1.Introduction
Thispaperisthefirstofaseriesontheeffectiveuseofpicturestoriesincludi ngread-aloudactivitiesinelementaryschoolEnglishclassroomsinJapan.
In thepresentpaper,an overview ofsometheoreticalbackgroundson reading picture storiesaloudinelementaryschoolswillbediscussed.Theimportanceofinteractionbetween teachersandpupilsbasedon thestory toldwillalsobeexplored.Thesecondhalfofthis paperwillfocuson thevalueofread-aloud activities,in accordancewith thenew foreign languagecourseguidebeingproducedbytheMEXT andscheduledtostartin2020. 2.Theoreticalbackgroundsforpicturestoryactivities
Inthissection,sometheorieswhichexplainwhystories,especiallywhenreadaloudby teachers,arerecommendedinlanguageteaching,from whatagechildrenenjoystories,and inwhatwayillustrationsinstorybookssupportchildren・sunderstandingofthestorywill bediscussed.
21.TheEpisodeHypothesis
Many researchers,including Richard-Amato (1996:285),argue thata lotofforeign languagetextbookscontained・disconnectedlistsofsentencesor,atbest,sentencesthatwere relatedbutwerenotpartofany motivatedorlogicalinteraction.・Richard-Amatofurther suggeststhatstorieswhichconsistofepisodeswillmotivatelearnersmorethandisconnected
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1)AnOvervi
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TomokoKaneko
Abstract
Thisisanoverview ofaseriesofdiscussionsontheeffectivenessofusingpicturestories inelementaryschoolEnglishclassroomsinJapan.Englishactivitiesarenow deliveredmainly byhomeroom teacherswhoarenotspeciallytrainedtoteachEnglish.Itisscheduledthatall 5th and 6th graderswillstartlearning English asa schoolsubjectin threeyears.In this context,picturestorieswillbecomevery valuableand easy-to-useteaching materials.How both theoreticalbackgroundsandtherevisedcourseguidepolicy,which comesintoforcein 2020bytheMinistryofEducation,Culture,Sports,ScienceandTechnology(MEXT),promote theuseofpicturestoriesincludingread-aloudactivitiesinclassroomsarediscussed.
sentencesandintroducestheEpisodeHypothesispresentedbyOller(1983:12)asshownbelow. Text(i.e.discourseinanyform)willbeeasiertoreproduce,understand,andrecall,to theextentthatitismotivatedandstructuredepisodically.
SchankandAbelson(1977:1718),explainanepisodicview ofmemoryasfollows:
Anepisodicview ofmemoryclaimsthatmemoryisorganizedaroundpersonalexperiences orepisodesratherthanaroundabstractsemanticcategories....Anepisodicmemory...is organizedaroundpropositionslinkedtogetherbytheiroccurrenceinthesameeventor time span....A trip is stored in memory as a sequence of the conceptualizations describingwhathappenedonthetrip.
Theystatethatitistheirview thathumansbothacquireandstoreinformationinepisodic form.
Stories usually develop along a storyline from the beginning to the end.Mystery stories,forexample,telloneepisodeafteranotherleading listenersorreaderstowardsa solution toacase.Storiesreadaloudin classroomscan providethelearnerswith amore realisticopportunitytoconnectafew episodesasonesetofeventsandencouragelearners toengageandbecomemorefamiliarwiththewholestoryline.Evenifeachlessonisdevoted tolisteningtoonlyoneepisodefrom astory,childrenmaynotlosethestoryline.
22.Illustrationsinpicturestorybooks
Children・spicturestorybooksgenerallyincludenotonlythewordsofastorybutalso illustrations.Children who haven・tyetacquired any literacy can enjoy picturebooksby looking attheillustrations.Even afterthey acquireliteracy,they enjoy theillustrations whilereading thestory.Satou (1993)and Sakaiand Satou (2004)study to whatextent illustrationshelpchildren understandthestory in books.They concludethatstorieswith colored illustrationswereunderstood betterthan thosewith black and white.They also foundthatthelowertheageofthechildren,themorethey focustheirattention justto listentothestoryorjusttolookattheillustrationsanditismoredifficultforthem to dobothatthesametime.
ImaiandNakamura(1993)presentsevenvariablesintheactionofreadingstoriesaloud. They arepicturebooks,readers,listeners,relationshipbetween picturebooksandreaders, relationshipbetweenreadersandlisteners,relationshipbetweenlistenersandpicturebooks, and relationshipsamong picturebooks,readersand listeners.Among theseven variables, thepicturebook isthekey factorforeffectivestory reading.Thefirstvariable,apicture book,consistsofthetheme,content,writing expressions,illustrationsand thesizeand shapeofthebook.
