Benefits Using Cohort Data
著者 Maekawa Satoko
journal or
publication title
Kansai University review of economics
volume 6
page range 39‑55
year 2004‑03
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10112/12092
E v a l u a t i n g S o c i a l S e c u r i t y Reforms i n Japan
‑ A n a l y s i s o f Generational F i s c a l Burdens and B e n e f i t s Using Cohort Data ー
Satoko Maekawa*
T h i s paper e v a l u a t e s l i f e t i m e p u b l i c burdens and b e n e f i t s o f g e n e r a t i o n s i n Japan based on c o h o r t d a t a , and t h e paper a l s o s i m u l a t e s how much s o c i a l s e c u r i t y reforms proposed by t h e Japanese government would change t h e g e n e r a t i o n a l gap i n l i f e ‑ time p u b l i c b e n e f i t s and b u r d e n s .
The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s c l e a r l y show t h a t o l d g e n e r a t i o n r e ‑ c e i v e s much more p u b l i c b e n e f i t s than t h e i r p u b l i c b u r d e n s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t s t h a t young g e n e r a t i o n s b e a r more p u b l i c burdens t h a n t h e i r p u b l i c b e n e f i t s . I t i s a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y r e f o r m would h a r d l y improve t h e g e n e r a t i o n a l gap i n l i f e t i m e p u b l i c b e n e f i t s and b u r d e n s .
Keywords: g e n e r a t i o n a l a c c o u n t , s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , pension r e f o r m
1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n
The p o p u l a t i o n p r o j e c t i o n i n Japan, c a r r i e d o u t by t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f P o p u l a t i o n and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y Research (NIPSSR) i n January 2002, shows f u r t h e r r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n aging because o f t h e d e c l i n e i n f e r t i l i t y r a t e s and t h e i n c r e a s e i n l i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s . The r a t i o o f p o p u l a t i o n above 65 y e a r s o l d r e a c h e s as h i g h a s 1 7 . 3 % , while t h e r a t i o o f p o p u l a t i o n under 1 5 y e a r s o l d has d e c l i n e d t o 1 4 . 6 % . NIPSSR p r e d i c t s t h a t t h e r a t i o o f t h e e l d e r l y (above 6 5 ) w i l l be about 30% i n 2 0 3 0 . 1
Such a r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n aging w i l l c e r t a i n l y make management o f pub‑
l i c f i n a n c e more d i f f i c u l t . The d e c l i n e i n l a b o r f o r c e means l e s s r e v e n u e ,
*
T h i s paper was p r e s e n t e d i n 5 9 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c F i n a n c e ( I I P F ) . I am g r a t e f u l t o Chi‑Wa Yuen (Hong Kong U n i v e r s i t y ) and anonymous p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r t h e i r u s e f u l comments a t t h e congress o f I I P F . And I thank Naosumi Atoda ( K e i o U n i v e r s i t y ) K y o j i Hashimoto ( K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y ) f o r h i s a d v i c e s on t h i s p a p e r . I a l s o thank A k i h i r o Kawase, Y o s h i a k i K i t a u r a and Shin Kimura ( O s a k a U n i v e r s i t y ) f o r p r o v i d i n g t h e i r e s t i m a t e d d a t a .
1 The N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f P o p u l a t i o n and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y Research ( 2 0 0 2 ) " P o p u l a t i o n P r o j e c t i o n f o r Japan: 2 0 0 1 ‑ 2 0 5 0 " .
39
w h i l e t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e e l d e r l y i n d i c a t e s much more e x p e n d i t u r e i n s o c i a l s e c u r i t y . So i n o r d e r t o cope w i t h p o p u l a t i o n a g i n g t h e Japanese govern‑
ment c o n s i d e r s fundamental reforms i n s o c i a l s e c u r i t y system, e s p e c i a l l y pension s y s t e m . C o u n c i l on Economic and F i s c a l P o l i c y ( C E F P ) and M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h , L a b o r , and Welfare i n Japan announce o f f i c i a l l y t h e i r own reform p l a n s and e s t i m a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e i r reform p l a n s on t h e government f i n a n c e . T h e i r r e p o r t s focused on t h e f u t u r e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n , s o c i a l s e c u r i t y e x p e n d i t u r e , and f i s c a l d e f i c i t . 2
I
t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o c l e a r how much t h e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y reforms w i l l change g e n e r a t i o n a l b e n e f i t s and burdens. S o c i a l s e c u r i t y reform p l a n s d i s c u s s e d today i n t e n d s t o reduce f u t u r e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y p r o v i s i o n and i n c r e a s e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n up t o a c e r t a i n l e v e l . 3 Such a p l a n w i l l g i v e younger g e n e r a t i o n s l e s s f u t u r e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t and imposes more b u r d e n s . That w i l l c e r t a i n l y make t h e g e n e r a t i o n a l gap much l a r g e r .
