ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROBLEMS OF JAPANESE URBAN PLANNING [1[

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総合都市研究第 4 3 号 1 9 9 1

ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROBLEMS OF JAPANESE URBAN PLANNING

[1[

一一 ‑EverRecurring Urban Dual Structres‑ 一一

Yorifusa I s h i d a * SUMMARY

T h i s a r t i c l e i s b a s e d o n a n u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r r e a d a t t h 巴 TokyoI n t e r n a t i o n a l Sympo s i u m 1988 ， C e n t e n n i a l A n n i v e r s a r y o f Modern Urban P l a n n i n g L e g i s l a t i o n i n J a p a n ， h e l d o n November 9

，

1 9 8 8 .

J a p a n ， a c o u n t r y t h a t was l a t e i n b e c o m i n g c a p i t a 1 i s t i c ， h a s a d o p t e d t h e p o l i c y o fc a t c h ‑ i n g up and o u t s t r i p p i n g ' t h e o t h e r c a p i t a l i s t n a t i o n s i n e v e r y f i e l d ， and u r b a n p l a n n i n g h a s b e e n n o e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s p o l i c y . However ， i n e a r 1 y y e a r s o f M e i j i ， t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f c i t i e s i n J a p a n d i f f e r e d g r e a t 1 y f r o m t h o s e i n Western c o u n t r i e s . The n a t i o n a l and urban s t r u c t u r e s o f J a p a n i n t h e e a r 1 y y e a r s o f M e i j i e x i s t e d a s a d u a l s y s t e m ， o n e o f growth and t h e o t h e r o f s t a g n a t i o n and d e c l i n e

，

and had many p r o b l e m s t o b e s o l v e d i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n Daimyo m a n s i o n s and M u n e w a r i ‑ n a g a y a ' ( b a c k ‑ t o ‑ b a c k t e n e m e n t h o u s e s ) ， unpaved s t r e e t s ， d i s a s t r o u s f i r e s

，

and c o n t a g i o u s d i s e a s e s s u c h a s c h o l e r a and t y p h o i d . S o l v i n g t h e s e p r o b ‑ l e m s and r e m o d e l i n g t h e e n t i r e a r e a o f Tokyo was beyond p o s s i b i l i t y . Then came t h e i d e a t h a t urban r e m o d e l i n g must b e c o n d u c t e d by l i m i t i n g t o a d e m a r c a t e d s p e c i f i c a r e a and t o a f e w i s s u e s o n which Tokyo s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e i t s e n e r g i e s

，

a n d p r o m o t e them p o s i t i v e l y a s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s . And t h i s become o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n h e r e n t t o J a p a n e s e urban p l a n n i n g

The a c h i e v e m e n t s o f J a p a n ' s modern urban p l a n n i n g may b e b r i 1 l i a n t . But i t must b e remembered t h a t t h e s e a c h i e v e m e n t s were a t t a i n e d by i m p r o v i n g o n l y t h e i m p o r t a n t a r e a s

，

town c e n t e r and s u b ‑ c e n t e r s s u c h a s Marunouchi and S h i n j u k u

，

r e p e a t e d l y

，

and l e a v i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k s b e h i n d o r c r e a t i n g new l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d urban a r e a s s u c h a s Moku

・

c h i nz o n e ' t o b e i m p r o v e d . I n t h i s way ， t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e s f o r u r b a n a r e a s r e m a i n u n a l t e r e d ， t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r e v e r ‑ c h a n g i n g f o r m s . We may t e r m t h i s p r o c e d u r e a s e v e r r e c u r r i n g urban d u a l s t r u c t u r e s '

Now we must r e c o n s i d e r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f J a p a n e s e urban p l a n n i n g and r e e x a m i n e t h e p r o s p e r o u s a s p e c t s o f e c o n o m i c and c u l t u r a l v i t a l i t y o f t h e e v e r growing M e t r o p o l i s ;

* C e n t e r f o r U r b a n S t u d i e s

，

T o k y o M e t r o p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y

5

(2)

T o k y o . Moreover

，

we must c l a r i f y many p r o b l e m s b e h i n d t h e p r o s p e r i t y and p r o b l e m s which c o u l d e v o l v e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e

，

and p r o p o s e t h e m e a s u r e s t o manage s u s t a i n a b l e m e t r o p o l i t a n g r o w t h .

I n t r o d u c t i o n :

Headed by Tomomi Iwakura

，

t h e J a p a n e s e m i s s i o n t o Western c o u n t r i e s a r r i v e d i n P a r i s on Decem‑

b e r 16

，

1872

，

a f t e r v i s i t i n g E n g l a n d . P a r i s a t t h a t t i m e had o n l y r e c e n t 1 y c h a n g e d i t s a p p e a r a n c e t h r o u g h a g r e a t r e n o v a t i o n c o n d u c t e d by N a p o l e o n I I I and G . E . Haussmann. A l t h o u g h t h e C i t y o f P a r i s s t i l l r e m a i n e d i n s l i g h t c o n f u s i o n a f t e r t h e Commune o f P a r i s

，

i t was m a g n i f i c e n t enough t o s u r p r i s e t h e members o f m i s s i o n who j o u r n e y e d a l l t h e way f r o m J a p a n . Every member o f t h e e n t o u r a g e

，

i n c l u d i n g ambassador e x t r a o r d i n a r y and p l e n i p o t e n t i a r y Iwakura ， f u l l y r 巴 a l i z e da b i g d i f f e r e n c e i n c i t y q u a l i t y f r o m t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f J a p a n i n t h o s e d a y s . The J a p a n e s e m i s s i o n members had h e a r d t h a t u n t i l 100 y e a r s b e f o r e t h e i r v i s i t

，

P a r i s had b e e n a c o n f u s i n g community w i t h narrow r o a d s and s t o r e s and h o u s e s mixed up i n c o m p l e t e d i s o r d e r [Kume ， 1878 ， Iwanami‑bunko e d ， Vo . l 3 : 4 3 . 5 3 ] . Through t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n and s e e i n g t h i s grand c i t y a l l a r o u n d them

，

t h e y q u i c k l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f urban r e n o v a t i o n i n J a p a n . They a p p a r e n t 1 y a l s o f e l t i t was t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o make i t p o s s i b l e .

For more t h a n 100 y e a r s s i n c e t h e n

，

P a r i s a n d London

，

and o t h e r European and American c i t i e s h a v e c o n s t a n t l y b e e n a t a r g e t i m a g e f o r J a p a n e s e urban p l a n n e r s

，

and t h e i r urban p l a n n i n g and urban p l a n n i n g t e c h n o l o g y h a s a l s o b e e n a n example t o f o l l o w [ 2 ] .

J a p a n ， a coun t 1 y t h a t was l a t e i n becoming c a p i t a l i s t i c ， h a s a d o p t e d t h e p o l i c y o f c a t c h i n g up and o u t s t r i p p i n g ' t h e o t h e r c a p i t a l i s t n a t i o n s i n e v e r y f i e l d . Urban p l a n n i n g h a s b e e n no e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s p o l i c y . T h i s f i r s t c o n t a c t w i t h European and American c i t i e s and t h e i r methods o f urban p l a n n i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t h a s t o t h i s day s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f J a p a n ' s urban p l a n n i n g

，

g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c . i n g b o t h s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t s and i s s u e s s t i l l t o b e r e s o l v e d [ 3 ]

P r i o r i t y Given t o t h e P o s s i b i l i t y o f I m p l e m e n t a t i o n :

I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f M e i j i . t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f c i t i e s i n Western c o u n t r i e s d i f f e r e d g r e a t 1 y from t h o s e i n J a p a n . The r e c o r d o f t h e Iwakura m i s s i o n t o America and Europe [Kume

，

1 8 7 8 ] r e p e a t e d l y d e s c r i b e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t r e e t s

，

e s p e c i a l l y pavement o f s t r e e t s . B e c a u s e s t r e e t s i n J a p a n a t t h a t t i m e were n a r r o w . unpaved

，

and had no s i d e w a l k s . Even i n Tokyo

，

t h e y b 巴 camea s muddy a s paddy f i e l d s o r r o u g h and dry enough t o r a i s e a c o u l d o f d u s t ‑d e p e n d i n g on t h e w e a t h e r ‑ making i t e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l v e h i c l e s . But s t r e 巴 t si n l a r g e European and American c i t i e s were c o m p l e t e l y paved ， a l l o w i n g a c o n ‑ s t a n t

，

smooth s t r e a m o f t r a f f i c . The J a p a n e s e m i s s i o n members r e a l i z e d t h a t r o a d d e v e l o p m e n t would b e o f supreme i m p o r t a n c e t o s u p p o r t urban p r o s p e r i t y and t h u s t h e e c o n o m i c growth o f any c o u n t r y [Kume

，

1878 ， Iwanami‑bunko e d ， Vo l . 1 : 1 9 5 ‑ 1 9 9 ] . However ， t o widen and pave a l l t h e s t r e e t s i n Tokyo ， which were s a i d t o t o t a l 800 k i l o m e t e r s

，

was i n c o n c e i v a b l e a t t h a t t i m e .

