie‑ nes?
do you have?) Si, so
,,
cuan‑tos
(how many dogs pe‑rros
tie‑nes?
do you have?)
S1 S2
(4) (5)
r‑3
(6)T
(13) (14)
=3
‑‑‑3‑‑l‑3
(15)T
S2
7
Dos au‑tos.
(TWO cars.)
Si, Si
(One Uno
( (showing
uno pe‑rro, uno pe‑rro, one dog , one dog ,
his forefinger) )
uno pe‑rro.
one dog.)
OK .
s2
Dos (TWO au‑tos. cars.)
(7) (8) (9)
=3
(16)T
( 1 7)
(18) 3 3 ( 1 9)
‑3=
so and next OK. So tienes perros?
(do you have a dog?)
T
So please
( (turning up a card) )
l
Tie‑nes tele‑fono ene ca‑sa?
(DO you have a telephone at home?)
s2 S3
( (nodding) )
Appendix 10: Chart of conversation score of a conversation between JTE and student in which there is a long silence
(1) (2) (3) (4)
IT 2 3 4 6
8S 9
lO 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 7T 18 19S 20 21 22 23
Please
So please
Thank you.
Which
I Iike to
OK, every body Yes?
stand up
Please look at her 100k at her.
So, city
go
I Iike to
please (nodding)
thank you.
Please,
Please Miss Daiwa,
do you like
go to
listen to her
I Iike to
Takamatsu.
Please stand up.
everybody look at her
to go?
please
go to
2 3T Takamatsu.
24 25 26 27S 28 29 30 31
OK, you OK, do you
want to Miss Daiwa, want to do in
go to so
Takamatsu?
Takamatsu.
what
32T What do you want to do in Takamatsu?
33S 34
3 5T
36 37
(T: teacher S:student
The horizontal numbers from (1)‑(4) represent one of the four beats.
numbers show the progress of conversation.
' : pause) The vertical
Appendix 11 (Excerpt 15): Chart of conversation score with beats, taken from the class where students stand up when they make comments
Saito‑kun's case
IT 2S
3 4 5 6 8 7 910 11
11T
(1) (2) (3) (4)
How about ?
Begl)'s to stand up‑
Finishes standing up
think
7C 7C
rain forest loose rain forest.
Nishizaki‑kun's case
(1)
Saito‑kun
‑
we
I Ioose
We loose
(2)
‑>
Tilts his bodyforward
cut Because
you loose
rain forest
(T : teacher,
(3) s:
Saito‑kun
‑>
I don't
We
tree.
tree cut
we loose
student,
IT
2S
3 4 55T
5S
6 7 8
9T
right.
' : pause)
(4)
(
Nishizaki‑kun,
O
think
‑O
I think
Japanese people is
Rich.
what do you think?
Were you shocked?
Japanese people is
Ve ry
Stands up
Were you surprised?
. t , JCv 5
(T : teacher, S
The italicized letters show the non‑verbal behavior of the student.
The horizontal numbers from ( I )‑(4) each represent one of the numbers show the progress of conversation.
What do you. . .?
I,
student,
four beats.
‑O ,
ve ry rich.
' : pause)
The vertical