I n f a c t , however, t h e r e i s l i t t l e a n a l y s i s on t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y reforms on t h e g e n e r a t i o n a l g a p . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s paper e s t i m a t e s l i f e t i m e p u b l i c b e n e f i t s and c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f each g e n e r a t i o n and makes i t c l e a r how much s o c i a l s e c u r i t y reforms w i l l change t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n b e n e f i t ‑ b u r ‑ den r e l a t i o n s h i p among g e n e r a t i o n s .
One o f t h e t y p i c a l ways t o a n a l y z e g e n e r a t i o n a l i s s u e s i s " g e n e r a t i o n a l a c c o u n t i n g " . 4 I t i s very u s e f u l t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s c a l e o f f u t u r e f i s c a l d e f i c i t . However, t h i s paper makes another model f o r e s t i m a t i o n based on l i f e ‑ c y c l e t h e o r y . Because such a model based on l i f e ‑ c y c l e t h e o r y enables us t o d e a l w i t h p a s t b e n e f i t s and burdens which " g e n e r a t i o n a l a c c o u n t i n g " a n a l y s e s d o n ' t c o n s i d e r e x p l i c i t l y . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h i s paper uses a model based on l i f e ‑ c y c l e model and e s t i m a t e s g e n e r a t i o n a l b e n e f i t s and burdens by u s i n g c o h o r t d a t a . 5
2 T h e i r r e p o r t s were d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e 1 2 t h meeting o f CEFP, June 9 , 2 0 0 3 .
3 F o r example, t h e M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h , L a b o r , and Welfare proposed t o i n c r e a s e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i ‑ b u t i o n r a t e up t o 2 0 % o f annual employee'income. The s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n r a t e i s 1 3 . 5 8 %
i n 2 0 0 3 .
4 Auerhach, A . J . and
L.K o t l i k o f f ( 1 9 8 7 ) , Auerbach, A . J . , J . G o k h a l e ,
L.K o t l i k o f f ( 1 9 9 1 ) , F e h r , H . and
L.K o t l i k o f f ( 1 9 9 5 ) . I n Japan, t h e r e a r e some e x i s t i n g r e s e a r c h e s based on g e n e r a t i o n a l accounts such as Aso and Yoshida ( 1 9 9 6 ) , H i d a t a e t a l ( 1 9 9 6 ) , Iwamoto e t a l . ( 1 9 9 6 ) , C a b i n e t O f f i c e ( 2 0 0 1 ) .
5 The e x i s t i n g a n a l y s i s based on c o h o r t d a t a i n Japan a r e Hashimoto e t a l . ( 1 9 9 1 ) , and Homma e t a l .
( 1 9 8 9 ) .
2 . Model and Data
T h i s s e c t i o n e x p l a i n s f i r s t a model o f t h i s paper and then e x p l a i n e s how t o e s t i m a t e g e n e r a t i o n a l p u b l i c burdens and b e n e f i t s by u s i n g c o h o r t d a t a . 2 . 1 Model
I n o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e p u b l i c burdens and b e n e f i t s o f each g e n e r a t i o n , t h i s paper s e t a l i f e ‑ c y c l e model i n which a household maximize i t s own l i f e t i m e u t i l i t y . A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e household o f each g e n e r a t i o n i n t h i s model i s assumed t o begin t o work a t 23 y e a r s o l d , r e t i r e s a t 6 0 , and d i e s a t 8 0 . I t i s a l s o assumed t h a t t h e r e i s no u n c e r t a i n t y o f l i f e .
The g e n e r a t i o n ‑ t household consumes p r i v a t e goods ( c ) i n each year from 23 t o 80 y e a r s o l d . The household a l s o d e r i v e s u t i l i t y from s o c i a l s e c u ‑ r i t y ( s ) and p u b l i c goods ( g ) p r o v i d e d e q u a l l y by t h e government except s o c i a l s e c u r i t y . T h e r e f o r e , l i f e t i m e u t i l i t y o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n ‑ t household i s w r i t t e n a s
Ut= U t ( c
,蜘C
属,・・ ・ C
,向S
,蕊S
属,・・・s~I~
伍, d羞,・・・ g~)( 1 )
, where c t 2 3 , 2
が...4 , , 8 2 3 , S 2 4 , , … g 2 3 , g
ふr e p r e s e n tconsumption, s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , and p u b l i c good i n each age ( 2 3 ‑ 8 0 ) o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n ‑ t h o u s e h o l d .
