・Session Reports•E
Reports from the 18th Conference of Japanese
Association for South Asian Studies,
November 1-2, 2005
Session
Report 1
Reappraisal
of the
Interpretations
of pratityasamutpada
Shoryu Katsura
(Ryukoku
University,
Kyoto)
Regarding
how to interpret the Buddhist doctrine of pratityasamutpada
we have seen
a fierce debate
among modern Buddhist scholars
in Japan at least twice. First during the
1920s among Taiken Kimura, Hakuju Ui, Tetsuro Watsuji and Chizen Akanuma, and
then for some period of time from the 1950s
among Issai Funahashi,
Mitsuyoshi
Saigusa,
Kakue Miyaji and others. Almost half a century has passed since the last debate
and the
coordinator
of the present panel found that it was time to reappraise
the doctrine from new
perspectives.
He asked the four panelists
to approach
it from the four doctrinal
viewpoints,
viz. the Early Nikaya
/ Agama, Abhidharma,
Madhyamaka
and Yogacara
- vijnanavada.
Before
the panelists
presented
their views, the coordinator
pointed out what he thought
were the seven
problematic
issues regarding
the doctrine
of pratityasamutpada.
(1) Did the
Buddha realize the doctrine at the time of his enlightenment?
If so, in what form was it
realized?
(2) Did the doctrine presuppose
the doctrine of transmigration
(samsara)?
If so,
does it not conflict
with the doctrine of non-soul?
(3) Should the doctrine be understood
in the temporal
framework
or in a purely
logical
way?
(4) Does the term "idampratyayata"
mean "mutual
expectation/
dependence"
or "causation"?
(5) How should
we interpret some
of the difficult
chains of the doctrine,
viz. avidya,
samskdra
and bhava?
(6) What is the
in-tention
behind the doctrine?
(7) Is there logical
relation
with other basic Buddhist
doctrines
such as anityata?After
the presentations
of the panelists,
Prof. Noritoshi
Aramaki (Otani
University)
gave detailed comments
on and criticisms
of each paper and then we received
some critical
remarks
from the floor. Here are some of the basic points of each paper.
Fumio Enomoto (Osaka University)
At the very beginning
of the Mahavagga
of Vinayapitaka,
the Buddha is depicted as
"
pathamabhisambuddba" in the context of the twelve chains of pratityasamutpada. The term
having attained the enlightenment";
not "having attained the enlightenment
for the first
time" as usually
interpreted
by Japanese
scholars.
Thus it becomes
clear that the Buddha
reflected
upon
pratityasamutpada
after having
attained enlightenment
and that it was not
regarded as a part of his enlightenment.
The meaning of the continuative
"pratitya"
in the
term "pratityasamutpada"
was examined
in comparison
with its usage in the Vedic
and Jaina
literature.
Finally,
it was pointed out that the temporal
interpretation
of pratityasamutpada
is preferred
to the logical
one from the original
texts as well as the commentaries.
Yoshifumi Honjo
According
to Issai Funahashi
(Bukkyogaku
Seminar
Vol. 37), the Early
Nikaya/Agama
had two kinds of pratityasamutpada,
viz., one related to a sentient
being (sattvasainkhya)
and the other of all conditioned
dharmas.
But the orthodox
Sarvastivada
Abhidharma
held
that pratityasamutpada
related
to a living
being only,
and this was criticized
by Nagarjuna.
However,
Funahashi's
understanding
should be corrected,
for the Mahavibham
(vol. 23)
regards
the pratityasamutpada
of all conditioned
dharmas expounded
in the Prakaran
as
the ultimate truth and one related to a living being in the Jnanaprasthana
as the
conven-tional truth.
Kiyotaka Goshima
Many scholars
understand
that for Nagarjuna
"pratityasamutpada"
means "the mutual
expectation/dependence
of beings",
but his main work, the Mulamadhyamakakarika,
does
not present even the relation
between agent and action to be a case of mutual expectation/
dependence.
However,
he later started to discuss the mutual expectation/dependence
of existence
and non-existence,
ignorance
and karman,
long and short and a lamp and
illumination
and others in the Yuktisastika
and Ratnavali. Many scholars
regard the last
two chapters
of the Karika
as supplementary
parts of the text. But Nagarjuna's
assertion
of
liberation
from transmigration
through
the cessation
of conceptual
constructions
(vikalpa)
and prapanca,
found in the Karika as well as the g Sunyatasaptati,
seems to suggest how
important the doctrine of pratityasamutpada
was for him.
Yoshihito Muroji (Koyasan University)
The interpretations
of each chain of pratityasamutpada
transmitted
in the Maulibhuimi
of
the Yogacarabhumi
can be compared
with those
in Vasubandhu's
Pratityasamutpada
- vyakhya,
because
both the texts comment
on the Agama-phrase
of the Pratityasamutpadasutra.
The
former
text lays
emphasis
on the evanescence
(anityata)
of all conditioned
dharmas related
to a sentient
being, while the latter mainly aims at rejecting the view of dtman attached
to all dharmas.
