The Da 仰utuojingand theGuan wuliangshoufo jing
研究員報告
The
D
αα
mituo jing
and t
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e
Gu
αn
wuli
α
ngshoufo jing*
Yue
XIAO
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The purpose of this paper is to discuss the formation of theGuan wuliangshoufo jing観無 量詩{弗綬 (T.365， hereafter the Guan-jing， or siglum:観経).There is no Sanskrit version and Tibetan translation of this sutra and as a result it is widely considered an apocryphal text compiled in China， or in Central Asia.I ) Although there are research results in the field concerned with the formational process of theGuan-jingindicating that the Guan-jing shares a close relationship with theWuliangshou jing無量議経 (T.12， No. 360)，:0 along with
my own research regarding the ear1iest version of the Larger Sukhavafi;の
，
uhasutra， the Da amituo jing(T.12， No. 362， siglum:大阿)， 1 found out that there are some conjunct characteristics between theDa amituo jingand theGtωn-jing， which have not been• This paper was partially supported by the Numata Research Fellowship at Ryukoku University. 1 owe
a special debt of gratitude to professor MITANI Mazumi who was my supervisor at Ryukoku University. The draft of this paper was firstly presented at the international conference of Sutra Transmission and Translation held at Dunhuang Academy (hosted by Woodenfish Foundation) during June 14・19，2016， in Ganshu， China; and the Japanese handout， namely，
r
観無量寿仏経jの形成ー『大 阿弥陀経jとの関連を中心に一， is for the lecture at the Research Institute for Buddhist Culture at Ryukoku University， in collaboration with the Research Ccnter for World Buddhist Cultures at Ryukoku University， on June 30， 2016. 1 also owe a special debt of gratitude to Rev. Petros THEODORIDES for his editorial assistance. Remaining errors are， of course， my responsibility. 1) Owing to space constraints， the previous studies of the formation of this sutra cannot be introduced here. The formation of theGuan-jingcan generally be classified into four varieties. We have those studies claiming that:(i)theGUfln.jillgwas derived from an unknown Indian source;(ii)studies claiming that it was created in Central Asia;(iii)those assuming that it was created in China; and:(iv) studies assuming that it was developed and compiled in different time periods. FUJIT A and SUEKI reorganized the previous studies in detail， see FUJITA 1985， pp.29-62; and 2007， pp. 197-204; and SUEKI 1986， pp. 165-179.， and 1992， pp.22-38.
The Da amituo jing and the Guan wuliangslzOt
φ
jingdiscussed in previous researches.3) This paper focuses on these conjunct characteristics
between the Da amituo jing and the Gtωn-jing and aims to make some progress towards this goal.
1
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The relationship between the three grades in theDααmituo j
i
n
g
and the nine grades in theGu
α
n
-
j
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n
g
According to SUEKI， undoubtedly， the nine-grade rebirth system in the Guan-jing must be derived from the three grades system of rebirth found in the Wuliangshou jing， which was translated in the Wei鏡period.4)On the other hand， NOGAMI suggested that the nine-grade rebirth system in the Guan-jing is probably related to the nine-rank system， a Chinese social class categor匂ation.5) In fact， the three-grade rebirth system is not derived from the
Wul;必ngshoujing， but rather from the Da amituo jing， the earliest version of the Larger Sukhavat句fUhasutra containing24vows. The three-grade rebirth system in the Wuliang
-shou jing is just a revision of those texts in the Da amituo jing
，
rather than a genuine translation from the original Indian text
.