A r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t a f t e r a d i s a s t r o u s f i r e i n 1872 began w i t h t h e p o l i c y t h a t Tokyo would be

t o t a l l y r e b u i l t w i t h b r i c k h o u s e s and b u i l d i n g s

，

which would h e l p p r o t e c t i t a g a i n s t f r e q u e n t b i g f i r e

(3)

I S H I D A : A c h i e v e m e n t s & P r o b l e m s o f ] a p a n e s e P l a n n i n g ₇ T h i s p r o j e c t

，

however

，

was d i s c o n t i n u e d a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i n g o n l y t h e G i n z a b r i c k s t r e e t a r e a . C l e a r l y

，

r e m o d e l i n g t h e e n t i r e a r e a o f Tokyo was beyond p o s s i b i l i t y [ F u j i m o r i

，

1 9 8 2 : 1 ‑ 4 4 1

Then came t h e i d e a t h a t u r b a n r e m o d e l i n g must b e c o n d u c t e d by l i m i t i n g t o a d e m a r c a t e d s p e c i f i c a r e a a n d t o a few i s s u e s o n w h i c h Tokyo s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e i t s e n ε r g i e s . I n 1880 ， M i c h i y u k i Matsuda ， t h e t h e n Governor o f Tokyo

，

c i r c u l a t e d a memorandum e n t i t l e d T o k y o C h u o u . S h i 陶 Ka 抑制 n oMondai ( T h e I s s u e o f D e m a r c a t i o n and Improvement o f t h e C e n t r a l D i s t r i c t o f T o k y o ) . " T h i s document e x p r e s s e d a c o n c e p t t h a t t h e v e r y c o r e o f Tokyo s h o u l d b e i m m e d i a t e l y d e m a r c a t e d a s t h e c e n t r a l d i s t r i c t on which u r b a n r e m o d e l i n g e f f o r t s must b e c o n c e n t r a t e d t o r e a l i z e a n u r b a n a r e a e q u i v a l e n t t o European and American c i t i e s . To a c h i e v e t h i s ， i t was e v e n i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e p o o r and shabby d w e l l i n g s ， ' U r a . N a g a y a ' ( r e a r t e n e m e n t h o u s e s ) s h o u l d b e e x p e l l e d f r o m t h e Tokyo c e n t r a l d i s t r i c t . T h i s i n s i s t e n c e was t h e p r i m ‑ a r y s u b j e c t o f e n t h u s i a s t i c a r g u m e n t s on t h e Tokyo u r b a n improvement p r o j e c t t h e n u n d e r way [ I s h i d a

，

1 9 7 9 1 .

Thus ， u r b a n improvement p l a n n i n g b e g a n w i t h what was p o s s i b l e by g i v i n g p r i o r i t y t o i m p o r t a n t t a s k s

，

p r o m o t i n g them p o s i t i v e l y a s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s f o r t h e r a p i d p r o g r e s s o f J a p a n ' s c a p i t a l i s m

，

which was t h e n s e v e r e l y b e h i n d t h e Western n a t i o n s . And t h i s become o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n h e r e n t t o J a p a n e s e urban p l a n n i n g .

The t a s k s t h a t n e e d s t o b e a c h i e v e d t o h e l p f u r t h e r t h e r a p i d p r o g r e s s o f J a p a n e s e c a p i t a l i s m i n c l u d e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f heavy and c h e m i c a l i n d u s t r i a l z o n e s t o s u p p o r t t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e n a t i o n ' s c a p i . t a l i s t i c e c o n o m y . A l s o i n c l u d e d was t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a b i g c i t y

，

n o t a b l y Tokyo

，

a s J a p a n ' s p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c c e n t e r a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i t s c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s and c o m m e r c i a l d i s t r i c t . .

Dual Urban S t r u c t u r e i n Many A s p e c t s :

The n a t i o n a l and u r b a n a r e a s t r u c t u r e s o f J a p a n i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f M e i j i e x i s t e d a s a d u a l s y s t e m : o n e o f growth and t h e o t h e r o f s t a g n a t i o n and d e c l i n e . These c o n t r a d i c t i o n s were m o s t o b v i o u s i n p o l i t i c a l

，

e c o n o m i c

，

and s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s s u c h a s t h o s e b e t w e e n c e n t r a l and p r o v i n c i a l a r e a s

，

r u l e r s and s u b j e c t s

，

and r i c h and p o o r which r e f l e c t e d d e e p r o o t s i n many y 聞い ^fhdalisHI

A l t h o u g h f e u d a l i s t i c ， however ， t h e Edo p e r i o d s ( 1 6 1 ! } L 1867) had b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s t h a t f u n c t i o n e d u n d e r t h e p o w e r f n l c e

Jl

t r a l i z a t i o n o f / t h e s h o g u n a t e form o f governmen t .

/

T h i s a l l o w e d Edo ， which was renamed Tokyo i n 1868 ，

~o

grQw i n t o a n enormous c i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f more t h a n o n e m i l l i o n and t h r i v e a s t h e p o l i t i c a l

，

e c o / n o m i c

，

and c u l t u r a l c e n t e r o f J a p a n . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r o v i n c e s

，

which were b a s e d o n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l

，

f o r e s t and f i s h i n g i n d u s t r i e s

，

Edo was t h e c a p i t a l c i t y and had t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a u n i p o l a r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . T h i s was t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l a s p e c t o f d u a l s t r u c . t u r e .

The u r b a n s t r u c t u r e o f Edo was b i a s e d and a l s o showed d u a l s t r u c t u r e : 70% o f t h e u r b a n a r e a

，

' B u k e . c h i ' was o c c u p i e d by daimyo and s a m u r a i and o n l y 15%

，

M a c h i . c h i ' by t o w n s p e o p l e and t h e

r e m a i n d e r c o n s i s t e d o f t e m p l e s and s h r i n e s . An a l m o s t e v e n p o p u l a t i o n

，

a b o u t 500

，

000 p e o p l e

，

l i v e d i n

b o t h o f B u k e . c h i and M a c h i . c h i . Showing v e r y h i g h d e n s i t y ， a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600 p e r s o n s p e r h e c t a r e ， t h e

M a c h i . c h i ( r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a o f t o w n s p e o p l e ) ， was v a s t l y o v e r p o p u l a t e d w i t h many wooden 1 o r 2 . s t o r y

h o u s e s . I n c o n t r a s t

，

t h e daimyo o r f e u d a l l o r d s

，

owned s e v e r a l l a r g e m a n s i o n s ; K a m i . y a s h i k i ' ( m a i n r e s i .

d e n c e and o f f i c e )

，

Naka

・

y a s h i k i '( s u b r e s i d e n c e )

，

and S h i m o . y a s h i k i ' ( v i l l a )

，

t h r o u g h o u t t h e c i t y o f Edo

(4)

P r o p o s e d T o k y o C e n t r a l D i s t r i c t ( 1 8 8 0 ) Ward A r e a o f T o k y o ( 1 8 7 0 s )

LL1二..L..LJ

r...

F i g ‑ 1 Tokyo C e n t r a l D i s t r i c t proposed i n 1 8 8 0

T h i s was o n e a s p e c t o f d u a l s t r u c t u r e i n E d o .

