Deriving column densities and masses

CHAPTER 3. OBSERVATION OF THE ORION MOLECULAR CLOUDS 75 Intensity ratio of ¹³CO(J = 2–1)/¹³CO(J = 1–0)

Figure 3.12 shows the distribution of the ¹³CO(J = 2–1)/¹³CO(J = 1–0) intensity ratio (hereafter, R¹³_2−1/1−0). This ratio reflects both the kinematic temperature and density of the gas because of the small optical depth of the ¹³CO emission lines. The large scale tendency is similar to that of the ratio of ¹²CO while the dynamic range is larger. The maximum ratio in the Orion A is observed toward the cloud boundary near the Orion KL with a ratio of∼2. The gradient seen in R¹²_2−1/1−0 is seen also in R₂¹³_−1/1−0. We found that the ratio is ∼0.8 in the region near L1641N and is 0.3–0.5 in the region at l > 211.5^◦. Some of the EC clumps and the Northern clumps are detected with the ratio of ∼ 0.8. In the Orion B clouds, the maximum ratio (>1.5) is observed in the western side of NGC2024. Other clouds in the Orion B observed to be relatively high ratio of ∼0.9.

Intensity ratio of ¹³CO(J = 2–1)/¹²CO(J = 2–1)

Figure 3.13 shows the distribution of the ¹³CO(J = 2–1)/¹²CO(J = 2–1) intensity ratio (hereafter, R^13/12₂₋₁ ). The ratio roughly reflects the column density when the excitation temperatures are the same for both of the lines. Due to the photon trapping effect, the ratio is also sensitive to local density where the ¹³CO(J = 2–1) is sub-thermally excited and the¹²CO(J = 2–1) is optically thick. The ratio is also affected by the abundance variation which mainly reflects the intensity of the interstellar radiation field in the massive star forming region (e.g., Ripple et al. 2013). The distribution of R^13/12₂₋₁ is somewhat different from the intensity distributions of the

13CO(J = 2–1) and also of ¹²CO(J = 2–1). In Orion A, the ratio is nearly constant from the north to south all along b ∼ −19.^◦5, although the intensity distribution of

13CO(J = 2–1) and ¹²CO(J = 2–1) are strongest at the northern edge, decreasing to the southern edge. In Orion B, the ratio is stronger around the Northern cloud than the Southern cloud, although the tendency is opposite to the intensity distribution of

13CO(J = 2–1) and ¹²CO(J = 2–1).

76 3.4. ANALYSES

N W

Figure 3.12: Distribution of the ¹³CO(J = 2–1)/¹³CO(J = 1–0) intensity ratio. The area indicated by the solid line denotes the field observed with the 1.85-m telescope.

CHAPTER 3. OBSERVATION OF THE ORION MOLECULAR CLOUDS 77

N W

Figure 3.13: Distribution of the ¹³CO(J = 2–1)/¹²CO(J = 2–1) intensity ratio. The area indicated by the solid line denotes the field observed with the 1.85-m telescope.

78 3.4. ANALYSES lines, and by assuming the Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE) for optically thin lines. In this subsection, we derive the column densities and the masses by using the assumptions in the above, and discuss the cause of their differences. In order to investigate the difference depending on the environments in terms of the star formation activity, we divide the observed area into four regions, i.e., Orion A-1, Orion A-2, Orion B-1, and Orion B-2 (see Figure 3.2). Orion A-1 is a part of Orion A atl > 211^◦, and it includes no massive star formation site. Orion A-2 is the region at l <211^◦ where the massive star formation is taking place. Orion B-1 is a part of Orion B at b <15^◦ corresponding to the Southern cloud as introduced in §3.3.1, and Orion B-2 is the region at b >15^◦ corresponding to the Northern cloud.

Line luminosities

We summarize the luminosity of the observed emission lines and their ratios in Table 3.1. To derive the intensity, we integrated the observed emission lines over the surface areas of each subregion. The ratio of J = 2–1/J = 1–0 is different depending on the isotopes. The R¹²_2−1/1−0 is the highest ∼0.6–0.9 and the R¹⁸_2−1/1−0 is the lowest ∼0.1–

0.7. Especially in the A1 subregion, R¹⁸_2−1/1−0 is very low compared with R¹²_2−1/1−0 by a factor of 3. The ratios of ¹³CO/¹²CO show similar tendency both in J = 2–1 and J = 1–0. The A2 subregion is higher than the A1 subregion and the B2 subregion is higher than the B1 subregion.