6) Accodingly， it is hard to believe that the nine-grade system of rebirth in the Guan-jing is derived from the three grades of aspirants found in the Wuゐngshoujing， but rather from the three grades of aspirants purposely compiled by the translator of the Da amituo jing. Scholars who suggested the connections between the Guan-jing and the Wuliangshou jing did not recognize that those special characteristics found in the Da amituo jing were purposely compiled by the translator of the Da amituo jing. This is the reason I have been systemically discussing the formation of the Da amituo jing. For a study of the three grades of rebirth in the Larger3) Although SUEKI observed出atthere is some connection between the Da amiuo jing and the Guan-jing， his research is based on the preconceived notion that the Da amituo jing repr回entsthe earliest form of Indian Pure Land Buddhism and he indicated that the paragraphs regarding the nine-grade rebirth system found in the Guan-jing are related to出eWuliangshou jing(seeSUEKI 1992， pp.l71・179).For the characteristics of the Da amituo jing， see XIAO (forthcoming a). 4)S田 SUEKI1992， pp. 171・172. 5)See NOGAMI 1973， pp. 37・45.Also， see SUEKI 1986， p. 173. 6) In the last part of the lower grade of the Da amituo jing， there is a long text vividly describing a scene about how the aspirants who are rebom in the land of Amitabha recollect the ways they cultivated good merit in their previous life for the sake of rebirth， particularly through their adherence to ascetic precepts. Those aspirants， who committed evils and had no diligence in practice in their previous lives， will feel shame and regret for their nonfeasance. For a study of the three grades of rebirth in theLarger SukhavaUの'Uhasutra， see XIAO (forthcoming a). 7) For instance， the phrases法議比丘願力所成(the7th contemplation);法務比丘四十八大願(lowestlevel of the middle grade).
The Da amituo jing and the Gtωn wuliangshoufo jing Sukhavativyuha sutra， see XIAO (forthcoming a).
2
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The three acts of virtue for attaining rebirth and theD
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n
g
Even though some elements in the Guan-jing are related to the Wuliangshou jing， they are very few in comparison with those elements which are in accord with theDa amituo jing.7) The three acts of virtue for attaining rebirth in the Pure Land， the so-called浄業三福， represent a vivid example which can be divided into three categories as follows.
2.1 The first category regards public morality by means of孝養父母，奉事師長，慈心 不殺，修十善業.Although scholars suggested that the Guan-jing consists of some typical Chinese elements， 8) these typical Chinese elements， such as父母、慈心， are right those special terms frequently found in the Da ami的ojing. The term父母，9)a typical term in
Confucianism， appears eight times in theDa amituo jing， and all of them are found in the paragraphs on the Five Evils， purposely compiled by the Chinese translator of the Da amituo jing. Even though this term appears five times in the Wuliangshou jing as well， they are all
，
undoubtedly，
copies of those in theDa amituo jing. The character孝appearseleven times in the Da amituoj初~g. A text found next to the ten virtuous acts in the latter part of the third grade of rebirth in the Da amituo jing， reads:賞作孝順，蛍作至誠忠信.In the latter part of the third grade of rebirth in the Da amituo jing， these ten virtuous acts (in fact 20 virtuous acts are listed)， presented as a special method for attaining rebirth， have been listed in detai Although tl. hese ten virtuous acts also appear in other Mahayana sロ
tras as discussed by Y AMADA， 10)the words修十善業foundin the Guan-jing must be related to those listed in the Da amituo jing because: (i)both the ten virtuous acts in the Guan-jing and those listed in theDaωnituo jing are the prerequisites for attaining rebirth; and:(ii) the words賞作孝順，賞作至誠忠信foundin the Da amituo jing are correspond with the words孝養父母，奉事師長ll}found in the Guan-jing. In addition， the phrase慈心12)不 殺isone of the ten precepts found in the Da amituo jing. 8) See FUJITA 1986， pp. 54・55;and FUJITA 2007， p. 196. 9) An example found in the description of the fourth evil in the Da amiltωjing， reads:復不孝順供養父 母，笹易師友知識(T.12， No. 362， P. 314c01-02)， and an example found in the fifth evil of this version reads:又復不念卒報父母之徳，亦復不念師之思好(T.12，No. 362， p. 315a03-04). For a detailed discus -sion on the formation of the Five Evils， see XIAO 2012. 10) SeeY AMADA (Ryukoku University Translation Center) 1984， pp. 124・125. 11)A similar text appears in the first part of the middle grade rebirth in the Da amiluo jing， it reads: 常信受悌綬語深，賞作至誠中倍(T.12，No. 362， P.310a17-18). 12) The term慈IL¥isalso a special term appearing 18 times in theDa amituo jing. For example， this term appears in the fourth vow of the Dll amituo jing， cf.12， p. 301b08-13.The Da amituo jingand the Gzωn wuliangshoufo jing
2.2The second virtue is concerned with the Buddhist precepts. It is noteworthy that both the Sanskrit version and the Tibetan translation do not have any information which portrays abiding by the precepts as a prerequisite for attaining rebirth; a typical feature which only appears in the three translations
，
theDa amituo jing， thePingdengjue jingand theWuliangshou jing.In theWuliangshou jing， the term zhaijie粛戒“asceticprecepts" only appears in the middle grade of the three-grade rebirth system， which is obviously a copy from theDa amituo jing.By contrast， the ascetic precepts are purposely highlighted in the Da a1ηituo jingthrough the terms， zaijie爾戒，and jingjie経戒，(i.e. in the5th_7th vows andtheir fulfil1ment， but this characteristic unexpectedly disappears in their counterparts in all of the latter versions).l3)Moreover， among the24vows of theDa amituo jing， there are four vows relating to precepts. The characteristic of highlighting the importance of abiding by the precepts for attaining rebirth is obviously derived from theDa amituo jing.