Furthermore ， t h e M a c h i ‑ c h i ， t o w n s p e o p l e a r e a ， c o n s i s t e d o f s q u a r e s u p e r b l o c k s t h a t were a p p r o x ‑ i m a t e l y 100 m e t e r s by 100 m e t e r s i n s i z e

，

and e a c h b l o c k was d i v i d e d i n t o t h e O m o t e ‑ c h i ' ( f r o n t a l l o t s ) and t h e ' U r a ‑ c h i ' ( r e a r l o t s ) . The O m o t e ‑ c h i ， d e p t h o f which were a b o u t 9 m e t e r s ， were o c c u p i 巴 dby p r o s p e r o u s m e r c h a n t s and t h e i r s t o r e s ， and t h e U r a ‑ c h i ， which c o u l d n o t f a c e t h e s t r e e t ， were c l u s t e r e d w i t h U r a ‑ n a g a y a ' ( l o w ‑ q u a l i t y and u l t r a h i g h d e n s i t y r e a r t e n e m e n t h o u s e s ) f o r t h e p o o r ， t h e a r t i s a n s ， and t h e day l a b o u r e r s

，

jammed i n t o t h e i r s q u a l i d q u a r t e r s a t t h e r a t e o f 1000 o r more p e r s o n s p e r h e c t a r e . T h i s was a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f d u a l s t r u c t u r e i n Edo [ T a m a i

，

1 9 8 6 1 .

I n f e u d a l a g e

，

a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e

，

t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e s were b e i n g f o u n d i n many l e v e l s ; t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l d u a l s t r u c t u r e between t h e enormous c i t y o f Edo and t h e p r o v i n c e s

，

t h e urban l e v e l d u a l s t r u c t u r e b e t w e e n t h e B u k e ‑ c h i f o r t h e s a m u r a i and t h e M a c h i ‑ c h i f o r t h e t o w n s p e o p l e

，

and t h e r e s i d e n t i a l l e v e l d u a l s t r u c t u r e b e t w e e n t h e O m o t e ‑ c h i f o r m i d d l e and u p p e r ‑ c l a s s and t h e U r a ‑ c h i f o r t h e p o o r . And t h e s e m u l t i ‑ l e v e l d u a l s t r u c t u r e s were i n h e r i t e d by t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f M e i j i

Dual S t r u c t u r e s Remaining up t o Now i n a D i f f e r e n t Form:

I t h a s b e e n more t h a n 120 y e a r s s i n c e J a p a n ' s m o d e r n i z a t i o n b e g a n w i t h t h e M e i j i R e s t o r a t i o n

( 1 8 6 8 ) and o v e r 100 y e a r s s i n c e an urban p l a n n i n g s y s t e m was e s t a b ! i s h e d by t h e Tokyo Urban

Improvement O r d i n a n c e ( 1 8 8 8 ) . But

，

h a v e t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e s o f n a t i o n a l and urban a r e a b e e n d i s s o l v e d ?

C e r t a i n l y ， u r b a n p r o b l e m s f a c i n g Tokyo 100 y e a r s a g o ， i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n Daimyo m a n s i o n s

and K u s h a k u ‑ n i k e n no M u n e w a r i ‑ n a g a y a ' ( 2 . 7 m by 3.6m back t o b a c k t e n e m e n t h o u s e s )

，

unpaved s t r e e t s

，

d i s a s t r o u s f i r e s t h a t c o u l d e a s i l y d e s t r o y s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d o f h o u s e s a t t i m e

，

and c o n t a g i o u s d i s e a s e s

s u c h a s c h o l e r a and t y p h o i d

，

were a l l s o l v e d . And Tokyo h a s c o n t i n u e d t o t h r i v e a s a h i g h l y v i g o r o u s

(5)

ISHIDA: A c h i e v e m e n t s

&

P r o b l e m s o f ] a p a n e s e P l a n n i n g 9

咽1 " '

1 ¥ . .

d

国 ^F ô ^r ^m ê ^r ^M â ^c ^h ⁱ ^‑ ^c ^h ⁱ

。 ^ロ • ^F ô ^r ^m ê ^r ^‑ ^。 ^B û ^k ê ^‑ ^c ^h ⁱ ⁽ ⁽ Î ^M ⁱ ^m ^l ^p ⁱ ê

^巾

^r ⁱ ^r â ^yUs ^l Û ^s ^記 ê ê ⁾ ⁾

i l

: 九 ^薩雪 ^ク ⁽ ^G ô ^v ê ^r ⁿ ^m ê ⁿ ^t Û ^s ê ⁾

。

、

1 仁〕 ^ク ⁽ ^O ^t ^h ^e ^r ^s ⁾

皿 T e m p l sa n d S h r i n

F i g ‑ 2 Land Use o f Tokyo i n 1 8 7 0 s ( l s h i z u k a ， 1 9 6 8 )

and a t t r a c t i v e c i t y and s e r v e a s a g l o b a l e c o n o m i c . f i n a n c i a l

，

and i n f o r m a t i o n c e n t e r . Although i t has t w i c e s u f f e r e d heavy damage during t h e p a s t 100 y e a r s ‑ f i r s t by t h e Great Kanto Earthqrake o f 1923.

t h e n by a i r r a i d s i n World War I I ‑ no d i s c e r n i b l e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h i s damege remain t o d a y .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d e d i n t h e f i r s t J a p a n e s e urban p l a n n i n g programme back i n 1880s remain

(6)

c o m p l e t e l y i n t a c t t o d a y . l n o t h e r words

，

t h e method f o r d e m a r c a t i n g d i s t r i c t s and l i m i t i n g t h e t a s k s and o b j e c t i v e s a c h i e v a b l e i n t h e s h o r t t e r m a n d p r o m o t i n g them p o s i t i v e l y a s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d t o r a p i d p r o g r e s s o f urban r e n o v a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y

，

midtown a r e a s a n d s u b ‑ c e n t e r s o f Tokyo have b e e n r e p e a t e d l y improved d u r i n g t h e p r o g r e s s o f urban r e n o v a t i o n

，

and t h i s h a s a c h i e v e d s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t . On t h e o t h e r hand

，

however

，

b e l a t e d and i n s u f f i c i e n t urban p l a n n i n g h a s g i v e n r i s e t o new urban p r o b l e m s and l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d urban a r e a s . For example

，

a n a r e a c l u s t e r e d w i t h s o c a l l e d m o k u ‑ c h i n "

(wooden l e a s e ) a p a r t m e n t s a l o n g t h e Yamate l i n

，巴

a l o o p urban r a i l r o a d

，

was f o r m u l a t e d i n t h e y e a r s a r o u n d t h e e n a c t m e n t o f t h e 1919 Town P l a n n i n g A c t

，

b e c a u s e o f d e l a y s i n a p p l y i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f urban p l a n n i n g f o r c o n t r o l 1 i n g u r b a n e x p a n s i o n t o r a p i d l y a d v a n c i n g u r b a n i z a t i o n . Today

，

n e a r l y 70 y e a r s l a t e r

，

t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h i s a r e a s h a v e r e m a i n e d u n s o l v e d

，

becoming more c o m p l i c a t e d and s e r i o u s a s t h e y e a r s p a s s . l n t h i s way

，

t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e s f o r urban a r e a s r e m a i n u n a l t e r e d

，

t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r e v e r ‑ c h a n g i n g f o r m s .

The p r o b l e m o f u n i p o l a r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f Tokyo

，

which i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t t a s k t o b e s o l v e d by t o d a y ' s n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n i n g

，

i s t h e i n h e r i t e d problem

，

t h o u g h i n a d i f f

巴

r e n tf o r m

，

f r o m t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e i n f e u d a l a g e ; b e t w e e n t h e enormous c i t y o f Edo and t h e p r o v i n c e s .

The a c h i e v e m e n t s o f J a p a n ' s modern urban p l a n n i n g may b e b r i l l i a n t . B u t i t must b e remembered t h a t t h e s e a c h i e v e m e n t s were a t t a i n e d by i m p r o v i n g o n l y t h e p e a k s

，

t h e town c e n t e r and s u b ‑ c e n t e r s

，

r e p e a t e d l y

，

and l e a v i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k s b e h i n d o r c r e a t e d new i s s u e s t o b e s o l v e d .