CHAPTER 3. OBSERVATION OF THE ORION MOLECULAR CLOUDS 79

Table3.1:Observedlineluminositiesandluminosityratios SourceL12 2−1L13 2−1L18 2−1L12 1−0L13 1−0L18 1−0R12 2−1/1−0R13 2−1/1−0R18 2−1/1−0R13/12 2−1R13/12 1−0 (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12) Orion232002930882950044201580.790.660.560.130.15 OrionA144001830481900028901020.760.630.480.130.15 A1420041336950954280.600.430.130.100.14 A210200142045120001940740.850.730.610.140.16 OrionB8790110039105001530560.840.720.700.120.15 B15760691186350830270.910.830.670.120.13 B23030408203730661280.810.620.720.130.18 Col.(1):Sourcename. Cols.(2)–(4):Totalluminosityofthe12 CO,13 CO,andC18 O(J=2–1),respectivelyinKkms−1 pc2 . Cols.(5)–(7):Totalluminosityofthe12 CO,13 CO,andC18 O(J=1–0),respectivelyinKkms−1 pc2 . Cols.(8)–(12):LuminosityratiosoftheR12 2−1/1−0=L12 2−1/L12 1−0,R13 2−1/1−0=L13 2−1/L13 1−0,R18 2−1/1−0= L18 2−1/L18 1−0,R13/12 2−1=L13 2−1/L13 2−1,andR13/12 1−0=L13 1−0/L13 1−0,respectively.

80 3.4. ANALYSES

Table3.2:Averagedcolumndensitiesandcolumndensityratios SourceN1−0 XRN XN13,1−0 LTERN 13/12RN LTE,13N18,2−1 LTEN18,1−0 LTERN 18/12RN LTE,18 (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10) Orion18.920.722.41.190.9262.844.22.341.42 OrionA15.619.420.81.340.9361.844.62.871.38 A115.311.316.91.110.6738.132.12.101.19 A215.824.123.21.471.0464.954.43.451.19 OrionB31.423.326.40.840.8864.243.41.381.48 B137.325.628.40.760.9074.147.61.281.56 B227.720.324.30.880.8357.239.61.431.45 Col.(1):Sourcename. Cols.(2):AveragedcolumndensityoftheH2derivedfrom12 CO(J=1–0)in1020 cm−2 . Cols.(3)and(4):AveragedcolumndensityoftheH2derivedfrom13 CO(J=2–1)and 13 CO(J=1–0),respectivelyin1020 cm−2 . Col.(5):ColumndensityratioofRN 13/12=N13,1−0 LTE/N1−0 X. Col.(6):ColumndensityratioofRN LTE,13=N13,2−1 LTE/N13,1−0 LTE. Cols.(7)and(8):AveragedcolumndensityoftheH2derivedfromC18 O(J=2–1)and C18 O(J=1–0),respectivelyincm−2 . Col.(9):ColumndensityratioofRN 18/12=N18,1−0 LTE/N1−0 X. Col.(10):ColumndensityratioofRN LTE,18=N18,2−1 LTE/N18,1−0 LTE.

CHAPTER 3. OBSERVATION OF THE ORION MOLECULAR CLOUDS 81

Table3.3:Totalmassesandmassratios SourceM1−0 XM13,2−1 LTEM13,1−0 LTERM 13/12RM LTE,13M18,2−1 LTEM18,1−0 LTERM 18/12RM LTE,18 (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10) Orion110.428.290.50.820.316.945.30.410.15 OrionA70.617.559.80.850.293.928.10.400.14 A125.83.818.20.710.210.38.90.340.03 A244.813.741.60.930.333.619.20.430.19 OrionB39.710.730.70.770.353.017.20.430.18 B124.06.718.20.760.371.49.00.370.16 B214.24.012.50.880.321.68.20.580.19 Col.(1):Sourcename. Col.(2):Totalmolecularcloudmassderivedfrom12 CO(J=1–0)in103 M. Cols.(3)and(4):Totalmolecularcloudmassderivedfrom13 CO(J=2–1)and13 CO(J=1–0), respectivelyin103 M. Col.(5):MassratioofRM 13/12=M13,1−0 LTE/M1−0 X. Col.(6):MassratioofRM LTE,13=M13,2−1 LTE/M13,1−0 LTE. Cols.(7)and(8):TotalmolecularcloudmassderivedfromC18 O(J=2–1)andC18 O(J=1–0), respectivelyin103 M. Col.(9):MassratioofRM 18/12=M18,1−0 LTE/M1−0 X. Col.(10):MassratioofRM LTE,18=M18,2−1 LTE/M18,1−0 LTE.