Itseemsthattheyoungertheleaners,themorevalueillustrationshaveforunderstanding
thestory.Children aged 2 or 3 yearsarenotgood atlistening to storiessilently but gradually they startinteracting with story booksthrough theauditory andvisualsenses. Justice,PullenandPence(2008)studiedchildren・svisualattentiontoprintandfoundthat ・children rarely look atprint,with about5％6％ oftheirfixationsallocated to print・ (2008:1).However,theystatethatpreschoolers・visualattentiontoprintincreasessignificantly whenadultsverballyreferenceprint,orreferenceitnonverbally,forexamplebypointingto wordsorsentencesinthetext.
Sincemostofthechildren・sattentionisontheillustrationswhenlisteningtoapicture book story,attractivecoloredillustrationswhich match thecontentofthestory notonly help children・s understanding of the story content but also develop their interest and motivationforlisteningtonarrativestoriesaswellasforstayingintheworldoffantasy. 23.Input,interactionandoutput
InputisdefinedbyLightbownandSpada(2006:201)as・thelanguagethatthelearner isexposedto(eitherwrittenorspoken)intheenvironment.・Theyalsoexplainthefollowing threetypesofinputintheglossaryofthebook.
(1)Comprehensibleinput
StevenKrashen［1977］introducedthisterm torefertolanguagethatalearnercan understand which may becomprehensiblein partbecauseofgestures,situations,or priorinformation.
(2)Enhancedinput
Thisisinputthatisaltered in an effortto makesomelanguagefeaturesmore salienttolearners.Itcanbemoreorlessexplicit,rangingfrom explicitmetalinguistic commentstotypographicalenhancement,boldtypeorunderliningorexaggeratedstress inspeaking.
(3)Modifiedinput
Thisisadaptedspeechthatadultsusetoaddresschildrenandthatnativespeakers usetoaddresslanguagelearnerssothattheywillbeabletounderstand.Examplesof modifiedinputincludeshorter,simplersentences,andbasicvocabulary.
Theabovetypesarenotexclusiveofeach other.Modified orenhanced inputshould be naturally offeredby theteachertothestudentsin relation tothelanguageandcognitive levelsofthestudentstomaketargetlanguagefeaturesmoresalienttostudents.
Itistruethatno onewondersifinputisnecessary forsecond orforeign language learning.However,manydonotcompletelyagreewiththeideathatbyonlygivingappropriate comprehensibleinput,learnersdoacquirelanguageasproposedbytheInputHypothesisby Krashen (1982).Thehypothesisisbased on hisnon-interfaceposition,which statesthat ・learned・knowledgeiscompletelyseparateandcannotbeconvertedinto・acquired・knowledge.
Mostsecond language acquisition researchers and also mostteachers question his non-interfaceposition asthey believethatlearning,for example,in classrooms,connectsto acquisitionoratleast・learning・supportsthelateracquisition(Ellis,1994).
Matsuura and Ito (2012)explain that elementary schoollearners of English need comprehensibleinputwithsupportslikesomehintsorcluesfrom theteacher.Theyreferto Muranoi(2006)andstatethatinputinvolvingatopicdirectlyrelevanttoelementaryschool learners,suchasdailyroutinesandfamily,withauthenticity,andwithappropriatebalance betweensoundsandlettersareoptimalconditionsasinputconnectstolanguageacquisition. Inputis a necessity for language acquisition butitis notthe only factor.Input, interaction andoutputaswellaslearnerfactors,forexample,motivation andage,should alsobelistedaskeyfactorsinthelanguageacquisitionprocess.
24.Cognitiveandsocialdevelopment
Cognitivedevelopmentreferstohow apersonperceives,thinks,andgainsunderstanding ofhisorherworldthroughtheinteractionofgeneticandlearnedfactors.Childrencontinually advancetheirskillsin observing andinteracting with theworldaroundthem.In orderto discuss the way to use picture stories in elementary schoolclassrooms,itis extremely importanttounderstandthecognitiveandsocialdevelopmentofthelearners.