Repeatedly Improved Midtown and Sub‑center:

Marunouchi

The midtown and s u b ‑ c e n t e r a r e a s o f Tokyo h a v e b e e n r e p e a t e d l y improved s i n c e t h e M e i j i R e s t o r a t i o n . Taking t h e Marunouchi d i s t r i c t f o r example

，

where

，

a i m i n g a t t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y ' s CBD

，

t h e h i g h ‑ d e n s i t y r e d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n o f 2000% f l o o r / p l o t a r e a r a t i o was p r o p o s e d r e c e n t l y [ M i t s u b i s h i J i s h o C o . L t d

，

1988 ， ] t h e a u t h o r i n t e n d t o d i s c u s s how t h e midtown a r e a h a s r e p e a t e d l y b e e n improved and h a s a c q u i r e d i t s s u p e r b c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e CBD

T h i s d i s t r i c t was improved d u r i n g t h e Edo p e r i o d f o r K a m i ‑ y a s h i k i f o r p o w e r f u l daimyos a n d u s e d n o t o n l y f o r t h e i r r e s i d e n c e s

，

b u t a l s o f o r what t o d a y we would c a l l o f f i c e s . A f t e r t h e M e i j i R e s t o r a t i o n

，

t h e government r e q u i s i t i o n e d t h e d i s t r i c t f o r u s e a s m i l i t a r y a r e a

，

a n d i n 1890

，

i t was s o l d t o t h e M i t s u ‑ b i s h i Company

，

marking a m a j o r s t e p toward t h e c o m p a n y ' s 巴 s t a b l i s h m e n to f a b u s i n e s s c e n t e r i n Tokyo Of c h i e f s i g n i f i c a n c e i s t h a t t h e E s t a t e D i v i s i o n o f t h e M i t s u b i s h i Company

，

t h e p r e s e n t ‑ d a y M i t s u b i s h i J i s h o C o . L t d .

，

a s t h e d i s t r i c

t'

s s i n g l e landowner r e p e a t e d l y i n v e s t e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s

，

and modern s u p e r b l o c k s t h u s e v o l v e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Tokyo Urban lmprovement P l a n d e c i d e d o n i n 1 8 8 9 . No r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s were i m p l e m e n t e d i n t h e Marunouchi d i s t r i c t f o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t Kanto E a r t h ‑ quake o f 1923

，

m a i n l y b e c a u s e t h i s d i s t r i c t had s u f f 巴 r e da l m o s t no d a m a g e . However

，

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s i n t h e damaged s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a

，

improved t h e r o a d s y s t e m and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s c o n n e c t i n g t h e d i s t r i c t w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e c i t y

，

a n d h e l p e d t o e n h a n c e t h e s t a t u s o f t h e Marunouchi d i s t r i c t .

What made M a r u n o u c h i ' s p o s i t i o n u n s h a k a b l e a s t h e b u s i n e s s c e n t e r was t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d i m p r o v e

ment o f t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s a t a l l l e v e l s : w i t h i n t h e c i t y

，

between c i t i e s

，

and t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e n a t i o n .

(7)

I S H I D A : A c h i e v e m e n t s

&

P r o b l e m s o f J a p a n e s e P l a n n i n g

11

B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f Tokyo S t a t i o n i n 1914 ， t h e s e t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s have b e e n r e p e a t e d l y improved

，

r e s u l t i n g i n what t o d a y i s an e x t e n s i v e r a i l w a y network c e n t e r i n g on Tokyo S t a t i o n ( a c o m p l e x o f o n e ground l e v e l s t a t i o n and two underground l e v e l s t a t i o n s ) . N a t i o n w i d e t r u n k l i n e s i n c l u d e t h e Tokaido

，

Tohoku and J o e t s u S h i n k a n s e n b u l l e t t r a i n l i n e s and t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l Tokaido t r u n k l i n e . M e d i u m . d i s t a n c e t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s w i t h i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a i n c l u d e t h e Tokaido l o c a l

，

Yokosuka

，

Sobu

，

K e i y o r a i l w a y l i n e s

，

and suburban commuter l i n e s i n c l u d e t h e Chuou a n d K e i h i n ‑ t o h o k u l i n e s . There i s a l s o t h e Yamate l i n e

，

which e n c i r c l e s t h e Tokyo ward a r e a i n a b r o a d l o o p c o n n e c t i n g main s u b ‑ c e n t e r s . I n and around t h e Marunouchi d i s t r i c t t h e r e a r e 7 subway l i n e s r o u t s and 6 o f which a r e d i r e c t l y l i n k e d w i t h suburban r a i l w a y s and c o n d u c t m u t u a l t h r o u g h ‑ o p e r a t i o n s [ H i r o s e

，

1 9 8 8 1 .

The M e i j i R e s t o r a t i o n changed t h e Marunouchi d i s t r i c t from a a r e a o f daimyo m a n s i o n s t o m i l i t a r y f a c i l i t i e s . H e n c e f o r t h urban r e n o v a t i o n p r o j e c t s ， a l o n g w i t h r e p e a t e d improvement i n t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s ， h a v e s u c c e s s i v e l y c o n v e r t e d t h e a r e a t o b r i c k s t r e e t commonly known a s One S t r e e t London

，"

t h r o u g h a modern American s t y l e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g a r e a ， a n d t h e n t o a w o r l d ‑ f a m o u s CBD. The Marunouchi o f t o d a y i s a t e e m i n g urban c e n t e r o f busy s t r e e t s c o n n e c t i n g row upon row o f h i g h f l o o r l p l o t a r e a r a t i o o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s

S i m i l a r l y

，

t h e G i n z a d i s t r i c t

，

T o k y o ' s midtown c o m m e r c i a l c e n t e r

，

h a s s i n c e 1872 b e e n r e p e a t e d l y i m p r o v e d by c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e b r i c k b u i l d i n g s t r e e t s p r o j e c t

，

and by t h e r e c o n s t r u c ‑ t i o n p r o j e c t a f t e r t h e G r e a t Earthquake o f 1923. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n i m m e n s e l y i m p r o v e d : f r o m s t a g e c o a c h t o h o r s e tramway and s t r e e t c a r

，

and now t o d a y ' s e x t e n s i v e subway network t h a t i s b e i n g e x p a n d e d .

S h i n j u k u Sub‑center

R e g a r d i n g t h e S h i n j u k u s u b ‑ c e n t e r o f Tokyo

，

which was c a l l e d N a i t o ‑ s h i n j u k u d u r i n g t h e Edo p e r i o d

，

i t t h r i v e d a s a Shukuba‑machi ， a p o s t town a l o n g t h e K o s h u ‑ k a i d o Road ， and a l s o a s an amusement quar

・

t e r on t h e o u t s k i r t s o f E d o . When t h e Yamate r a i l w a y l i n e was opened by t h e Nihon Tetsudo R a i l w a y Co

i n 1885 ， t h e s t a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d i n N a i t o ‑ s h i n j u k u . With t h i s s t a t i o n a s t h e t e r m i n a l ， suburban

p r i v a t e r a i l w a y l i n e s s u c h a s t h e S e i b u ‑ K i d o u

，

K e i o

，

and Odakyu l i n e s were c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e 1910s

，

p r o v i d i n g a b a s i s f o r t h i s d

(8)

F i n a n c e i n t h e r e a r s i d e o f t h e S h i n j u k u S t a t i o n ( t o d a y ' s West e x i t ) was d e v e l o p e d i n t o a s t a t i o n ‑ f r o n t p l a z a . At t h e same t i m e ， l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t p r o j e c t were i m p l e m e n t e d t o c r e a t e b l o c k s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m u l t i ‑ s t o r y b u i l d i n g s t h r o u g h e x c e s s i v e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d . The l a n d r e a d j u s t e d u n d e r t h e p r o j e c t had a minimum h e i g h t r e g u l a t i o n on b u i l d i n g s

，

and t e n d e r s were r e c e i v e d on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d b e s t a r t e d w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s . T h i s p r o j e c t was b a s e d on t h e t e c h n i q u e o f l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t f o r s i t e i m p r o v e m e n t " t h r o u g h e x c e s s i v e c o n d e m n a t i o n s t i p u l a t e d f o r i n t h e 1919 Town P l a n n i n g Act

，

which had b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d i n o n l y t h r e e c a s e s u n t i l t h e c l a u s e s f o r t h e t e c h n i q u e was r e p e a l e d i n 1954 [ S u z u k i ， 1 9 8 8 1 .