Session Report 2
Indian
Democracy
and the 14th Lok Sabha Elections
Takako Hirose
This session was organised as part of the research project, Grant-in- Aid for Scientific Research, 2003-2005, "An Analysis of Elections in India", led by Takako Hirose. The session aimed at finding some recent features of Indian democracy through the analysis of
the 14th Lok Sabha elections held in 2004.
The session was chaired by Kyoko Inoue and consisted of the following five papers. 1) "The Analysis of the 14th Lok Sabha Elections by the GIS Method" by Takeshi
Minamino
2) "The Transformation of the Indian Party System and the 14th Lok Sabha Elections" by Hiroki Miwa
3) "The Election Results of a Wealthy State, Punjab" by Tohru Ito 4) "A Trend in 'Developing' States of North East" by Makiko Kimura 5) "The Development of Democracy and Elections in India" by Takako Hirose.
The Minamino paper, by comparing the 13th and the 14th Lok Sabha elections, pointed
out that whereas the BJP further consolidated its strongholds in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Uttaranchal, the Congress' strength dispersed without solid bases. In this sense, it can be said that the BJP had become more stable than the Congress in terms of support bases. The contrast was vividly shown with the help of the GIS method.
The Miwa paper dealt with the transformation of the party system in India since
independence using the model developed by G. Sartori. Miwa argued that the Indian party
system has shifted towards "the moderate multi-party system" since the end of the 1990s, and that the 2004 elections can be interpreted as part of this transitional process.
Tohru Ito dealt with the election results of the Punjab state. Against the national trend, the Congress-Left alliance suffered a setback and the Akali Dal, a regional party and a coalition partner of the BJP, won the election in this state. Three factors were considered important for the Congress defeat. The first factor was the intra-party situations. Whereas the Congress was plagued with factional fighting, the Akali Dal managed to re-unite factions. Secondly, the Congress could not reach a pre-poll agreement with the BSP, thus failing in coalition making in the state. Thirdly, the criticism against the achievement of the Congress government in Punjab turned into a large number of negative votes against the Congress in the Lok Sabha elections. The last factor was considered most important as it showed that the electorate in recent years tends to decide which party to support based on the performance of the state government even in the Lok Sabha elections.
Makiko Kimura pointed out that the election results of smaller states in the North East show different trends altogether. The state governments in these conflict ridden and economically "less developed" states depend heavily on subsidies from the central
government. Moreover, the ethnic conflicts and the resulting accommodation of the ethnic groups into the mainstream are bound to lead to corruption. Such vulnerable states, both economically and politically, tend to align with those parties in power at the centre. Thus some regional parties in this region switched over their allegiance from the BJP to the Congress after the election results came out.
The Hirose paper located the 14th Lok Sabha elections in the history of Indian democracy, arguing that although India has maintained parliamentary democracy for over half a century, the way its democracy functions has changed substantially. The 14th Lok Sabha elections showed three trends. Firstly, states gained more importance even in the Lok Sabha elections. Secondly, the identity politics somewhat receded, at least in some
states, and the economic factor became more important in the electorate's decision. Thirdly,
as states became more important, the differences among states widened between rich and poor and between large and small states.
Session Report 3
Kingship
and Ritual in the
Ancient
Indian
World
Chair: Masato Fujii
Speakers:
Yasuhiro
Tsuchiyama,
Shingo Einoo, Muneo Tokunaga,
Keiji Sadakane and Toshiaki Oji
Commentator:
Yasuke Ikari
The aim
of this session
was to explore
the potential
of interdisciplinary
collaboration
for
studies
of ancient
South
Asia.
The subject
of this session
has been treated
by Indologists,
historians,
anthropologists,
and so on, mostly
within
the field
of their own
disciplines.
As a
subject
covering
a wide
range
of topics,
however,
it can
be studied
more
effectively
through
a multi-pronged
approach.
In this session,
we had the following
five
papers
on this subject
from
different
angles:
politics,
ritual,
literature,
art, and geography,
together
with overall
comments
by the commentator
and discussions
among
the participants
and audience.
Y. Tsuchiyama:
"The Authority of Kings in the Veda"
In order
to understand
the authority
of a king
in ancient
India,
it is important
to consider
the magico-ritual
aspect.
The powers
(e.g.,
varcas, rastra)
bestowed
upon
a king as revealed
in the Atharvaveda
comprise
the characteristic
idea
of a king in comparison
with what
we
read in the Rgveda,
in which
his authority
is chiefly
ascribed
to that of the gods such as
Indra
and Varuna.
The relationship
between
the king
and the priests
should
be considered
in view
of the sequence
of ritual
units.
S. Einoo: "Rites for Battle in the Vedic Texts"
In W. Caland, 1908, Altindische Zauberei, the following numbers prescribe the rites
for battle: nos. 4-6, 14-16, 32-33, 48, 71-72, 79, 104, 114, 115,136-137, 139, 147-148. W.
Rau, 1957, Staat and Gesellschaft im alten Indien, p. 102, n. 9 collects many examples. We
find them also in MS 4.2.11 [34,19-35,1], ManSS 9.5.6.20 and 9.5.5.17; AB 3.22.7 and 8.10.2-6, AgvGS 3.12.1-20, Kauss 14.1-16.26, 28.1-4, 43.1-2 and 50.1-11. The rites in the Kauss are accompanied by many battle-charms found in the Atharvaveda. M. Bloomfield
enumerates them in his The Atharvaveda, 1899, pp. 75-76.