The budget c o n s t r a i n t f o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e household o f g e n e r a t i o n t i s g i v e n by
(1
( 1 ‑t c 2 4 ) p 2 4 C 2 4 1
‑t c 2 3 ) p
却2 3
十 +・・・十(‑t c s o ) P s o C s o
( 1
+( l ‑ r r 2 4 ) ) r 2 4 { ( 1
+(1‑T r s o ) ) r s o } 5 7
.
= i n c o r n e 2 3 ‑PB ぉ+ i n c o m e 2 4 ‑PB24
+・・・十i n c o r n e 6 o ‑PB6o
( 1
+( 1 ‑ ' r r 2 4 ) ) r 2 4 { ( 1
+( 1 ‑ ' r r 6 o ) ) r 6 o } 3 7
+ p e n 5 1
+ p e n 5 2
+・・・十p e n s o { ( l + (1‑r
『r 6 1 ) r 5 1 ) } 3 8 { ( 1 + ( 1 ‑ ' T r 6 2 ) r 5 2 ) } 3 9 { ( 1 + (1‑t r s o ) r s o ) } 5 7
( 2 )
, where
Pii s p r i c e o f p r i v a t e good, r i i s i n t e r e s t r a t e , r r i i s t a x r a t e on i n t e r ‑
e s t , i n c o r n e i i s annual income, PBi i s pubic burden i n c l u d i n g income t a x ,
r e s i d e n c e t a x , and s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n ( h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e c o n t r i b u ‑
t i o n and pension premium), and p
⑩i s pension a t i ‑y e a r s o l d .
On t h e o t h e r hand, s i n c e t h e government spends t h e i r budget on p r o ‑ ducing p u b l i c goods and d i s t r i b u t i n g s o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s , t h e budget c o n s t r a i n t o f t h e government i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
G
げSi=REl
り+Bi
(3), where G j i s t h e spending f o r pubic goods except s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , S j i s t h e amount o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , REVj i s t h e revenue from t a x e s and premiums, and B j i s t h e government borrowing a t year j . The government revenue ( R E V ) c o n s i s t s o f revenue from premium f o r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n s (SOCIALREV), p e r s o n a l income t a x ( P T A X ) , c o r p o r a t i o n t a x ( C T A X ) , con‑
sumption t a x (COMPTAX), and o t h e r t a x e s (OTHERTAX). T h e r e f o r e , REV a t year j i s w r i t t e n as
R
屁 =PTAXy + CTAXy + COMPTAXy + OTHERTAX"j + SOCIALR
屁(4).
The government a c t i v i t i e s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) a f f e c t t h e household behavior d e s c r i b e d as t h e e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) through p r o ‑ v i d i n g p u b l i c goods and s o c i a l s e c u r i t y as w e l l as by imposing t a x e s and premiums. The a n a l y s i s o f t h i s paper bases on t h e s e e q u a t i o n s t o e s t i m a t e l i f e t i m e p u b l i c burdens and b e n e f i t s o f each g e n e r a t i o n .
2 . 2 Data
T h i s s e c t i o n e x p l a i n s what k i n d s o f d a t a a r e used and how t o e s t i m a t e p u b l i c burdens and b e n e f i t s by u s i n g those d a t a .
( 1 ) Cohort d a t a
The c o h o r t d a t a t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s uses i s based on "Annual Report on t h e Family income and e x p e n d i t u r e survey" i n Japan from 1953 t o 2 0 0 0 . The c o h o r t d a t a r e p r e s e n t s y e a r l y average o f income and e x p e n d i t u r e per w o r k e r ' s household by age o f household h e a d . E s p e c i a l l y t h e d a t a used i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n are'income,''consumption expenditure','number o f house‑
h o l d members', a n d ' s o c i a l i n s u r a n c e premium'of each household h e a d . That i s , t h i s a n a l y s i s e s t i m a t e s how much a head o f each household con‑
sumes and pays t a x and s o c i a l s e c u r i t y premium i n each year throughout
h i s l i f e c o n s i d e r i n g h i s f a m i l y members. T h i s paper focuses on 7 genera‑
t i o n s : t h e g e n e r a t i o n born i n 1 9 3 0 , 1 9 4 0 , 1 9 5 0 , 1 9 6 0 , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 8 0 , and 1 9 9 0 . The l i f e o f each g e n e r a t i o n begins a t 23 y e a r s o l d and ends a t 8 0 . The data a f t e r 2 0 0 1 i s c a l c u l a t e d by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e d a t a o f 2000 by percentage change o f nominal wage o r by percentage change o f p r i c e .