2.3 The third is the virtue of the cultivation of the bodhisattva path. The phrase讃
菩提心 appearsin all three grades of theWul必ngshoujingso that we can confirm that this phrase was purposely highlighted in theWulおngshoujing.l4)In addition， the three phrases 深信因果，讃語大乗，勧進行者areall significant characteristics of theDa amituo jing.The references to those who believe deeply in the doctrine of cause and effect(深信因果15))
appear repeatedly in the latter part of the middle grade and the lower grade of theDa amituo jingthrough a negative syntax不信16)The phrase讃諦大乗isequivalent to the
13) Regarding the ascetic precepts and the three grades of aspirants in the LargerSukhavativYillza siUra， see XIAO 2011b， and forthcoming (a， c). 14) The phrase護菩提心isequivalent toSk.“bodlzaye ci/la1[lρm'I'tJamya"or“cittam u砂adya:' 15) One vivid example found in the first evil of the Five Evils reads:故有尊卑、豪費、高才、明達、智慧 勇猛，皆其前世宿命為普慈孝布施恩徳(T.12， p.313cl4・15)“Thisis why there are differences between the noble and the humble; and why some people are rich and powerful with outstanding talent and excellent wisdom; because of the cultivation of good merit in their previous lives， such as benevo -lence， filial piety， almsgiving and donations:' 16) SASAKI observed the usage of the Chinese term不信，and indicated that the texts containing these words are probably creations of the translator. Although 1 agree with the conc1usion of SASAKI in general， 1 would like to point out that the word不信shouldnot be dealt as a special term， but rather in the light of the negative syntax repeatedly used in theDa amituojing (田eSASAKI， 2011).Itis hard to determine by merely depending on the words不信，whether these texts were derived from the original Indian text of theDa amituo jing.Obviously， the translator purposely highlights“faith" through a negative syntax. It is one of the characteristics of theDa amituo jingthat some important elements have been highlighted through a negative syntax or antonyms (see XIAO forthcoming a). Those texts containing the word不信 donot have a counterpart in the Sanskrit version， and， accordingly， it is hard to believe that those texts are translations from the original text of theDa amituo jing.A research regarding the negative syntax or antonyms in theDa am;luo jingis in preparation.
The Da amituo jing and the Guan wuli'angshoufo jing
phrase奉行六波羅蜜経17)found in the
7
thvow and its fulfillment， the higher grade ofaspirants in the Da amituo jing. Accordingly， the precepts found in浄業三福 of the Guan-jing must be derived from those of the Da amituo jing.
3
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The highest levelof
the highest gradeActually， the highest level of the highest grade is a combination of the texts regarding belief信 andthose regarding cultivation行.In terms of content， FUJITA and SUEKI suggest -ed that the phrases至誠心、深心、週向震願心areprobably related to those of the Wuliang -shou jing (至誠心、深心the18th) or the Weimojie suoshuo jing維摩詰所説経 (T.14，No.
475， p.538b) attributed to Kumarajiva.18 )
In terms of structure， the highest level of the highest grade in the Guan-jing quite corresponds with the highest grade of the Da amituo jng， which also consists of two parts. In addition to the main text， a short passage highlighting the importance of abiding by precepts for attainting rebirth follows the main text of the highest grade in the Da amituo jing. The same structure repeatedly appears in the middle grade and the lower grade of the Da amituo jing. This characteristic is consistent with my conclusion that the nine-grade system of rebirth in the Guan-jing was developed from the three grades of rebirth in the Dαα:mitiω jng.