M. Tokunaga: "From Ritualism to Shramanism: A New Approach" Although ancient India has been studied for more than one and a half centuries, our knowledge of the history of that period is far from perfect. Perhaps philologists are mainly responsible for this status quo. Since the Vedas are, in essence, religious and philosophical texts relating to Vedic sacrifices, Indologists have been interested in the history of Indian thought (human or internal culture) rather than social, political, and economic situations of ancient India (environmental or external culture). Besides, historians have not been free from the bias of philologists, as they depend upon philological researches in describing the history of ancient India. Through the study of the social and economic environment, however, we can hope to achieve a deeper understanding about what happened in ancient India. The study of the social and economic situation will solve our long asked questions about ancient India such as why Vedic rituals flourished in the earlier part, and how Shramanism overpowered ritualism in the later part of the Vedic period-questions that cannot be answered by a philological and ideological study of the Vedic age.
K. Sadakane: "Abhiseka in Ancient Indian Arts"
In ancient India, wall paintings were most closely connected with rulers. Mural paintings in the Buddhist caves at Ajanta were done by secular artists who served mainly the upper classes. Stylistically they can be regarded as fine examples of ancient Indian secular painting. There we find five scenes of "abhiseka" (unction) among Buddhist narrative paintings dating from the late fifth century to the early sixth century. All these scenes are represented vividly by secular painters, who had probably attended "abhiseka" ceremonies.
T. Oji: "Three topics on Indianisation in Southeast Asia"
From the sixth to thirteenth century, Southeast Asia was Indianised through the
pervasion
of Hinduism and ancient Indian culture, and South Asia and Southeast
Asia
formed one large cultural
world. Three topics
were taken up here concerning
Indianisation
in Southeast Asia. First, the pervasion
of Hinduism was accompanied
by the overseas
migration of Brahmins. Second, the city design of the royal capital Angkor Thom
corresponds
well with the Hindu cosmology.
Third, Indianisation
of agriculture in
Southeast Asia is attested by the change of rice from Japonica to Indica and the occurrence of the Indian type of plough.
Session Report 4
How does the study of literature
contribute
to South
Asian studies?
Yoshifumi Mizuno
This session aimed to investigate the significance of the study of South Asian literature by considering the function of literature in South Asian society and its relationship to South Asian history.
The session was chaired by Takanobu Takahashi (The University of Tokyo, Tamil literature). Six panelists read papers and three discussants made comments. They were all principal members of a project entitled "The Historical and Present Phases of Literature in a Multi-lingual Society-the Case of Indian literature" which began this year supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research.
The session began with Yuko Yokochi's (Kyoto University, Sanskrit literature) introduction of Daud Ali's idea that Sanskrit classics improved the minds of high-class citizens who supported royal cultures outside palaces. Yokochi also emphasized the importance of studying the classics in order to gain an understanding of South Asian history. She focused on the trans-regional nature of Sanskrit literature.
From the viewpoint of composers, readers, listeners and transmitters of medieval Hindi literature, Teiji Sakata (Takushoku University, Hindi literature) reported that personal talk that had been transmitted from person to person for some reason and had been shared in a community consequently culminated in literary works in the form of narrative style.
Yoshifumi Mizuno (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Sanskrit and Hindi literature) discussed Indian poetics (kavya sastra), or the implicit agreements among poets (kavi samaya), as essential instruments for reading any type of Indian text, citing a metaphorical expression in the Sukavatibhyuha-a Buddhist text-as an example.
Akira Takahashi (Osaka University of Foreign Studies, Hindi literature) read a stimulating paper stating that literature itself is either history or has created history, and that history cannot exist without literature. Thus his paper suggested that the study of literature must be equivalent to the study of history.
So Yamane (Osaka University of Foreign Studies, Urdu literature) introduced certain historical elements of Urdu literature, such as Mihr's poetry on Delhi. It is known that Urdu characters implicate each meaning as a number; therefore, a line of poetry can denote the date of its composition. Yamane also emphasized the realism of the works in Urdu as
opposed to the works in Persian.
Masayuki Usuda (Tokai University, History of modern India) considered the possibility of bridging the gap between studies of literature and history. By introducing an argument by Ranajit Guha, he suggested that Tagore's concept of " itihasa of that day" could be used to shed light on a sphere at the limits of world history.
Taigen Hashimoto (Toyo University, Hindi literature) presented comments for the first three panelists, and Takamitsu Matsumura (Osaka University of Foreign Studies, Urdu literature) and Hiroshi Hagita (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Urdu literature) did so for the last three panelists.
Subsequently, in a debate including the floor members, we discussed the ways in which we should trace the history of South Asian literature. How can literature be defined? Defining literature proved to be very difficult because literature involves the revelation of an entire culture, not only in written texts but also in oral traditions and forms of entertainment such as drama, dance, and music. We did not arrive at a conclusion; however, we did confirm the importance of the study of literature.