( 2 ) E s t i m a t i o n o f p u b l i c b e n e f i t s : 1 9 5 3 ‑ 2 0 0 0
T h i s paper r e g a r d s as " p u b l i c b e n e f i t s " a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e , p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t , and s o c i a l s e c u r i t i e s b e n e f i t s ( p e n s i o n , medical c a r e , and n u r s ‑ i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y ) . The g e n e r a l government d a t a i n t h e " N a t i o n a l Accounts" i s used f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g those " p u b l i c b e n e f i t s " . ' F i n a l consump‑
t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e ' o f t h e g e n e r a l government i n t h e " N a t i o n a l Accounts" i s used f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e , ' p u b l i c c a p i t a l formation'is used f o r p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t , and'Social s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s ' i s used f o r s o c i a l s e c u r i t i e s b e n e f i t s .
The sample p e r i o d i s from 1 9 5 3 , when t h e g e n e r a t i o n born i n 1930 becomes 23 years o l d , t o 2 0 7 0 , when t h e g e n e r a t i o n born i n 1990 i s assumed t o d i e a t 80 y e a r s o l d . The a v a i l a b l e N a t i o n a l Account d a t a , how‑
e v e r , i s from 1953 t o 2 0 0 0 . So i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make t h e d a t a a f t e r 2001 l i k e t h e c o h o r t d a t a . The summary o f t h e e s t i m a t i o n i s as f o l l o w s .
S o c i a l S e c u r i t y B e n e f i t s
S o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s i n t h i s a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t o f p u b l i c p e n s i o n , med‑
i c a l c a r e , n u r s i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y , and o t h e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s . The b e n e f i t o f pension i s c a l c u l a t e d by u s i n g t h e income o f each genera‑
t i o n d e r i v e d from t h e c o h o r t d a t a , because p u b l i c pension i n Japan i s p a i d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e income o f t h e i n s u r e d . The p e n s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y Employee's Pension I n s u r a n c e , depends on average annual income during t h e i n s u r e d p e r i o d , t h e d a t e o f b i r t h , and t h e number o f months o f i n s u r e d p e r i o d . The o u t l i n e o f c a l c u l a t i n g employee's pension i s as f o l l o w s .
The amount o f pension= average e s t i m a t e d income per month ( d u r i n g t h e i n s u r e d p e r i o d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e change o f wage) x a d j u s t m e n t r a t e ( d e p e n d i n g on t h e b i r t h d a t e )
x number o f months o f i n s u r e d p e r i o d . ( 5 )
The average income o f t h e s a l a r i e d people d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d ( 1 9 5 3 ‑ 2 0 0 0 ) i s
a v a i l a b l e by u s i n g t h e annual income o f t h e c o h o r t d a t a . The d a t e o f b i r t h o f each g e n e r a t i o n household i s assumed t o be A p r i l 1 s t , and t h e a d j u s t ‑ ment r a t e i s a l r e a d y f i x e d by t h e government. The y e a r s o f t h e i n s u r e d p e r i o d i s assumed t o be 38 y e a r s , from 23 y e a r s o l d t o 60 y e a r s o l d , so t h e number o f months o f t h e i n s u r e d p e r i o d i s 444 months.
The medical c a r e , n u r s i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y , and o t h e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s a r e e s t i m a t e d by c a l c u l a t i n g p e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f each s e r v i c e . That i s , those t r a n s f e r s a r e e s t i m a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e t o t a l amount o f each t r a n s f e r by t h e number o f people who r e c e i v e i t . The d a t a o f medical c a r e has been d i v i d e d i n t o two g r o u p s , g e n e r a l medical c a r e and medical c a r e f o r e t h e e l d e r l y , s i n c e 1 9 8 2 . So t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e p e r ‑ c a p i t a g e n e r a l m e d i c a l c a r e has been c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e amount o f g e n e r a l med‑
i c a l c a r e e x p e n d i t u r e by t h e number o f people who a r e younger than 70 y e a r s o l d ( e q u a t i o n ( 6 ) ) . The p e r ‑ c a p i t a m e d i c a l c a r e and n u r s i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y a r e c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e t o t a l amount o f each e x p e n d i t u r e by t h e number o f people who a r e o l d e r than 70 y e a r s o l d ( e q u a t i o n ( 7 ) , ( 8 ) ) . The p e r ‑ c a p i t a t r a n s f e r o f o t h e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s except p e n s i o n , m e d i c a l c a r e and e l d e r l y d a r e i s c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t o t a l amount o f those t r a n s f e r s by t h e number o f people who a r e younger than 70 y e a r s o l d ( e q u a t i o n ( 9 ) ) .