Lightbown and Spada (2006)explain that cognitive and developmentalpsychologists argue thatlanguage acquisition is only ・one example ofthe human child・s remarkable abilitytolearnfrom experience・(2006:24).Theylearnotherkindsofskillslikewalkingor holding a spoon in thesameway.Lightbown and Spada (2006)furtherexplain thatthe psychologistshypothesizethat・whatchildren needtoknow isessentially availablein the languagethey areexposed toasthey hearitused in thousandsofhoursofinteractions withthepeopleandobjectsaroundthem・(2006:24).
TheSwissdevelopmentalpsychologistPiaget(1971)identified thefollowing cognitive developmentalstagesinchildrenastheyprogressfrom birthtoadolescence.Thefollowing stages ofintellectualdevelopment formulated by Piaget appear to be related to major developmentsin children・sbrain growth.Thefollowing explanation ofPiagetian stagesof developmentisbasedonPinter(2006:7)andNunan(2011:46).
(1)Sensori-motorstage(from birth2yearsofage)
Theyoung child learnstointeractwith theenvironmentby manipulating objects aroundhim orher.Linguistically,thisstageischaracterizedbytherapidgrowthofthe child・svocabulary,andthegradualtransformationfrom ・proto-language・toreallanguage throughtheemergenceofgrammar,forexamplethechildwillpossessanidiosyncratic setof・words,・eachofwhichwillhaveonlyasinglemeaning,as・num-num・tomean ・Givemefood,I・m hungry.・
(2)Pre-operationalstage(from 27yearsofage)
Thechild・sthinkingislargelyreliantonperceptionbutheorshegraduallybecomes morecapableoflogicalthinking.Onthewholethisstageischaracterizedbyegocentrism (a kind ofself-centeredness)and a lack oflogicalthinking.Linguistically,learners consolidatetheirknowledgeofthegrammaticalsystem and,bytheageofseven,their acquisitionofthetargetgrammaticalsystem ofnon-complexstructuresisalmostcomplete. (3)Concreteoperationalstage(from 711yearsofage)
Year7isthe・turning point・in cognitivedevelopmentbecausechildren・sthinking beginstoresemble・logical・adult-likethinking,thoughlimitedtotheimmediatecontext. Thismeansthatchildrenatthisstagecannotyetgeneralizetheirunderstanding. (4)Formaloperationalstage(11yearsonwards)
Children areabletothink beyond theimmediatecontextin moreabstractterms. They are able to carry out logical operations such as deductive reasoning in a systematicway.Theyachieve・formallogic・.
Piaget・s stage theory show s that children progress through qualitatively different cognitivestagesofdevelopment.
Inclassrooms,teachersneedtointroducestoriesthoughtfullyintheform ofactivities, from havingthestudentslistentoCDstoreadingaloudthemselves.Weneedtoconsiderto whatextenteachtypeofinstructionbasedonnarrativestoriesaredevelopmentallyappropriate. Linse(2005:2)explainsthat・experiencedearlychildhoodprofessionalsencouragecaregivers and teachersofyoung learnersto providedevelopmentally appropriateinstruction.・ She statesthatsocial/emotional,physical,cognitive,andmoraldevelopmentshouldbetakencare ofand show s attributes ofeach kind ofdevelopment.Linse (2005:4)further refers to McClellanandKatz(2001)andshowsthestagesofchildren・scognitivedevelopmentbywhat children can actually do based on theirow n ideasasshow n below,which isalso useful informationwhenteachersplantheirinstructioninclassrooms.
AttributesofCognitiveDevelopment ・Canfollow one-stepinstructions ・Canfollow two-stepinstructions ・Canfollow three-stepinstructions
・Understandstheconceptofsymbolssuchasnumbersandletters ・Isinterestedinacademiccontent
・Likesreadingorbeingreadto
・Likesplayingwithword,numbers,orabstractsymbols ・Graspsconcreteand/orabstractconceptseasily
・Canmakeconnectionsbetweendifferentconcreteconcepts ・Canmakeconnectionsbetweenabstractandconcreteconcepts
・Canmakeconnectionsbetweendifferentabstractconcepts
・Comprehendsconcreteand/orabstractcauseandeffectrelationships ・Canrecognizepatterns
・Canfollow asequenceofevents
・Canclassifyconcretepictures,objects,and/orabstractconcepts
TeachersalsoneedtofindoutwhatsocioculturaltheoriessuchasVygotsky・ssayabout children・s development.Vygotsky (1978)emphasizes how other people and the attitudes, values,andbeliefsofthesurrounding cultureinfluencechildren・sdevelopment.Vygotsky・s theoryemphasizesthefundamentalroleofsocialinteractioninchildren・scognitivedevelopment andarguesthatdevelopmentfollowssocialinteraction.However,sincehisclaimsaremost relevanttotheactualteaching methodsortechniquesofpicturestoriestochildren,more detailed discussion aboutthem willbefound in laterpapersin thisseries.Atany rate, narrative stories willbecome appropriate teaching materialwhich elicits the learners・ chancestodevelopconcepts,forexample,forandagainst,causeandeffect,aswellastheir thinkingskills.