The phase具諸戒行regardingthe precepts in the second part of this paragraph is equivalent with the phrase爾戒清津 whichis highlighted in the highest grade of aspirants， but it is not found in the Wuliangshou jing. Moreover， the phrase慈心不殺 isone of the ten precepts found in the Da amituo jing.
4
.
The middle gradeo
f
rebirthThe middle grade in the Guan-jing is compiled simply based on the precepts， something quite corresponding with the characteristics of the 6th vow and its fulfillment Dαamituo jing， the middle grade of aspirants in the.19)
It is noteworthy that zhaijie qingjing爾戒清原，a typical characteristic found in the Da 17) Rather than an individual unknown sutra， the character紐indicatesBuddhist dharma (SHIZUT ANI
1974， p.57)， however， this does not mean that the compo記rof the Guan-jing had fully understood this
case， but rather misunderstood紐asan unknown sfitra. In addition， the virtue of reading sfitras had become very popular during the time when the Guan-jing was translated.
18) See FUJIT A 1985， p. 50・51，and 2007， p. 193. Also， see SUEKI 1992， p. 163， and p. 173.
19) In fact， all three grades of aspirants in the Da amituojng are closely related to the Buddhist precepts. The ranks of the three grades are distinguished depending on the level of abiding by the Buddhist precepts (see XIAO forthcoming a).
The Da amituo jing and the Guan wuliangshoufo jing
amituo jing，ZOldoes not refer to the eight precepts traditionally regarded by scholars， but rather discarding lust. The eight precepts found in白eGuan-jing probably result from a misunderstanding of the original meaning of zhaijie found in the Da amituo jing by the composer of theGuan-jing
，
or the composer of the sutra might have further developed the concept of zhaijie in theDa amituo jing equating it with the eight precepts and the other sets of Buddhist precepts found in the middle grade of the Guan-jing， such as the five precepts. The conjunct characteristic of these precepts in the Da amituo jing and the Guan-jing is that they are both prerequisites for attainting rebirth. The phrases孝養父母，行世仁義arenearly equivalent to the phrases賞作孝順，賞作至誠 忠信foundin the last part of the lower grade of the Da amituo jing.5
.
The lowest grade of rebirth (people who committed evils)The lowest grade of rebirth in the Guan-jing regards humans who committed evils but remain able to be rebom in出eland of Amitabha， the so-called悪人往生.1 agree with SUEKI's suggestion that these three levels of the lowest grade should be the development of the 5th vow of theDaωniluo jing.2ll However， it is noteworthy that the 5th vow of the Da amituo jing is the only vow in all the versions of the Larger Sukhavativyuha siltra concerned with the fact that humans who committed evils are still able to be rebom， and was purposely compiled by the translator of theDa amituo jing. For a detailed discussion about the 5th vow and its fulfillment that is the lower grade of aspirants in the Da amituo
jing， see XIAO (forthcoming a).
6
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RegardingGu
αn-yin
in theGu
αn-jing
In addition， the issue of Guanてyin観音inthe Guan-jing should be noted. In theDa amituo
jing， the name of this bodhisattva is listed as
Ga
ilozαωn蓋楼亘(hereafterGuanヴm観音).In contrast with the 170 times the name of Buddha Amituo appears， the bodhisattva Guan-yin appears only 3 times in the Da amituo jing. In theWuliangshou jing
，
this bodhisattva appears only 2 times. Accordingly， this bodhisattva is not as important as Buddha Amituo in the LargerSukhavativyuha sutra.22l Even though this bodhisattva appears 20) The phrasezluzijie (qingjing)蹄戒(消棒)is a special term appearing 11 times in theDa amiluoj初~g. This phrase plays a very significant role not only concerning the fonnation of theDa amiluojing but also the development of early Chinese Pure Land Buddhism. Regarding the phrase膏戒清浮，民eXIAo 2011， and 2012; and (forthcoming b). 21) SUEKI 1992， pp.171・179. 22) In the Wu/.白ngshotljing， this bodhisattva appears only two times in contrast with the33references ( 72 )The Da amituo jing and the Guan wuliangsh01
φ
jingonly three times in the Da amituo jing， all of them are not part of a genuine translation from the original Indian text.23l
In the Guan-jing
，
there is another story regarding bodhisattva Guanヴin，
which is almost as important as that of Buddha Amituo. In this slitra， the one where bodhisattva Guan-yin appears 25 times， the name of this bodhisattva appears even in the formal title of the Guan_jing.24lIt is of interest that a short paragraph following the words presentingthe formal title of the Guan-jing bears some similarity with the second text referring to bodhisattva Gzωn-yin found in the Da amituo jing， and reads as follows:
【観経】若善男子及善女人，但閲偽名、二菩種名，除無量劫生死之罪，何況憶念!若念悌者， 首知此人即是人中芽陀利花，観世音菩薩、大勢至菩薩為其勝友，嘗坐道場，生諸イ弗家制 (T12， p.346bl0-16) .