For t h e a r e a b e t w e e n t h e s i t e improvement l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t a r e a and t h e Y o d o b a s h i w a t e r p u r i f i c a ‑ t i o n p l a n t (now t h e S h i n j u k u s u b ‑ c e n t e r ) ， t h e p l a n f o r an o r d i n a l y l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t p r o j e c t was d e t e r mined i n 1936

^目

The main p r o j e c t o f war damage r e h a b i l i t a t i o n town p l a n n i n g a f t e r t h e World War I I i n t h e S h i n j u k u d i s t r i c t was t h e l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t p r o j e c t f o r t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a o f t h e S h i n j u k u S t a t i o n

，

a t o t a l a r e a o f 44 h e c t a r e s

，

i n c l u d i n g b o t h o f t h e N i s h i g u c h i ( 羽

T

e s t e x i t ) a n d H i g a s h i g u c h i ( E a s t e x i t ) a r e a . T h i s was

F i g ‑ 3 S t r e e t P a t t e r n o f S h i n j u k u

( S h o w i n g c o n t r a s t between s u b ‑ c e n t e r a r e a and o t h e r s )

(9)

I S H I D A : A c h i e v e m e n t s

&

P r o b l e m s o f J a p a n e s e P l a n n i n g 1 3 t h u s t h e s e c o n d improvement p r o j e c t f o r t h e S h i n j u k u N i s h i g u c h i (West e x i t ) a r e a . 1 n t h e war r e h a b i l i t a t i o n l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t p r o j e c t i n t h e N i s h i g u c h i ， i t was c u r i o u s t h a t t h e a r e a o f s t a t i o n f r o n t p l a z a was o n c e r e d u c e d t o a b o u t two t h i r d o f p r e v i o u s a r e a and r e c o v e r e d a g a i n by l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t p r o j e c t . The r e d u c e d o n e t h i r d o f p r e v i o u s p l a z a a r e a was c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e s i t e o f t h e s t a t i o n b u i l d i n g ( t o d a y ' s Odakyu d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e ) .

R e g a r d i n g t h e S h i n j u k u s u b ‑ c e n t e r t o d a y

，

l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n i s u n d e n i a b l y t o o h i g h i n d e n s i t y

，

1 . 7 t o 1 . 8 t i m e s t h e o r i g i n a l p l a n n e d f ! o o r / p l o t a r e a r a t i o [Yamada & S u z u k i 1 9 8 9 1 . However ， t h i s c a n b e c o n s i ‑ d e r e d a s u c c e s s f u l c a s e o f J a p a n ' s modern urban p l a n n i n g and n o t s u f f e r i n g by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h a t o f Western c o u n t r i e s . R e p e a t e d urban p l a n n i n g p r o j e c t s e x e c u t e d f o r t h e S h i n j u k u d i s t r i c t ， and t h e c o n s t r u c ‑ t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s t h a t b e g a n w i t h t h e o p e n i n g o f S h i n j u k u S t a t i o n by t h e Nihon Tetsudo C o .

，

p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s o f t h e S h i n j u k u ' s developmen t . Now i n t h e S h i n j u k u N i s h i g u c h i d i s t r i c t

，

where t h e new o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s o f t h e Tokyo M e t r o p o l i t a n Government o p e n e d r e c e n t l y

，

t h e n e e d t o i m p r o v e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ， s u c h a s s t a t i o n f r o n t p l a z a ， a c c e s s r o a d t o t h e s u b ‑ c e n t e r d i s t r i c t and new subway l i n e N o . 12 i s k e e n l y f e l t

1 t must b e remembered t h a t a l l t h e s e town p l a n n i n g p r o j e c t s e x e c u t e d by t h e p u b l i c c r e a t e d h i g h d e v e l o p m e n t p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e d i s t r i c t and p r o v i d e d i n f ! a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o f i t s f o r l a n d owners o f t h e d i s t r i c t . However

，

t h e b e t t e r m e n t l e v y s y s t e m i n J a p a n h a s b e e n i n s u f f i c i e n t t o r e c o u p f u n d s which h a v e b e e n i n v e s t e d by t h e p u b l i c t o i m p r o v e t h e i n f r a s r u c t u r e s f o r t h e d i s t r i c t .

The S u c c e s s f u l Aspect o f J a p a n ' s Modern Urban P l a n n i n g :

The midtown d i s t r i c t s ， s u c h a s Marunouchi ， G i n z a ， K a s u m i g a s e k i ， and Ohtemachi ， t h e s u b ‑ c e n t e r d i s t r i c t s ， s u c h a s S h i n j u k u ， Shibuya ， and 1 k e b u k u r o ， and t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s s u p p o r t i n g a l l t h e s e d i s t r i c t s h a v e b e e n improved t o k e e p p a c e w i t h e n h a n c e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n o f J a p a n and Tokyo

，

o r e v e n more r a p i d l y t h a n t h a t p a c e . Having f i l l e d t h e g r e a t gap i n q u a l i t y b e t w e e n Tokyo and Western c i t i e s o f 100 y e a r s a g o

，

J a p a n ' s c a p i t a l now r a n k s i n e f f i c i e n c y w i t h them and i n some a s p e c t s e x c e e d s t h e m . T h i s e v a l u t i o n c a n a l s o a p p l y t o t h e midtown a r e a s o f o t h e r p r i n c i p a l J a p a n e s e c i t i e s

1 n t h e c o u r s e o f d e v e l o p m e n t ， r o a d ， r a i l w a y ， a n d subway n e t w o r k s e s p e c i a l l y h a v e b e e n improved o n e a f t e r a n o t h e r

，

c r e a t i n g t h e v i t a l hubs o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e l o c a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l i t y o f urban l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n . I n t h e postwar p e r i o d

，

a p o l i c y t o d e c e n t r a l i z e low u t i l i z e d l a n d w i t h i n midtown a r e a s h a s b e e n c o n s i s t e n t 1 y t a k e n . 1 n d u s t r y was f i r s t d e c e n t r a l i z e d ， f o l l o w e d by d i s t r i b u t i o n ， r e s e a r c h ，

h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n

，

and f r e i g h t t r a i n t r a n s p o r t ; t h e s e s i t e s were c o n v e r t e d f o r g r a n d ‑ s c a l e l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n

，

t h u s c h a n g i n g t h e urban s t r u c t u r e . S e t t i n g a s i d e how much t h e s e r e s u l t s were c a 1 c u l a t e d and p l a n n e d ， t h e s e r e m o d e l i n g p r o j e c t s s h o u l d be a c c e p t e d a s s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e t h e y have c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p o r t s u c h a r a p i d e x p a n s i o n and f u n c t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f Tokyo a n d t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a a s we e x p e r i e n c e t o d a y [Kawakami ， 1 9 9 0 1 .

The Low‑Standard Urban Areas A f f e c t e d by E d o ' s Urban S t r u c t u r e

So f a r

，

1 may have b e e n t o o o p t i m i s t i c i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e s u c c e s s f u l a s p e c t s o f T o k y o ' s urban d e v e l o p ‑

men t . As 1 p o i n t e d o u t e a r 1 i e r ， t h e urban s t r u c t u r e o f Tokyo was o r i g i n a l l y t h a t o f d u a l s t r u c t u r e s w i t h

(10)

B u k e ‑ c h i a n d M a c h i ‑ c h i

，

f r o n t and r e a r

，

namely

，

t h e s u n s h i n e and t h e s h a d e . T h i s i s t r u e

，

more o r l e s s

，

o f c i t i e s i n any c o u n t r y . But i n Tokyo ， t h 巴 p r o b l e mi s t h a t t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n t o t a l l y s o l v e d e v e n t o d a y .

