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-Hawthorne's Early Making of the American Scenes-

UEMA TSU, Y oshiyuki

Abstract : "The Ambitious Guest" and "The Great Carbuncle" are two examples of Hawthome's serious efforts to contribute to the literary independence of America by using American scenes in his tales from his early authorship. Both tales betray artistic immaturity but a major theme of his whole life-search for the "eternal beauty"-is already and clearly seen in the symbolic uses of "an avalanche" in the former tale and

"the heavenly light" of a precious gem in the latter. They show "wonders of the invisible world." u

I

Hawthorne made a lot of adventurous journeys in New England, especially in New Hampshire, between his graduation from Bowdoin College in 1825 and his first publication of Twice-told Tales in 1837, during his famous "twelve solitary" years; some short ones with his Uncle Sam in 1831 and an extensive one also with Sam to the White Mountains, NH, and far to the Green Mountains, VT, in 1832, to name a few. In the latter case he wanted to go all the way to Canada, but had to quit the idea and stay in Vermont because of the prevailing Cholera reported?

These are Hawthorne's serious attempts to gather materials that can show the true provinciality of young America for "an itinerant novelist" ( 366) or "a wandering story teller" (10 : 407) he wanted to be during the solitary years.3) His attempts corresponded to the Zeitgeist, which imperatively asserted the lit- erary independence of America from the Old World, though with high respect to European literary traditions and without cutting ties to the Past in his case.

In harmony with the Romantic movements in the 19th century, it was a literary duty to search for the national identity by giving human, national and local

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characters to the scenes arising from American traditions, myths and dark ruins.4l

However, the mere factual reconstruction of a local history is not for the artist. An actual event in American history, when modified by artistic skills, gives an artist a deeper insight into the whole universe, as will be clear in the following two stories to be here dealt with. Hawthorne left us some documents of the journeys, called "Sketches from Memory" (1835). In one sketch called

"The Notch of the White Mountains," Hawthorne admires "all the secrets of the mountain's inmost heart" (10 : 423) and writes: "The mountains are Earth's undecaying monuments. They m1:1st stand while she endures, and never should be consecrated to the mere great men of their own age and country, but to the mighty ones alone, whose glory is universal, and whom all time will render illustrious" (10 : 424). In another sketch called "Our Evening Party among the Mountains," he retells about an Indian legend concerning the "Great Carbuncle."

Unfortunately, there remains no entry about the real disaster caused by the avalanche in the White Mountains on 28 August 1826, historically known as the Willey Disaster, either in those two sketches, The American Notebooks (1972) or The Letters 1813-1843 (1984), relating to the "solitary" years.

Hawthorne, however, must have known the fact in detail through some documents and poems, read far and wide, praising the Willeys as the tragic hero.

There is a sharp difference between what he recorded with penetrating insight as impressive in the letters written at the time of the journeys or in the sketches reported later and what he retold in the following two stories proper. This difference itself shows the intentions of the stories as works of art, though they are artistically immature; Hawthorne often resorts to apparent symbolism and bluntly intrudes in the story to explain the psyche of the protagonist, which robs modern readers of their free imagination.

II "The Ambitious Guest" ( 1835)

The unnamed stranger, Ambition personified, asks for his recognition from others without responding to calling from others. His artistic capacity, or in- . tellectual pride, leads him into an intentional withdrawal from ordinary people,

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severing the ties to the "magnetic chain of humanity" ( 11 : 98) into dehuman- ized isolation. This is the main pit intellectual artist figures in Hawthorne' s works are apt to fall into, becoming the "Outcast of the Universe" (140). This theme is clearly shown in the ironic fact that only an obscure hint of the

"unnamed" ambitious guest remains in the village tavern at his death; nobody knows anything about his name and character in the end, though the best he has hoped for is a "permanent monument"5l everybody could see:

There were circumstances, which led some to suppose that a stranger had been received into the cottage on this awful night, and had shared the catastrophe of all its inmates. Others denied that there were sufficient grounds for such a conjecture. Wo, for the high-souled youth, with his dream of Earthly Immortality! His name and person utterly unknown; his history, his way of life, his plans, a mystery never to be solved; his death and his existence, equally a doubt! (333)

It is Hawthorne's imagination itself, which the ambitious guest lacks, that has brought the unknown guest into memorable relief as an "eternal monument"6l of a story called "The Ambitious Guest."

A family in the story, also unnamed all through it although the historical name is widely known, leads a peaceful life, filled with laughter, on the steep slope of a bleak spot halfway up the White Mountains. Here lies an

"eternal beauty"7l earned by awe in the sublime scenery-"warmth and simplicity of feeling, the pervading intelligence of New-England, and a poetry, of native growth, which they had gathered, when they little thought of it, from the mountain-peaks and chasms, and at the very threshold of their romantic and dangerous abode" (327). As owner of a village tavern for food and lodging, the members of the family maintain daily contact with the travelers with a heart as warm and homely as ever, as if the fate of the family were linked with those of the travelers. They enjoy, in a very lirµited way, an

"eternal beauty" of human sympathy in the Present. They have, however,

"that consciousness of unity among themselves, and separation from the world at large, which at every domestic circle, should still keep a holy place, where no stranger may intrude" (327)-a kind of willful detachment, as if in a "dark

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cavern of a heart."