On the other hand， the second text regarding this bodhisattva in the Da amituo jing was quite probably created by the translator of the sutra.26lFirstly， the two texts found in
the two aforementioned slitras share a similar meaning. Secondly， the phrase善男子、善女 人 containsa couple of those special terms found in the Da amituo jing， but in the
Wuliangshou jing.27l
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Undoubtedly， attaining rebirth by chanting the Buddha's name， Namoamituo
-
f
o無阿禰陀{弗， is one of the most significant characteristics of the Guan-jing， which profoundly influenced Chinese Buddhism， as well as the J apanese Jδdoshli and Jδdoshinshli. In this slitra， people who committed evils are also able to be reborn by chanting Amitabha's name南無阿禰陀 {弗.In the lowest grade， the phrase Namoamituo-
f
o appears two times， once in the highestthe name of the Buddha， Wuliangshou
1
0
無抵掃悌，appears. SeeXIAO 2016b， pp. 5・6.23) As a conclusion， 1 indicate that the first text is a revision of an original text akin to the extant Sanskrit version， the second and third texts are interpolations by the translator of the Da amituo jing. RegardingGuanyin in the Da amituo jing， seeXIAO 2016b.
24)It reads:此紐名:(観極集園土無量樽僻観世音普醗大勢至菩醸)(T. 12， p. 346b07-08).
25) If good men or women 5imply hear the Name of this Buddha or the name5 of those two bodhisattvas，
the evil karma which they have committed during innumerable初ltasof 5amsara will be extingui -shed. And， 50， how much more merit wi1l they acquire if they concentrate on them! Y ou should know that all who are mindful of that Buddha are like white lotus f10wers among humankind; the bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta become their good friends. They will sit in the place of Enlightenment to be born into the family of the Buddhas (lNAGAKI 1995， pp.117・118). 26) HARRISON proposed this view based on the phrase有急恐怖幡宮事者(seeHAIUUSON 2000， p. 172， note
24)， and 1 presented a further discussion with concrete evidence based on the special terms found in the Da amuωjing (seeXIAO 2016b， pp. 13・17)
The Da amituo jingand theGz，ωn wuliangshoufo jing
level of the lowest grade， and once in the lowest level of the lowest grade. The name of Amitabha has two functions， extinguishing evil karma and enabling rebirth by means of chanting the name of the Buddha. The intention of rebirth is to see the Buddha after death.
The lines regarding seeingAmitabha Buddha by reciting his name appear in theDa amituojing.In this passage
，
the phrases南無阿菊陀三耶三{弗檀appear three times.28l Accordingly， the respective texts in theGuan-jingwere probably derived from those of the Da amituojing. In addition， the syntax向西奔……醤日所波慮…...(worship facing West where the sun sets) found in theDa amituojingis quite similar to the following two syntaxes:(i)想子西方 ・ ・(contemplateon West) ; (ii)皆見日波醤其想念正坐向西 (shouldcontemplate on Amituo Buddha while looking at the setting sun. Sit in the proper posture， facing west).捌8
.