H i s t o r i c a l l y

，

l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d u r b a n a r e a s i n Tokyo a r e o f two t y p e s . One t a k e s o v e r t h e p r o b l e m s o f u r b a n a r e a s s t a r t e d i n Edo

，

and t h e o t h e r r e s u l t s f r o m n o n e x i s t e n t

，

b e l a t e d

，

o r i m p r o p e r u r b a n p l a n n i n g a f t e r t h e M e i j i E r a .

I n t h e urban a r e a s o f Edo

，

t h e t o w n s p e o p l e a r e a s were e x t r e m e l y o v e r p o p u l a t e d

，

a n d t h e s o ‑ c a l l e d r e a r t e n e m e n t h o u s e z o n e s were e s p e c i a l l y p o o r l i v i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s

，

a s I b r i e f l y s t a t e d e a r l i e r . These o v e r p o p u l a t e d a r e a s and t h e p o o r e s t d i s t r i c t s c a l l e d t h e Four N o t o r i o u s Slums o f Edo a s w e l l

，

r e m a i n e d i n t h e M 巴 i j iE r a . Today

，

n o t o n l y t h e s e s l u m s and b u t a l s o b a c k ‑ t o ‑ b a c k t e n e m e n t h o u s e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n e l i m i n a t e d .

However

，

t h e p o o r s t a n d a r d s f o r u r b a n a r e a s t h a t i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e Edo p e r i o d t o t h e M e i j i Era h a v e e v o l v e d t o p r e s e n t ‑ d a y l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d urban a r e a s . An e x a m p l e i s t h e narrow r o a d s ， known a s t h e N i k o ‑ d o r o ' s y s t e m . T h i s s y s t e m e x c e p t i o n a l l y a u t h o r i z e s s i t e s a l o n g r o a d s whose w i d t h s a r e l e s s t h a n t h e s t a t u t o r y minimum o f f o u r m e t e r s a s q u a l i f i e d b u i l d i n g s i t e s . At p r e s e n t ， a b o u t two t h i r d s o f t h e h o u s i n g s i t e s i n Tokyo a r e u n d e r t h i s a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o make b u i l d i n g p o s s i b l e . T h i s s y s t e m o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e s t a t u s o f r o a d s y s t e m i n E d o . I n t h e u r b a n a r e a s o f Edo

，

m a i n r o a d s e n c o m p a s s i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m e t e r s by 100 m e t e r s s u p e r b l o c k s e x c e e d e d t h r e e k e n ' ( 5 . 4 m ) i n w i d t h ， however ， o n l y f r o n t a l b u i l d i n g s were a l o n g s u c h r o a d s

，

w h i l e a m a j o r i t y o f r e a r b u i l d i n g s i n t h e s u p e r b l o c k s f a c e d a l l e y s o f o n l y 0 . 9 t o 1 . 8 m e t e r s w i d e . The c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f narrow r o a d s and b u i l d i n g s i t e s i n E d o ' s urban a r e a s r e m a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e M e i j i Era and t h r o u g h t h e c o u r s e o f t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n u r b a n p l a n n i n g p r o j e c t f o r t h e G r e a t E a r t h q u a k e o f 1923

，

and i t i s s t i l l f o u n d t o d a y i n many a r e a s i n T o k y o .

Moreover

，

t h e 1919 Urban B u i l d i n g Act

，

p r e d e c e s s o r o f t o d a y ' s B u i l d i n g S t a n d a r d Act

，

r e g u l a t e d t h e minimum w i d t h o f r o a d s a l o n g which h o u s e s were b u i l t t o b e a b o u t 2 . 7 m e t e r f o l l o w i n g t h e narrow a l l e y c o n d i t i o n s f r o m t h e Edo p e r i o d

，

a n d t h i s v e r y low s t a n d a r d had m a i n t a i n e d u n t i l t h e 1938 r e v i s i o n o f t h e Ac t . Urban a r e a s n e w l y b u i l t n a t i o n w i d e f r o m t h e 1920s t o t h e 1930s were b a s e d o n t h e l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d u r b a n a r e a s o f t h e Edo p e r i o d ， l e a v i n g t o d a y ' s ] a p a n w i t h a n

New Low‑Standard Urban A r e a :

Even a f t e r t h e e n a c t m e n t o f t h e Tokyo Urban Improvement O r d i n a n c e i n 1888 and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f t h e ] a p a n e s e u r b a n p l a n n i n g s y s t e m

，

b e c a u s e o f i t s i m p e r f e c t i o n

，

d e l a y e d o r i m p r o p e r a p p l i c a t i o n

，

t h e

u r b a n p l a n n i n g s y s t e m c r e a t e d many new l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d urban a r e a s . I n Tokyo

，

f o r e x a m p l e

，

we c a n

m e n t i o n a s s u c h a r e a s

，

wooden l e a s e a p a r t m e n t b e l t which were b u i l t i n s o ‑ c a l l e d Dark Age o f Urban

P l a n n i n g ' f r o m 1900 t o t h e 1920s and h a v e s i n c e b e e n l e f t d i s o r d e r e d and h i g h i n d e n s i t y ; i n d u s t r i a l

and s e m i ‑ i n d u s t r i a l d i s t r i c t s which a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t s u b u r b a n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e

m u n i t i o n s p l a n t d i s p e r s i o n p o l i c y d u r i n g t h e w a r t i m e ; t h e s p r a w l o f u r b a n a r 巴 a se x t e n d i n g 20 t o 30 k i l o ‑

m e t e r s f r o m T o k y o ' s c e n t e r h a v e r e s u 1 t e d f r o m t h e p o o r g r e e n ‑ b e l t p o l i c y [ I s h i d a

，

1 9 7 8 1 ; a n d h i g h

f l o o r / p l o t a r e a r a t i o condominiums and t h e i r c 1 u s t e r e d d i s t r i c t s w h i c h were t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p e r i o d f r o m

t h e 1950s t o t h e 1960s when t h e f l o o r l p l o t a r e a r a t i o r e g u l a t i o n s and t h e Act f o r t h e D i v i s i o n a l Owner‑

(11)

I S H I D A : A c h i e v e m e n t s

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P r o b l e m s o f J a p a n e s e P l a n n i n g 1 5

u r b a n i z e d f r o m 1 9 0 0 t o 1 9 2 5

11 L :1.1

: ， I .

m

‘ーー‘ー~ー‘~

F i g ‑ 4 L o w ‑ S t a n d a r d U r b a n A r e a s U r b a n i z e d f r o m t h e 1 9 0 0 s t o t h e 1 9 2 0 s

s h i p o f b u i l d i n g d i d n o t e x i s t .

L e g e n d 50%

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F i g ‑ 5 R a t i o o f M o k u ‑ c h i n Apa 同 mentU n i t s t o t o t a l Houses ( M i y a k e ， 1 9 7 1 )

The a u t h o r i n t e n d s t o f o c u s b r i e f l y o n t h e wooden l e a s e a p a r t m e n t b e l t s . T h i s a r e a i s a n o v e r p o p u . l a t e d

，

l o w . q u a l i t y h o u s i n g a r e a s h a p e d l i k e a r i n g a l o n g t h e Yamate 1 i n e a b o u t 10 k i l o m e t e r s from t h e c e n t e r o f T o k y o . B e c a u s e t h e r a t i o o f wooden l e a s e a p a r t m e n t s i s v e r y h i g h

，

t h i s a r e a i s c a l l e d Moku C h i n " a p a r t m e n t a r e a . Word M o k u . C h i n ' i s a n a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m f o r Mokuzou C h i n t a i K y o d o ‑ J y u t a k u ( w o o d e n l e a s e a p a r t m e n t ) ' and a l s o a pun w r i t t e n i n t h e same C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s a s K i c h i n . Y a d o " o r c h e a p l o d g i n g h o u s e ， which was t h e r e s i d e n t i a l f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e l o w e s t c l a s s o f u r b a n c i t i z e n s f r o m t h e Edo t o t h e M e i j i Era

There a r e t h r e e r e a s o n s why t h i s a r e a was f o r m u l a t e d . F i r s t

，

t h e a r e a was u r b a n i z e d f r o m t h e 1900s t o t h e e a r l y 1920s ， a p e r i o d when Tokyo had no e f f e c t i v e b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n s . S e c o n d ， i t was n o t c o v e r e d by r e c o n s t r u c t i o n urban p l a n n i n g p r o j e c t s e v e n t h o u g h many p a r t s o f a r e a s were damaged by a i r r a i d s d u r i n g t h e World War 1 1 . T h i r d

，

many wooden l e a s e a p a r t m e n t s were b u i l t i n t h i s a r e a f o r l o w . i n c o m e young l a b o u r e r s who c o n c e n t r a t e d i n Tokyo d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f h i g h e c o n o m i c growth and whose r e s i d e n t i a l l o c a t i o n s were s t r i c t l y 1 i m i t e d

，

which r ε s u l t e d i n o v e r p o p u l a t i o n [ M i y a k e

，

1 9 7 1 1 .