P e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f m e d i c a l c a r e 戸 amounto f g e n e r a l m e d i c a l
c a r e e x p e n d i t u r e j / p o p u l a t i o n j ( 0 ‑ 6 9 y e a r s o l d ) ( 6 ) P e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f m e d i c a l c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y 戸 amounto f
m e d i c a l c a r e e x p e n d i t u r e f o r e l d e r l y j / p o p u l a t i o n j
( o l d e r t h a n 7 0 y e a r s o l d ) ( 7 ) P e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f n u r s i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y j = amount o f
n u r s i n g c a r e e x p e n d i t u r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y j / p o p u l a t i o n j
( o l d e r t h a n 7 0 y e a r s o l d ) ( 8 ) P e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f o t h e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s j = t o t a l
amount o f o t h e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s j / p o p u l a t i o n j
( 0 ‑ 6 9 y e a r s o l d ) ( 9 )
, j i n t h e equations above i n d i c a t e s t h e d a t a a t year j . I t i s a l s o t h e same i n
t h e e q u a t i o n s b e l o w . P u b l i c Investment
T h i s paper uses " g r o s s p u b l i c f i x e d i n v e s t m e n t " i n t h e N a t i o n a l Ac‑
count f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e b e n e f i t o f p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t . 6 The b e n e f i t i s c a l ‑ c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t o t a l annual amount o f " g r o s s p u b l i c f i x e d investment"
by t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n i n Japan a t t h e same time ( e q u a t i o n
(10)).T h i s c a l c u ‑ l a t i o n assumes t h a t everyone r e c e i v e s t h e b e n e f i t o f p u b l i c investment e q u a l l y . The gross d a t a i s used i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n because t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n can be c o n s i d e r e d as r e p a i r i n g expenses t h a t t h e government pays f o r .
P e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t j
= amount o f g r o s s p u b l i c f i x e d i n v e s t m e n t j / t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n j
(10)F i n a l Consumption Expenditure
T h i s paper c o n s i d e r s " f i n a l consumption e x p e n d i t u r e " o f t h e g e n e r a l government a s one o f t h e p u b l i c b e n e f i t s b e s i d e s s o c i a l s e c u r i t y and p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t . The " f i n a l consumption e x p e n d i t u r e " c o n s i s t s o f " g e n e r a l pub‑
l i c s e r v i c e " , " d e f e n s e " , " p u b l i c o r d e r and s a f e t y " , "economic a f f a i r s " ,
"environment p r o t e c t i o n " , "housing and community a m e n i t i e s " , " h e a l t h " ,
" r e c r e a t i o n , c u l t u r e , and r e g i o n " , " e d u c a t i o n " , and " s o c i a l p r o t e c t i o n " . The p e r ‑ c a p i t a " f i n a l consumption e x p e n d i t u r e " i s used a s t h e b e n e f i t o f admin‑
i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e . 7
P e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e j
= amount o f f i n a l consumption e x p e n d i t u r e o f g e n e r a l g o v e r n m e n t j / t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n j
( 3 ) E s t i m a t i o n o f f u t u r e p u b l i c b e n e f i t s :
2001‑2070(11)
I n o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e f u t u r e p u b l i c b e n e f i t s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o assume economic c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; economic growth r a t e , p r i c e i n d e x , i n t e r e s t r a t e , p o p u l a t i o n , and so o n . Table 1 p r e s e n t s t h e assumption i n t h e a n a l y s i s .
6 Although i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e s t i m a t e t h e b e n e f i t o f s o c i a l c a p i t a l ( s t o c k ) as w e l l as p u b l i c investment ( f l o w ) , t h i s paper f o c u s e s on t h e b e n e f i t o f p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t .
7 I n f a c t , " E d u c a t i o n " b e n e f i t depends on t h e number o f c h i l d r e n and t h e i r a g e s . The c o h o r t d a t a which t h e a n a l y s i s bases o n , however, t e l l s us n o t h i n g about t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e ,
" E d u c a t i o n " b e n e f i t i s d i s t r i b u t e d e q u a l l y t o each h o u s e h o l d .