The prediction to Vaidehj and her five hundred female attendants It is extremely interesting that both theDa amituoj ingand theGuan-jinghave a passage regarding a prediction， although their subjects are different. In theDa amituojing， it regards Prince Ajatasatru and the five hundred sons of the elders (T.12， p. 303b2・8).By contrast， in theGuan-jing， it is about Queen Vaidehi and her five hundred female atten -dants (T.12， p.346a27・b04).This passage in theGuan-jingfollows the last three contempla -tions comprising the nine-grade rebirth system. According to FUJITA， it is hard to imagine that the text of the prediction to Ajatasatru and the five-hundred sons of the elders was derived from the original Indian text of the LargerSukhavativyilha.30lAccordingly，
I would like to point out that the text of theGuan-jingregarding the prediction to Vaidehi， should be the development of the prediction to Ajatasatru in theDa amituojing.9
.
Conclusion The following conclusion can be reached based on the investigation above. Although scholars suggested that the last three contemplations， the nine-grade system of rebirth， were the result of the influence of the three grades of aspirants found in the Wulおngshoujing， very few elements in theGuan-jingcan be confirmed as references to the28) Regarding the connection of the phrase南無阿禰陀悌totheDa amituojingand theGUa1z.jing， see
XIAO 2009， pp. 73・75.For a different suggestion， 記eKAGA W A 1963.
29) INAGAKI 1995， p.69.
30) FUJIT A 1970， p. 173. Also田eXIAO 2015， p.24.
The Da amituo jingand theGtωn wuliangshoufo jing
Wul:おngshoujing， such as亦説法蔵比丘四十八大願、護菩提
J
L
，
.3ilBycontrast，
many conjunct elements or characteristics from theGuan-jing point theDa amituo jing， as discussed above. Accordingly，
the nine-grade rebirth system found in theGuan-jing must have developed from the three grades of aspirants and the vows of theDa amituojing.By no means do I deny there is some relationship between the Chinese governmental nine-rank system (九品中正)and the nine-grade rebirth system found in theGuan-ji，nιhowever， the nine-grade system of rebirth must be the result of the influence of the three-grade system found in theDa amituo jingbecause the original form of the ranks of the aspirants is firstly found in theDa amituojing.The conjunct characteristics found in the two sutras discussed above have no equivalent in the Sanskrit version of the Larger Sukhavativyuha sutra.We have enough reasons to determine that these characteristics were formed in China in spite of the fact that some of them represent typical elements of Indian literature， such as the prediction narrative. This research will also positively assist the research on the formation of theDa amituo jing.Owing to space constraints， this paper did not discuss the relationship between the two sutras through the terms善男子、善女人，the characteristic ofhuasheng 化生“transforma-tion rebirth" discussed by SUEKI 32) and the concept of“hearing Amituo's name" (聞名思想) even though I hope to do so in a future paper.
BIBLOGRAPHY FUJITA，Kδtatsu藤 田 宏 遠 一一一1970. Genshijδdoslziso no kenkyu原始浄土思想の研究 A Study of Early Pure Land Buddhisrn. Tokyo: Iwanai shoten岩波書庖. 一一一1985.Kan muηlojukyδkokyu観無量寿経講究，Kyoto:真宗大谷派宗務所出版部. 一一一2007.jodosanbukyδ， 110 kenかZ浄土三部経の研究AStudy of The Three Pure Land Sutras. Tokyo: Iwanarni Shoten岩波哲底. HARRISON， Paul -一一ー2000，Mai'ijusri and the Cult of the Celestial Bodhisattvas. Chung-Hwa Buddhist lournal， No.13. 2 pp.157-193.Taipei: Chung.Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies. INAGAKI， Hisao稲 垣 久 雄 一一一一1984，A Tri-lingual Glossary of the Sukhavativyuha Sutras: lndexes to the Larger and Srnaller 31)Although the texts of法臓比丘四十八大願shouldbe related to the vows in theWuliangshou jing， this does 110t rnean that the cornposer of theGlωn-jingoverlooked the characteristics foul1d in theDa amituojillg.ln the period theGuall-jillgwas being cornpiled， the forty.eight vows had become very popular. In general， the more the number of the vows， the more important the vows-system was regarded. Accordingly， the forty-eight vows system was more popular than the twenty-four vows system found in theDa amituo jing. 32)See SUEKI1992， pp.172・173.
The Da amituo jing and the Guan wuliangshOt
φ
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