82 3.4. ANALYSES Column densities

The X-factor, which converts from¹²CO(J = 1–0) line intensities to the column den-sities of molecular hydrogen, has been derived by comparing the intenden-sities with other tracers of mass, such as virial masses (e.g., Solomon et al. 1987), proton masses from gamma-ray observations (e.g., Bloemen et al. 1986), and dust observations(e.g., Dame et al. 2001). For the Galactic clouds, the X-factor is derived to be approximately 1.8×10²⁰ cm⁻² K⁻¹ km⁻¹ s (Dame et al. 2001), and we use this value in this paper.

The averaged column densities derived with the X-factor is N_X¹⁻⁰(H2) = 18.9×10²⁰ cm⁻². We also derived the averaged column densities for each subregion and summa-rized them in Table 3.2.

J = 1–0 transition of the ¹³CO and C¹⁸O have been often used to derive the column density under the assumption of the LTE (e.g., Dickman 1978; Pineda et al.

2010), because the Einstein’s A coefficient is small, and thus the critical density for the excitation is low. The J = 2–1 transitions have higher critical densities for the excitation, and they can be sub-thermally excited in lower-density regions. In the analyses, we apply the LTE assumption for all of the transition lines, and discuss the cause of the differences of the derived properties. Furthermore, we use the peak brightness temperature of each¹²CO transition line for the estimation of the excitation temperature of the ¹³CO and C¹⁸O transitions. Assuming the LTE, the excitation temperature T_ex is derived from the peak brightness temperature of¹²CO line, T_peak, as

T_ex¹⁻⁰ = 5.53 {

ln [

1 + 5.53 T_peak^12,1−0+ 0.84

]}₋1

(3.1)

T_ex²⁻¹ = 11.06 {

ln [

1 + 11.06 T_peak^12,2−1+ 0.19

]}₋₁

. (3.2)

Using the excitation temperature, the optical depths of the¹³CO and C¹⁸O emissions lines are derived from the brightness temperature, T_mb(v),

τ_J=1¹³ (v) =−ln {

1− T_mb^13,1−0(v) 5.29

[ 1

exp(5.29/T_ex)−1 −0.17 ]₋1}

(3.3)

τ_J=1¹⁸ (v) =−ln {

1− T_mb^18,1−0(v) 5.27

[ 1

exp(5.27/T_ex)−1 −0.17 ]₋1}

(3.4)

CHAPTER 3. OBSERVATION OF THE ORION MOLECULAR CLOUDS 83

τ_J=2¹³ (v) = −ln {

1− T_mb^13,2−1(v) 10.58

[ 1

exp(10.58/Tex)−1−0.02 ]₋1}

(3.5)

τ_J=2¹⁸ (v) = −ln {

1− T_mb^18,2−1(v) 10.54

[ 1

exp(10.54/T_ex)−1−0.02 ]₋1}

. (3.6) The column densities of ¹³CO and C¹⁸O in the upper state, N_u, are derived by the following equations,

N_J=1¹³ = 1.98×10¹⁶ [

exp (5.29

T_ex )

−1 ]₋1∫

τ_J¹³₌₁(v)dv (3.7)

N_J=1¹⁸ = 1.97×10¹⁶ [

exp (5.27

T_ex )

−1 ]₋1∫

τ_J¹⁸₌₁(v)dv (3.8) N_J=2¹³ = 1.65×10¹⁶

[ exp

(10.58 T_ex

)

−1 ]₋1∫

τ_J=2¹³ (v)dv (3.9) N_J=2¹⁸ = 1.64×10¹⁶

[ exp

(10.54 T_ex

)