Those assumptions a r e t h e same as those i n t h e r e p o r t s o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h , l a b o r , and w e l f a r e i n Japan, which t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t o f t h e f u t u r e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s i s based on
Table 1 Assumptions f o r future economic circumstances i n Japan U n t i l 2007 A f t e r 2008 I n c r e a s e o f nominal wage
1.0% 2.5%
( a n n u a l change r a t e from p r e v i o u s y e a r ) I n c r e a s e o f consumer p r i c e
0.0% 1.5%
( a n n u a l change r a t e from p r e v i o u s y e a r )
I n t e r e s t r a t e 2.5% 4.0%
Growth o f nominal n a t i o n a l income
1.0% 2.5% ( ‑ 2 0 1 0 ) ( a n n u a l change r a t e from p r e v i o u s y e a r ) 2.0% ( 2 0 1 1 ‑ ) P o p u l a t i o n " P o p u l a t i o n P r o j e c t i o n f o r Japan: 2 0 0 1 ‑ 2 0 5 0 "
by N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f P o p u l a t i o n and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y Research
As mentioned above, t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y bene‑
f i t s i s done so t h a t t h e e s t i m a t e d b e n e f i t s a r e t h e same as those presented i n t h e r e p o r t s o f M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h , l a b o r , and w e l f a r e i n Japan. Those r e p o r t s a r e c a l l e d "The 1999 A c t u a r i a l V a l u a t i o n o f t h e Employees'Pension I n s u r a n c e and t h e N a t i o n a l P e n s i o n " , and "Review o f t h e f u t u r e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s and burdens ‑ Revised October 2000 ー", which a r e t h e b a s i c r e p o r t s when t h e Japanese government decides t h e budget o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y and reforms t h e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y s y s t e m s . 8
The s o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s e s t i m a t e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t o f p e n s i o n , g e n e r a l medical c a r e ( 0 . . . . . . 69 y e a r s o l d ) , medical c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y ( o l d e r than 70 y e a r s o l d ) , n u r s i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y , and o t h e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s . F i r s t , t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f f u t u r e pension i s summarized as f o l l o w s . The way o f c a l c u l a t i n g f u t u r e pension i s t h e same as t h e e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) . But i t i s necessary t o e s t i m a t e "average e s t i m a t e d income p e r month" a f t e r 2001 w i t h c o n s i d e r i n g t h e change o f wage. So t h e f u t u r e "average estimated income p e r month" i s e s t i m a t e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e average annual income o f a head o f each g e n e r a t i o n household i n 2000 by annual i n c o r e a s e r a t e o f nominal wage presented i n t a b l e 1 . T h i s e s t i m a t i o n i s expressed l i k e t h e
8 The d e t a i l e d ways o f e s t i m a t i o n a r e n o t announced o f f i c i a l l y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e s t i m a t e d b e n e f i t s a r e
t h e same a s t h o s e o f t h e m i n i s t r y r e p o r t s a l t h o u g h t h e e s t i m a t i o n ways m i g h t b e d i f f e r e n t .
e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 ) .
Average e s
廿matedincome per month s i n c e 2 0 0 1 = t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l income i n 2 0 0 0 / 1 2 x ( 1
+a n n u a l i n c r e a s e r a t e o f
n o m i n a l wage) ( 1 2 ) S e c o n d l y , t h e f u t u r e b e n e f i t o f g e n e r a l m e d i c a l c a r e , medical c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y , and n u r s i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y a r e e s t i m a t e d as f o l l o w s .
Each b e n e f i t = p e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f each c a r e and s e r v i c e i n 2 0 0 0 x a n n u a l i n c r e a s e r a t e o f p e r ‑ c a p i t a e x p e n d i t u r e f o r each
c a r e and s e r v i c e .
(13)The annual i n c r e a s e r a t e o f p e r ‑ c a p i t a e x p e n d i t u r e f o r g e n e r a l medical c a r e i s 2.1% and t h a t r a t e o f p e r ‑ c a p i t a m e d i c a l e x p e n d i t u r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y i s 3 . 2 % . And t h e annual i n c r e a s e r a t e o f n u r s i n g c a r e f o r t h e e l d e r l y i s 2%
from 2000 t o 2 0 2 5 , and t h a t w i l l be 1% a f t e r 2 0 2 6 . Those r a t e s a r e t h e same ones i n t h e "Review o f t h e f u t u r e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s and burdens ‑ Revised October 2000
ー"p r e s e n t e d by M i n i s t r y o f h e a l t h , l a b o r , and w e l ‑ f a r e i n Japan.
T h i r d l y , t h e f u t u r e b e n e f i t s o f o t h e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y t r a n s f e r s , p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t , and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e a r e e s t i m a t e d by i n c r e a s i n g p e r ‑ c a p i t a b e n e f i t o f each t r a n s f e r and s e r v i c e i n 2000 by t h e annual i n c r e a s e r a t e o f p r i c e p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 1 .