3.Useofnarrativepicturestoriesinthenew courseguide
In this section,the currentand the new MEXT course guides for English willbe explained first,then somestudieson theresultoftheEnglish instruction in elementary schoolswillbediscussed,whichleadstoadiscussionontheroleofnarrativepicturestories inclassrooms.
31.Thecurrentandthenew courseguides
Thepresentcourseguideforelementary schoolEnglish activitieswasputfully into forcein 2011.・Chapter4Foreign LanguageActivities・in MEXT ElementarySchoolCourse ofStudy(2010)showstheoverallobjectiveoftheclassesasbelow:
To form thefoundation ofpupils・communication abilitiesthrough foreign languages whiledevelopingtheunderstandingoflanguagesandculturesthroughvariousexperiences, fostering apositiveattitudetoward communication,and familiarizing pupilswith the soundsandbasicexpressionsofforeignlanguages.
Theabovementionedclassesarefor5th and6th graderswhonow haveEnglish activities andtheinstructionbyteachersaregiventohelppupilsactivelyengageinmainlyreceptive communicationinforeignlanguagein35classhoursayear.
TheMEXT reportstheeffectofEnglish languageactivitiesadministered so farand statesthat76％ ofthepupilssurveyed answered thatthey liked studying English,and 91.5％ ofthem wantedtobeabletouseEnglishinthequestionnaireadministeredin2013.
In addition thequestionnaire,which wasalsoadministeredtojuniorhigh schoolstudents who learned English in elementary schoolsin 2012,showsthatstudentsthoughtEnglish activitieswereusefulfor learning English.Theteachersalso showed a positiveattitude toward elementary schoolEnglish activities.They indicated in thequestionnairethatthe studentswhoexperienced English activitiesweremoreinterested in foreign countriesand theirculturesandhadapositiveattitudetocommunicatinginEnglish.
Theresultsoftheabovequestionnairesbasically lead toadditionalEnglish classesin elementaryschools.Thenewlyrevisedcourseguidewhichregulatesthe3rdand4thgraders 35Englishactivityclassesayearandthe5thand6thgraders70regularEnglishclassesa year isscheduled to commencefrom 2020.Itwillalso bepossiblefor someelementary schools to carry out advanced implementation of the revised course guide from 2018. According to the new course guide,5th and 6th graders are going to learn notonly receptiveskillsbutalso basicproductiveskillsincluding simplebasicgrammar.However, evenfrom 2020,mostclassesarestilltobetaughtbythepupils・homeroom teachers,who havealmostnotraininginEnglishlanguageteaching.
Regardingtheteachingmaterials,thenew courseguideissupposedtoindicateasimilar contentasforthepresentjuniorhighforeignlanguagecourseguide.Therefore,storiesset tothelearners・Englishanddevelopmentallevels,whichcanpromotefairjudgement,anda richsenseoffeelingsthroughexperiencingvarietiesofcultures,willbehighlyrecommended.
Detailed discussion willbe keptfor the latter partofthis series after the formal announcementoftherevisedMEXT courseguide.
32.StudiesonelementaryschoolEnglisheducationinJapan
SincethefirstdiscussionontheintroductionofelementaryschoolEnglisheducationin Japan,someresearchersandeducatorshavebeensupportingtheplanbutsomehavetaken upanegativeposition.Tosu(2004),forexample,statesthatbyintroducingEnglisheducation in elementary schools,itishopedthatJapaneseEnglish education asawholewillchange toabetterdirection.Ontheotherhand,Otsu(2005)statesthattheprimaryfocusshould beplacedon Japaneselanguageeducation noton English education forelementary school children.
SincearoundthetimeEnglishactivitieswereintroducedtothe5thand6thgradersby theMEXT・sdecision,therehavebeen severaldetailed studiesregarding therelationships betweenlearners・interest,motivationorattitudeandtheeffectoflearningEnglishskillsin elementaryschools.Manyofthesestudiesareshowingpositiveresults.Shizuka(2007)finds thatthelearningexperiencewhileinelementaryschoolmostlyimproveslisteningamongthe fourmacroskillsandaffectivefeelingstowardlearning English,forexamplewhetherthe learnerslikeEnglishorrecognizetheimportanceinlearningEnglish.Higuchietal.(2008) show thattheinterest,motivationandattitudetolearningEnglishby universitystudents
wasmuchhigheramongthelearnerswhohadEnglishlearningexperiencethanthosewith noexperience.