−1 ]₋1∫

τ_J=2¹⁸ (v)dv. (3.10) Assuming the LTE, the column density of the rotational state of J is related to the total CO column density as

N_total(CO) =N_J Z

2J+ 1exp

[hB₀J(J + 1) kTex

]

(3.11) whereB₀ is the rotational constant of the CO isotopologues,B₀ = 5.51×10¹⁰s⁻¹ and 5.49×10¹⁰ s⁻¹ for ¹³CO and C¹⁸O, respectively. Z is the partition function which is given by

Z =

∑∞ J=0

(2J+ 1) exp [

−hB₀J(J+ 1) kT_ex

]

. (3.12)

The column density of the molecular gas, N(H₂), is derived by

N(H₂) =XN_total(CO) (3.13)

where X is the isotopic abundance ratio of the CO isotopologues relative to H₂. We adopt X[¹³CO] = 7.1×10⁵ and X[C¹⁸O] = 5.9×10⁶ (Frerking et al. 1982).

The derived averaged column densities over the whole observed area from ¹³CO and C¹⁸O ofJ= 2–1 andJ = 1–0 areN_LTE^13,2−1 = 20.7×10²⁰cm⁻²,N_LTE^13,1−0 = 22.4×10²⁰

84 3.4. ANALYSES cm⁻², N_LTE^18,2−1 = 62.8×10²⁰ cm⁻², andN_LTE^18,1−0 = 44.2×10²⁰ cm⁻², respectively. The derived column densities are summarized in Table 3.2. We note here that the ¹³CO and C¹⁸O abundances can change depending on the surrounding environments al-though we assume the uniform distribution of the abundances throughout the clouds.

The abundances seem to depend on the self-shielding and the star formation activ-ities, and the values for the ¹³CO ranges mostly within [¹³CO]/[H₂] = 1–3.5×10⁻⁶ (e.g., Dickman 1978; Frerking et al. 1982; Lada et al. 1994; Harjunp¨a¨a et al. 2004;

Pineda et al. 2008, 2010), which affect the estimations of the mass and the column densities.

The column densities derived from ¹²CO are similar to that of ¹³CO while the C¹⁸O show significant higher averaged column densities. This indicates the C¹⁸O emission traces higher column density region than ¹²CO and ¹³CO, probably due to the photodissociation and chemical fractionation of the species (e.g., Warin et al.

1996). Another possibility is that the abundance ratio of C¹⁸O in the Orion region is different from those in the other regions measured by Frerking et al. (1982).

Masses

The gas mass is calculated from the molecular gas column densities by (M_gas

M )

= 4.05×10⁻¹µ_H2 (m_H

kg ) ( d

pc )2(

∆l arcmin

) ( ∆b arcmin

) (N(H₂) cm⁻²

)

(3.14) where µ_H2 ∼ 2.7 is the mean molecular weight per H₂ molecule, m_H is the atomic hydrogen mass,d is the distance, and ∆l and ∆b are the pixel size along the galactic coordinates.

The derived gas masses are summarized in Table 3.3. The masses derived from the J = 1–0 are larger than those derived from the J = 2–1 in all the CO isotopes. The total gas masses derived from ¹³CO(J = 1–0) for four regions are about 70–80% of those derived from¹²CO(J = 1–0) luminosities. The ratio of the total masses derived from the two molecular lines are almost uniform not depending on the regions. This implies that the optically thick ¹²CO(J = 1–0) line is well proportional to the total mass, and if we assume that the mass derived from ¹³CO(J = 1–0) traces the true total mass more reliably, the X factor for ¹²CO(J = 1–0) intensity is estimated to be 1.5×10²⁰ cm⁻² K⁻¹ km⁻¹ s. The mass derived from ¹³CO(J = 2–1) is lower than that from ¹³CO(J = 1–0) by a factor of about 3, indicating that the J = 2–1 line is sub-thermally excited. Especially toward the A1 subregion, the ratio ¹³CO(J =

CHAPTER 3. OBSERVATION OF THE ORION MOLECULAR CLOUDS 85 2–1)/¹³CO(J = 1–0) is lower than the other regions by a factor of 1.4. This indicates that the density of the Orion A1 region is lower than other two regions, which is also discussed in the previous sub-subsection.