( 4 ) E s t i m a t i o n o f p u b l i c burden
T h i s paper focuses on the p u b l i c burden which a household r e a l l y b e a r s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e s t i m a t e d p u b l i c burdens i n t h e a n a l y s i s a r e income t a x , r e s i d e n c e t a x ( b o t h i n p r e f e c t u r e s and i n m u n i c i p a l s ) , consumption t a x , t a x on t h e income from i n t e r e s t , and s o c i a l s e c u r i t y premium. This s e c t i o n e x p l a i n s how t o c a l c u l a t e those burdens.
Income t a x and r e s i d e n c e t a x burden
I n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t a x b u r d e n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know annual income o f each g e n e r a t i o n household and the number o f persons i n each house‑
h o l d . Such i n f o r m a t i o n h e l p s us c a l c u l a t i n g t a x a b l e income and income
deductions t h a t depend on persons i n a household. This a n a l y s i s uses
income d a t a and household d a t a g i v e n by c o h o r t d a t a , which i s based on 1 1 N a t i o n a l Survey o f Family Income and E x p e n d i t u r e " i n Japan.
The o u t l i n e o f c a l c u l a t i n g income t a x i s as expressed i n t h e equation
(14)ー (16).F i r s t , we c a l c u l a t e a d j u s t e d income by r e d u c i n g e s t i m a t e d c o s t f o r e a r n i n g s o f each household ( e q u a t i o n
(14)).The e s t i m a t e d c o s t can be c a l c u l a t e d as a s t a t u t o r y income deduction f o r s a l a r i e d income i n Japan l i k e t h e adjustments i n t h e USA which a r e s u b t r a c t e d from income t o a r ‑ r i v e a t a d j u s t e d gross income. N e x t , we c a l c u l a t e t a x a b l e income by sub‑
t r a c t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t u t o r y deduction i t e m s from t h e a d j u s t e d income ( e q u a t i o n ( 1 5 ) ) . The deduction items a r e 1 b a s i c d e d u c t i o n ' , 1exemption f o r s p o u s e ' , 1 s p e c i a l exemption f o r s p o u s e ' , 1exemption f o r d e p e n d e n t s ' , 1 d e d u c t i o n f o r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y premium', and so o n . They depend on mem‑
b e r s o f a t a x p a y e r ' s f a m i l y . F i n a l l y , we c a l c u l a t e income t a x and r e s i d e n c e t a x based on t a x a b l e income and t a x r a t e s ( e q u a t i o n
(16)).Adjusted income= g r o s s mcome ‑e s t i m a t e d c o s t
(14)Taxable income= a d j u s t e d income ‑t o t a l o f d e d u c t i o n i t e m s ( 1 5 )
( b a s i c d e d u c t i o n , exemption f o r s p o u s e e t c . )
Tax burden = t a x r a t e x t a x a b l e income
(16)Consumption t a x burden and t a x on income form i n t e r e s t
B a s i c a l l y we c a l c u l a t e consumption t a x burden by u s i n g consumption e x p e n d i t u r e o f a household and consumption t a x r a t e . I n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h i s t a x burden, i t i s necessary t o have consumption expenditure d a t a . We use t h e e x p e n d i t u r e d a t a i n t h e c o h o r t f o r t h e p a s t consumption (1953‑
2 0 0 0 ) . But the f u t u r e consumption i s estimated by s i m u l a t i n g t h e model o f maximizing a l i f e t i m e u t i l i t y s u b j e c t e d t o a l i f e t i m e income c o n s t r a i n t .
By s u b t r a c t i n g e s t i m a t e d annual consumption from annual income, we can o b t a i n how much each g e n e r a t i o n household saves i n a y e a r . That t e l l s us t h e amount o f accumulated s a v i n g s o f each household. So we c a l c u l a t e t a x on income from i n t e r e s t o f t h e s a v i n g s .
S o c i a l s e c u r i t y premium
We c a l c u l a t e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y premium by u s i n g t h e s i m p l i f i e d method o f
c a l c u l a t i o n p r e s e n t e d by M i n i s t r y o f F i n a n c e i n Japan because t h e r e a r e no
a v a i l a b l e d a t a on s o c i a l s e c u r i t y premium i n c o h o r t d a t a . The s i m p l i f i e d method o f c a l c u l a t i n g s o c i a l s e c u r i t y premium i s a s shown i n t h e t a b l e 2 .