However,oneveryseriousconcernisnotedbyDeKeyser(2013).Hestatesthat・thereis littleresearchonageeffectsthatmeetsveryhighmethodologicalstandards,...andalmost noevidencethatisclearlyofeducationalrelevance・(2013:61).Thewaychildrenandadults learn English asa second language(ESL)in theUnited Statesand theway they learn Englishasaforeignlanguage(EFL)inJapanisdifferent.IntheStates,theESL learners areimmersedin an abundanceofhigh quality nativespeakers・English inputboth in the immersionclassandintheenvironmentoutsidetheclassroom.IntheEFLsettinginJapan, itisnotatalleasy forlearnerstoattain higherlevelswherethey aretaughtmostly by non-nativespeakersofEnglishatmostforafew hoursaweekwithlittleEnglishexposure outsidetheclassroom.Weneedtowaitforfurtherresearchtofindtheresultsofelementary schoolEnglisheducation.
33.RoleofnarrativepicturestoriesinelementaryschoolEnglishclasses
Given thatitisextremely importantforchildren tobeimmersedin English receiving lotsofgenuineinput,narrativepicturestoriesarehighlyrecommendedasoneofthebest typesofteachingmaterial.
In thelightofthediscussion so far,therearefour good reasonsto usenarrative picturestoriesinprimaryschoolEnglishlanguageteaching:
(1)Authentic stories with pictures especially read aloud can provide a motivating, meaningfulcontextfor languagelearning,sincechildren arenaturally drawn to stories.
(2)Thesestoriescancontributetoeffectivelanguagelearning,becausetheyenablethe presentationanduseofnaturallanguage.
(3)Thesestoriescanpromotethefirststeptoacademicliteracyandthinkingskills. (4)These stories tend to dealwith aspects ofthe human condition,and can thus
contributetotheemotionaldevelopmentofthechild,andfosterpositiveinterpersonal andinterculturalattitudes.
4． Summary
Although thenumberofnativespeakersofEnglish issaidtobelessthan 5％ ofthe worldpopulation,itisnecessaryforustolearnEnglishsothatwecancommunicateusing English in various intercultural contexts including education,science,technology,and business.Thefactthatthereareover4millionpeoplewhouseESL intheworldreinforces theimportanceofusingEnglish.
At the same time,cherishing each language in different cultures is vitalin this
globalizedworld,becauselanguageisoneofthemain componentsofcultureandidentity. Asaresult,being exposedtoEnglish can providelearnerswith valuableopportunities tolearnandexperiencetheimportantroleoflanguage.Thisisareasonthatmanypeople andtheMEXT arenow clamoringabouttheneedtostartEnglishlanguageeducationfrom elementary school.It is hoped that by doing so,children willcontinue to be highly motivatedtolearnEnglishandattainbettercommunicationskills,whicharepointedoutto besoessentialforJapaneselearnersingeneral.
Our history in English teaching shows that the focus has been more on explicit knowledgeaboutthelanguageratherthan implicitknowledgeofthelanguagealthough whatthelearnersneedisthelatter.ExposingchildrentoEnglishfrom anearlierstageof elementary school is a good way to increase their awareness of the importance of communication,makingconnectionswiththeworld,andenablingthem toenjoygettingin touchwithpeoplearoundthem.
In thiscontext,read-aloudactivitiesin English in elementary schoolshaveakey role, wherechildren areabletoreceivealotofEnglish inputin episodiccontextssothatthey havechancestoenjoyEnglishratherthanputtingtheirfocusonlyonthegrammarofthe language.Byhavingchancestointeractwithteachersandotherpupilsaboutthestoryin addition to receiving input as they listen to the story,they can also recognize the importance ofcommunication.Reading aloud to children does notonly aim to teach a knowledgeofEnglishbuttomaximizechildren・sexperienceofthelanguageastheyreceive someusefulmessagefrom thestoriesthatcontributesto theircognitivedevelopment.In addition,throughtheactivities,childrencanexpandtheirworldastheylearntoappreciate somethingofthevalueandattractionofunderstandingdifferentlanguages.
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（金子 朝子 英語コミュニケーション学科）
