Summary of literature review

Parker and Tunstall (1991) mention that natural hazard studies provide a novel and imaginative vehicle for teaching aspects of physical and human geography because they deal with the dynamic relationship between humans and their environment, providing an opportunity to introduce the concept of perception and enhance general environmental awareness; an important element of environmental education. Gregory (2000), categories hazards research as a part of the ‘third stand5 of research in physical geography from asocioeconomic point of view. Accordingly, as studies of the magnitude of human impact encouraged physical geographers to move towards applied problems, they saw the need to change attitudes toward the physical environment. One of these changes is the growing awareness of the difference between the real world and they way in which it is perceived, because such perception often influenced decision-making and, therefore, management. This chapter reviews selected studies and research related to hazards in particular. It focuses on the development of hazard research in the 1940s under the initiatives of Gilbert White and discusses how research on hazards has taken different directions in response to the changing times.

Based on the analyses of major hazard events, the significant conclusions are: hazards may be conceived as composed o f a series o f linked stages beginning with human needs and ending in adverse consequences; ideally, hazard management should consist of a sequence of four major activities assessment: control analysis, selection o f management strategy, implementation, and evaluation.

An increasing number of people have become vulnerable to hazards because of changes in socio-demographic conditions as well as their cultural and political circumstances. This condition is more prevalent in developing countries where economic pressures have forced many of the poor people to live in cyclone-prone areas.

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People of higher socioeconomic status are better prepared for disaster than other people. People with limited finances and resources are not able to relocate to less vulnerable areas without government assistance. Socio-demographics such as income, education and occupation impact the awareness of a threat and the ability to prepare for a threat. Better educated people are more likely to have a positive attitude toward damage prevention adjustments. Cyclone and storm surge perception research in Galachipa in Bangladesh reveals that socioeconomic factors such as occupation and education do not cause any variation in perception. More importantly, economic pressures and social preferences are the prevailing reasons for residents to remain in their homes after experiencing a cyclone rather than moving to a less vulnerable area.

People’s opinions regarding a cyclone’s magnitude and frequency differed. Despite the disadvantages of living in the cyclone-prone areas, very few expressed intent to move somewhere outside their present community. The major factors involved in cyclone risk perceptions include previous experience; knowledge of cyclones and cyclone risks; and socioeconomic variables. Location, among other factors was the most important factor affecting cyclone risk perception. Experience of a cyclone generally outweighs general knowledge of the hazard.

The more cyclone experience the people had, the less likely they were to see the need to evacuate during the next cyclone. In addition, those who had lived for longer periods on the coast were less likely to be concerned about evacuation. However, as in the case of two coastal communities in Bangladesh, reasons for not evacuating were the fear of looting and losing their belongings, and the lack of local shelters. This reflects the need for an integrated disaster mitigation strategy to encourage people to migrate to less vulnerable regions.

In addition, people resist moving to the cyclone shelters during a cyclone. The reasons are thought to be disbelief in warnings among coastal dwellers, the distance of cyclone shelters from settlements,

poor conditions and overcrowding of shelters, mismanagement of weather forecasts and a lack of proper management of the cyclone shelters as well as a fatalistic attitude that the cyclone is the will of

Allah

In many areas of the coastal belt in Bangladesh, there is no embankment. Therefore, mangroves that offered shelter have been removed to make way for shrimp and salt farming enterprises. Such levels of direct exposure to cyclone hazards mean that the shelters are all the more crucial as an intervention, as one of a few ways in which people can gain protection.

Female deaths attributed to cyclones (relative to male mortalities) are primarily due to gender specific roles and on restrictions of women’s spatial mobility imposed by the norm of

purdah

Purdah

not only correlates with female’s lack of social power and autonomy as well as basic rights, but also hinders spatial mobility in times of cyclones, which is the primary reason for the disparity in cyclone mortality rates between males and females in Bangladesh. Because of gendered division of space, women have less access to information and knowledge regarding any disaster compared to males.

Therefore, the combination of impeded mobility and lack of information created by the cultural and religious practice of

purdah

The communities become more vulnerable to natural hazards, if disaster management is limited, as they become less socially and economically sound. The level and pattern of community development, measured by community social capital, does affect the community’s capacity to respond. There was a positive correlation between communities with higher levels and more community oriented patterns of development, and effective response to disaster. The community with the most unique historic, cultural, and religious background had the most social capital, and was able to respond to the disaster most vigorously.

The magnitude and unexpected nature of disaster demands may compromise the organization’s or community’s ability to coordinate responses. It is in the face of such demands that previous training

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and practice are of great importance. Preparedness actions taken on by the community, organizational, and household levels, facilitate effectiveness and efficiency of routine and improvised response activities.

Existing literature shows that several disastrous cyclones hit Bangladesh in 1822, 1876, 1961, 1965, 1970, 1991，2007 and 2009 (Blaikie, et al., 1994; Dube, et al., 1997; GOB, 2008; Paul, 2009a). During the cyclone 1970, 1991 and 2007 about 500,000; 138,000; and 3,406 people were killed respectively (Ali, 1980; Haider, et al., 1991; GOB, 2008; Paul, 2009a). In fact, more than 50% of total deaths in the world due to cyclones and induced surges occurred in Bangladesh (Ali, 1999; GOB, 2008). The geographic location, unusual characteristics of the tropical monsoon climate, a shallow continental shelf with the confluence of three mighty river systems and funnel shaped estuary exacerbate cyclone and surge impacts in Bangladesh (Haque, 1995; Madsen and Jakobsen, 2004; Paul and Rahman, 2006;

Paul, 2009a).

The review of existing literature finds that, although a number of studies have been carried out in Bangladesh looking at different issues of coastal flooding, cyclones and storm surges, the systematic documentation of indigenous knowledge and practices and the identification of how different underlying factors influence coping behavior is still lacking. Therefore, the review of literature on reducing vulnerabilities to natural hazards study intends to explore different pre-disaster, during disaster and post-disaster coping measures, and their effectiveness to mitigate the impacts of cyclones and induced surges on coastal Bangladesh. An attempt has been made to explain how different variables such as age, gender, income, education, occupation, and other exogenous factors influence the adoption of coping measures.