Table 2 S i m p l i f i e d s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n based on income Income S o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n L e s s t h a n 9 m i l l i o n yen 10% o f income More than 9 m i l l i o n yen
4% o f income+ 540 thousand yen And l e s s t h a n 1 5 m i l l i o n yen
More than 1 5 m i l l i o n yen 1 . 1 4 m i l l i o n yen
E s t i m a t i o n of f u t u r e p u b l i c burdens: 2001‑2070
The b a s i c c a l c u l a t i o n method o f f u t u r e p u b l i c burden i s t h e same as e x p l a i n e d above. I n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e f u t u r e income t a x and r e s i d e n c e t a x , we need t o have f u t u r e income d a t a . So we e s t i m a t e t h e f u t u r e income by i n c r e a s i n g t h e average annual income o f a head o f each g e n e r a t i o n house‑
h o l d i n 2000 by t h e annual i n c r e a s e r a t e o f nominal wage i n t a b l e 1 . 3 . E m p i r i c a l R e s u l t s
T h i s s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f a n a l y z i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l s e c u ‑ r i t y reforms on g e n e r a t i o n a l p u b l i c b e n e f i t s and burdens i n Japan. The g e n e r a t i o n s t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s focuses on a r e seven g e n e r a t i o n s , t h a t i s , g e n e r a t i o n born i n 1 9 3 0 , 1 9 4 0 , 1 9 5 0 , 1 9 6 0 , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 8 0 , and i n 1 9 9 0 . I n o r d e r t o compare t h e p u b l i c b e n e f i t s and burdens among g e n e r a t i o n s , t h i s paper c a l c u l a t e s sum o f t h e annual p u b l i c b e n e f i t s and burdens t h a t each genera‑
t i o n r e c e i v e s and b e a r s d u r i n g h i s l i f e , and e s t i m a t e s them a t c o n s t a n t p r i c e i n 2 0 0 0 .
One o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t o r e v e a l t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y reform on g e n e r a t i o n a l p u b l i c b e n e f i t s and b u r d e n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s paper c o n s i d e r s t h r e e cases about s o c i a l s e c u r i t y r e f o r m s . The cases a r e ( 1 ) s t a t u s quo ( n o r e f o r m s ) , ( 2 ) pension r e f o r m , and ( 3 ) m e d i c a l c a r e reform i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e pension reform ( 2 ) . The pension reform considered i n t h e a n a l y s i s i s t o i n c r e a s e g r a d u a l l y s o c i a l s e c u r i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n r a t e (13.58%
i n Employee's Pension Insurance system i n 2 0 0 3 ) up t o 20% o f average income and t o keep i t . I f t o t a l amount o f c o n t r i b u t i o n s f a i l s t o cover expen‑
d i t u r e , p e r ‑ c a p i t a pension b e n e f i t w i l l be reduced so t h a t t o t a l e x p e n d i t u r e
should be t h e same a s t o t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s . T h i s i s one o f t h e reform p l a n s t h a t t h e M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h , L a b o r , and Welfare i n Japan has proposed.
The medical c a r e reform i n t h e case ( 3 ) i s t o c o n t r o l m e d i c a l e x p e n d i ‑ t u r e a f t e r 2004 so t h a t annual i n c r e a s e r a t e i n m e d i c a l e x p e n d i t u r e w i l l be t h e same a s i n c r e a s e r a t e i n nominal wage. The m e d i c a l c a r e e x p e n d i t u r e has i n c r e a s e d more r a p i d l y than t h e nominal wage. So t h i s reform means t o curb medical c a r e e x p e n s e s . The r e s u l t s o f those cases a r e e x p l a i n e d
below r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Case 1 : s t a t u s quo ( n o r e f o r m s )
F i g u r e 1 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t i n case 1 , where no s o c i a l s e c u r i t y reforms a r e done. Table 3 summarizes t h e n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s o f t h e c a s e . They show d e t a i l s o f t h e p u b l i c b e n e f i t s o f each g e n e r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o make c l e a r t h e presence o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s .
F i g u r e 1 L i f e t i m e P u b l i c B e n e f i t s and Burdens i n case 1 ( S t a t u s quo) M i l l i o n Yen
1 5 0 . 0
1 0 0 . 0
5 0 . 0
0 . 0
‑ 5 0 . 0
ー
1 0 0 . 0
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 Generations ( B i r t h Y e a r )
1980 1990
. Nursing
c a r e f o r the e l d e r l y
巨l Pension 圃 s . o 1 1 Medical
c a r e
. Other
B e n e f i t s
ロ