R e g a r d i n g t h e f i r s t f a c t o r

，

s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s were made i n Tokyo t o e n a c t a b u i l d i n g o r d i n a n c e d u r i n g

t h e M e i j i Era

，

b u t a l l met f a i l u r e

，

and a n u r b a n e x p a n s i o n b e g a n i n t h e 1900s w i t h n o b u i l d i n g r e g u l a .

t i o n s . I n 1919 ， by e n a c t m e n t o f t h e Town P l a n n i n g Act and t h e Urban B u i l d i n g Act ， p l a n n i n g c o n t r o l

m e a s u r e s f o r c r e a t i n g new u r b a n a r e a s s u c h a s z o n i n g

，

b u i l d i n g l i n e s y s t e m a n d l a n d r e a d j u s t m e n t were

e s t a b ! i s h e d . However

，

t h e G r e a t E a r t h q u a k e o f 1923 c a u s e d t h e Urban P l a n n i n g Bureau t o c o n c e n t r a t e

i t s e n e r g i e s on t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h o u t a t t e n d i n g t o t h e s u b u r b s

，

t h u s l e a v i n g t h e s e new m e a s u r e s

u n a p p l i e d t o u r b a n e x p a n s i o n u n t i l 1 9 2 5 . T r i g g e r e d by t h e e a r t h q u a k e

，

a g r a n d ‑ s c a l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n was

i m p l e m e n t e d a s a n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t ， and i t i m p r o v e d t h e c e n t e r o f Tokyo t o t h e l e v e l i t d e s e r v e d a s t h e

c a p i t a l o f J a p a n

，

a c a p i t a l i s t i c n a t i o n

，

i n t h e s h o r t s p a n o f o n l y 7 y e a r s . As i m p l i e d by a n o l d p r o v e r b

，

(12)

t u r n i n g m i s f o r t u n e i n t o a b l e s s i n g

，"

t h i s was a g r e a t s u c c e s s i n urban p l a n n i n g o f T o k y o . However

，

i t i s e x t r e m e l y r e g r e t t a b l e t h a t h u g e l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d u r b a n a r e a s were a l l o w 巴 dt o e x i s t . F u r t h e r m o r e

，

i t r e m a i n s a p r o b l e m t h a t a l t h o u g h midtown and s u b ‑ c e n t e r a r e a s h a v e b e e n r e p e a t e d l y i m pro v ed

，

s u c h l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d u r b a n a r e a s h a v e r e m a i n e d unimproved f o r s i x t o s e v e n d e c a d e s ， a n d t o d a y t h e y a r e more o v e r p o p u l a t e d and d e t e r i o r a t e d t h a n e v e r ， and g r a d u a l l y c h a n g i n g i n t o r e s i d e n t i a l q u a r t e r s o f e t h n i c p e o p l e . The c u r r e n t wooden l e a s e a p a r t m e n t b e l t s f o r m a g r e a t c h a l l e n g e t o b e d e a l t w i t h i n t h e urban p l a n n i n g o f T o k y o . U n c e r t a i n t y behind Success:

1 h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e a s p e c t s o f s u c c e s s i n ] a p a n ' s modern u r b a n p l a n n i n g and o n t h e o t h e r hand f a i l u r e i . e .

，

f o r m u l a t i o n o f l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d urban a r e a s by u s i n g Tokyo a s an e x a m p l e . The improvement and s o l u t i o n o f l o w ‑ s t a n d a r d u r b a n a r e a s

，

namely

，

t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e i n a c i t y

，

a r e a n i m p o r t a n t y e t heavy t a s k t o b e a c h i e v e d i n t h e urban p l a n n i n g o f T o k y o . A l s o

，

a s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f u n i p o l a r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o n Tokyo t h a t s u g g e s t s t h e c o u n t r y o f Tokyo" w i t h a l l o t h e r ] a p a n e s e d i s t r i c t s r e g a r d e d a s o t h e r c o u n t r i e s

，

namely

，

t h e d u a l s t r u c t u r e i n a n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e

，

i s a t a s k o f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e f a c i n g ] a p a n i n r e g i o n a l and u r b a n p l a n n i n g .

H e r e ， t h e a u t h o r i n t e n d s t o d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r by f o c u s i n g e s p e c i a l l y o n t h e t a s k s w h i c h s t i l l r e m a i n t o b e s o l v e d b e h i n d t h e a s p e c t s o f s u c c e s s i n t h e u r b a n p l a n n i n g o f T o k y o ; namely t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e midtown and s u b ‑ c e n t e r a r e a s .

The i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s c u r r e n t l y s u p p o r t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e a r e a s a r e by n o means s u f f i c i e n t f o r u r b a n a c t i v i t i e s . For e x a m p l e m e t r o p o l i t a n expressways a r e jammed d a i l y ， and s o a r e t h e o r d i n a r y r o a d s i n T o k y o . A l t h o u g h t h e number o f a u t o m o b i l e s h a s c o n t i n u e d t o i n c r e a s e t h i s d e c a d e

，

r o a d i m p r o v e ment and e n l a r g e m e n t o f p a r k i n g s p a c e h a s become more d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e o f f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e m s i n b o t h t h e c e n t r a l and l o c a l g o v e r m e n t s and b e c a u s e o f s o a r i n g l a n d p r i c e s . As a r e s u l t

，

i t i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o make a n e s t i m a t e f o r a n u r g e n t improvement i n t h e s i t u a t i o n .

Ever s i n c e t h e 1960s ， commuter t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s h a v e b e e n e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h h e a v y i n v e s t ‑

ment t o i m p r o v e t h e subway n e t w o r k

，

i n c r 巳 a s i n gc a p a c i t y by t h r o u g h ‑ o p e r a t i o n o f suburban p r i v a t e r a i l

ways and subway s e r v i c e s and s t r e n g t h e n i n g by f o u r ‑ t r a c k l i n e o p e r a t i o n o f ]R ( J a p a n R a i l w a y

C o m p a n i e s ; f o r m e r ] a p a n N a t i o n a l R a i l w a y C o r p o r a t i o n ) l i n e s ， t h e r e b y m e e t i n g growing demand i n t r a n s

p o r t a t i o n ] H i r o s e ， 1 9 8 8 1 . However ， i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i m p r o v e t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n t h a t r e q u i r e s many

commuters t o w i t h s t a n d l o n g ‑ h o u r

，

l o n g ‑ d i s t a n c e

，

and overcrowded c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h e 1980s

，

t h e p o p u l a ‑

t i o n o f Tokyo m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s h a s t e n d e d t o d e c e n t r a l i z e r a p i d l y a g a i n t o t h e s u b u r b s . T h i s h a s b e e n

b r o u g h t o n by t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n i n Tokyo u r b a n a r e a s

，

m o s t l y t o o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s i t e s .

T h e r e f o r e

，

i t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n works f o r more commuter t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s h a r d l y

r e a l i

(13)

I S H I D A : A c h i e v e m e n t s

&

P r o b l e m s o f ] a p a n e s e P l a n n i n g 1 7

C o n c l u s i o n :

I n 1973

，

s e v e r a l s e r i o u s i n c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d o v e r t h e urban problems o f T o k y o ; t h e R i o t a t Ageo S t a t i o n ' by a n g e r e d c o m m u t e r s ; Garbage War' between Koto Ward and S u g i n a m i Ward; d i r e c t l e g i s l a t i v e movement o f S u n s h i n e R e g u l a t i o n s ' . I n t h e same y e a r

，

t h e Economic P l a n n i n g Agency p u b l i s h e d t h e I n t e r i m Checks on S h i n Z e n ‑ s o ( t h e 2nd Comprehensive N a t i o n a l Development P l a n ) " t h a t c a n d i d l y p o i n t s o u t l i m i t s o f a n enormous c i t y : T o k y o . T h i s argument r e s u l t e d from c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e urban i s s u e i n a p e r i o d o f h i g h e c o n o m i c growth and o f t h e p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m . U n f o r t u n a t e l y

，

i t i s hard t o s a y whether a d e q u a t e d i s c u s s i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t a b o u t what measures s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n v o l v i n g t h e l i m i t s o f s u c h a growth o f an enormous c i t y and how t h e problems c o u l d b e o v e r c o m e . However

，

an e a r l i e r r e p o r t ， B a s i c D i r e c t i o n f o r Urban Improvement from L o n g ‑ t e r m P o i n t o f View ， " had b e e n s u b m i t t e d i n 1979 by t h e C e n t r a l P l a n n i n g Counc i ¥ t o s u g g e s t an e s s e n t i a l b a s i s f o r s u c h d i s c u s s i o n s [ K e n s e t s u

・

s h o

，

1 9 7 9 ] .

I n t h e 1980s

，

urban p l a n n i n g c o n d i t i o n s have g r e a t l y c h a n g e d b e c a u s e o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s . These i n c l u d e t h e n a t i o n a l p o l i c y o f K i s e i ‑ k a n w a ' ( t o e a s e b u i l d i n g and urban p l a n n i n g r e g u l a t i o n s ) and Min k a t s u ' ( t o v i t a l i z e t h e a c t i v i t y o f p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s )

，

which were a c t i v e l y promoted by M r . Nakasone

，

t h e t h e n Prime M i n i s t e r

，

and t h e i n c r e a s e d demand f o r g r e a t e r f l o o r s p a c e r e s u l t i n g from advanced i n t e r n a ‑ t i o n a l and i n f o r m a t i o n o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t i e s i n c i t i e s s u c h a s T o k y o . This has c a u s e d i n c r e a s e o f l a n d demand ， i n c l u d i n g s p e c u l a t i o n ， and r i g o r o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . As a r e s u l t ， l a n d p r i c e s have s o a r e d u n b e l i e v a b l y ， a ¥ l owing J i a g e y a " o r wicked r e a l t o r s t o e n g a g e i n s e c r e t maneuvers i n v o l v i n g l a n d s .

Now we must r e c o n s i d e r t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n growth and r e e x a m i n e t h e p r o s p e r o u s a s p e c t s o f e c o n o m i c and c u l t u r a l v i t a l i t y o f Tokyo ， and d i s c ¥ o s e many problems b e h i n d t h e p r o s p e r i t y and p o i n t o u t p r o b l e m s which would e v o l v e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e ， and p r o p o s e measures t o manage s u s t a i n a b l e m e t r o p o l i t a n g r o w t h . I t i s c r u c i a l f o r u s t o r e v i e w h i s t o r y i n s u c h a r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g p e r i o d a s t o d a y t o form a p r o p e r ou t ¥ ook f o r t h e f u t u r e . A l t h o u g h i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o l o o k back on t h e 100‑year h i s t o r y o f modern p l a n n i n g i n J a p a n ， o u r r e v i e w o f t h e p a s t 20 y e a r s ， o r e v e n 10 ， s h o u l d b r i n g a b o u t s e v e r a l l e s s o n s t o p r e v e n t u s from making t h e same m i s t a k e s .

NOTE

[ 1 ] T h i s a r t i c i e i s b a s e d o n a n u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r r e a d a t t h e T o k y o I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m 1988

，

C e n t e n n i a l A n n i v e r s a r y o f M o d e r n U r b a n P l a n n i n g L e g i s l a t i o n i n ] a p a n h e l d o n N o v e m b e r 9

，

1988 [ C P U

，

1 9 8 9 ] .

[ 2 ] I n 1889

，

p i c t u r e s e n t i t l e d T o k y o i n t h e d a y o f 40 y e a r s h e n c e ' w h i c h w e r e m o d e l e d o n P a r i s a n d L o n d o n

，

p u b l i s h e d i n a b o o k b y ] y u n O k a m o t o [ F u j i m o r i

，

1 9 8 2 : 77

&

F i g . 2 9

，

3 0 ]

[ 3 ] As a g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e ] a p a n e s e u r b a n p l a n n i n g h i s t o r y p l e a s e r e f e r t h e b o o k s b y t h e a u t h o r [ I s h i d a

，

1987 a ; 1987 b ; I s h i z u k a

&

I s h i d a

，

1 9 8 8 ] REFERENCE

CPU 1989 T o k y o I n t e r n a t i 捌 α 1S y m p o s 叫削 1988

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HIROSE M o r i y u k i 1988 T o k y o D a i t o s h i ‑ k e n n o H a t t e n t o T s u k i n . k o t s u ‑ T a i s a k u 1 9 6 0 ‑ 1 9 8 0 ' TOKYO: S 目 c h ot o

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Todai Shuppan‑kai

KATOH Hitomi

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ISHIDA Yorifusa

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(15)

ISHIDA: Achievements

&

Problems of }apanese Planning

1 9

日本近代都市計画の成果と課題一一継続する都市の二重構造一一

石田頼房 * 要約

この論文は， 1 9 8 8 年 1 1 月 9 日に開かれた「近代都市計画法制の百年記念事業:東京国際シンポジウム 1 9 8 8 J で筆者が行なった「日本近代都市計画の成果と課題」という報告を基礎にし，加筆訂正したものである。加筆訂正では，

全般的なチェックの他に，会議の時にはなかった図をつけ加え，また，その後の状況を踏まえた訂正，結論部分への加筆なども行なった。

この論文は，東京を中心とした日本近代都市計画の 1 0 0 年以上の歴史を，それが達成してきたことと，やり残したこと，さらには計画の遅れ不適切な運用などによって新たに発生させてきた解決すべき課題などを検証することを通じて考察したものである。

先ずはじめに，江戸から東京に引き継がれた B 本の国土・都市構造が，繁栄する巨大な江戸と貧しい地方という国土の二重構造，大名が幾つもの屋敷を持つなど江戸の 70% を占めていた武家地と，わずか 15% の土地に平均で 1 ヘクタールあたり 6 0 0 人近い密度で人々が居住していたという町地という江戸市街地の二重構造，商人が庖を持つ表地と貧乏人の住む裏長屋が密集する裏地という町地の内部の二重構造という重層的な二重構造を持っていたことを述べている。

日本近代都市計画は，そのスタートの時点から，欧米都市の実態に追いつき追い越せを課題にして，対象地域・

取り上げる問題を短期間で達成可能なものに限り，国家事業として強力に押し進めるという方法をとってきた。その結果，都心副都心などの重点地域は繰り返し整備する結果になってきていることを，丸の内・新宿などを例に述べた。また，その対極に，江戸以来の過密市街地の影響を残して未解決になっている課題として狭隆道路の問題，

都市計画の適用の遅れで劣悪な市街化が行なわれ，その後過密悪化が進んでいる地域として木賃アパートベルト地帯問題を取り上げ，都市の二重構造が形を変えながらも依然として存在していることを述べた。

また，都市計画の成果，繁栄する東京と考えられている現象の背後に，例えば，道路・通勤交通，電力供給，ゴミ処理など，インフラストラクチャーの整備で大きな遅れがあり，重大な不安を残していることを示した。

いま東京は，このような重大な問題をかかえ，不安のない市民生活，安定した都市活動を維持して行くために， r 成長の管理」を充分意識した政策をとらなければならない段階にきている。

Key Words (キー・ワード)

Urban P l a n n i n g H i s t o r y (都市計画史)， Tokyo (東京)， Urban D u a l S t r u c t u r e (都市の二重構造)， Achievements o f Urban P l a n n i n g (都市計画の成果)， Remaining I s s u e s ( 残

ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROBLEMS OF JAPANESE URBAN PLANNING [1[

総 合 都 市 研 究 第 4 3 号 1 9 9 1