There comes to their tavern a young man with a melancholic and despondent look one day, sad because he has found no sympathetic light to share his ambition in. Just one glance and smile of the eldest daughter of the family, the "image of Happiness at seventeen" ( 324) , makes him intuitively sense the

"innocent familiarity" ( 326) or the "magnetic chain of humanity," and he brightens up as if he has finally found out that sympathetic light in her. He has traveled far and wide along the solitary road to avoid any companions "with the lofty caution of his nature" (327) in such a willful detachment as the family's.

He is a man of a "high and abstracted ambition" (327) to shine gloriously forever in the Future upon a permanent monument-"a glorious memory in the universal heart of man" (329 )-even if he has to bear living an undistinguished life in the Present. He is enthusiastically assured of the appearance of a gifted who will show to the insensitive world that a genius (the ambitious guest) has trod a solitary but glorious path to the Infinite. Hidden behind the idea is an artistic representation of Hawthorne's own ambition to be a great artist comparable to John Bull.

Sensing the girl's lonesomeness among the family bliss, the ambitious stranger proudly asserts he has an uncommonly deep and instinctive knowledge of the affairs of the heart. She, however, blushes at the hint of maiden love toward him and shrinks from his intrusive knowledge, giving no further response to his alleged "shared community." She has a calmer frame of mind and heart. He is led far by his own rational (in fact, irrational) feelings, allegedly in his mind's eye, of what is in other people's hearts and proposes putting it into words, unaware of violating the "sanctity of a human heart" (1 : 195) where only God can enter.8) Again sensing some weight upon her spirit, he says to the eldest daughter:

"You think my ambition as nonsensical as if I were to freeze myself to death on the top of Mount Washington, only that people might spy at me from the country roundabout. And truly, that would be a noble pedestal for a man's statue!" (328)

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To this she answers in the negative, which shows she is of a temperament totally different from his sympathetic expectation: "It is better to sit here, by this fire, and be comfortable and contented, though nobody thinks about us"

(328). She rejoices an earthly eternity (sympathetic, common bliss) in the Present without any hope for Fame (graceful Immortality) in the Future.

The father, however, admits that the ambitious guest has a point and betrays his hidden dream of permanence. They strike a responsive chord in leaving a permanent monument in life, a symbol of ambitious Pride: "A slate grave-stone would suit me as well as a marble one-with just my name and age, and a verse of a hymn, and something to let people know, that I lived an honest man and died a Christian" ( 329) . Even a little boy tucked in the cot speaks out his own wish to go rambling to the flume at night to drink water, a deviation from everyday commonplace; it lies deep inside the mountain almost impossible to access.

The grandmother also yearns for Vanity at the thought of her death out of fear of an old, traditional saying, or Mystery: "It used to be said, in her younger days, that, if anything were amiss with a corpse, if only the ruff were not smooth, or the cap did not set right, the corpse, in the coffin and beneath the clods, would strive to put up its cold hands and arrange it" (332).

This is a manifestation of deep-rooted fear and awe, usually forgotten in the hustle and bustle of life, towards a mysterious death, one of the Unknown. A human being reveals a true heart when faced with his or her approaching death.

Even the grandmother, the "image of Happiness grown old" (299), complains: "I want one of you to hold a looking-glass over my face [in the coffin]" ( 332) . This is another kind of Ambition to dream of permanent graves and monuments denoting "Original Sin" in the truest and most tragic sense of the words.

Thus the ambitious guest gives all the members of the family a kind of

"shock of recognition" towards their commonplace way of life. His ambition calls their hidden dreams to mind and torments them in aspiring for Heavenly Immortality, though, in fact, they live in a blessed Home/Earthly Immortality in the sublime mountains.

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And outsides, as the "fanciful" stranger describes, there comes a wail of the "spirits of the blast, who, in old Indian times, had their dwelling among these mountains, and made their heights and recesses a sacred region" ( 331) . The fatal avalanche occurs at the very moment when the grandmother's dark, · hidden sentiments come floating into the air. They all rush for the shelter in their instinctive mechanism of self-protection: "Alas, they had quitted their security, and fled right into the pathway of destruction" ( 333) . Their bodies are never to be found.9)

If the ambitious guest had really been an imaginative artist, not just a high-browed one, he could have forecast this disastrous avalanche would change its course just before hitting the cottage and divide itself into two branches, rushing toward the shelter they had all fled into and ending in tragedy: The cottage-symbol of Home integrated by Head, Heart and Soul10l

-stands safe forever. This is Hawthorne's way of asserting that only sympathetic imagination, the true intuitive mind's eye, can detect the eternal beauty-the Good and Beautiful-behind the apparent Bad and Evil, the avalanche.

The family will still live at least in the people's memory and gam a permanent, but not eternal, monument as a legend, because they have kept ties to the community and earnestly lived in the Present; the ambitious guest will have no recognition from the world ironically against his hope for a permanent monument in the Future, because he has lost the key to human sympathy-he hasn't lived honestly in the Present nor in the Future, leaving no works of art that might stand for his spiritual pilgrimage. He has, in fact, sought after the ill-gotten "dream of Earthly Immortality" (333), called Fame, in spite of his assertive ambition toward "Heavenly Immortality."

It is of vital importance for us to ask why the home of a happy family is not destroyed in the avalanche, while the shelter they have fled into for fear of a coming avalanche is ironically hit and destroyed. Quite possibly, the home safe from the fatal avalanche symbolizes the "Eternal Beauty" that trusts God's purposes, while the shelter stands for a "temporary" blessing in disguise, a mortal limitation-Original Sin.

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"Fire-side Home" is a clear manifestation of spiritual pilgrimage for the Americans, especially for early Puritans. What Hawthorne wants to maintain in the story, however, is that the home of a seemingly happy family is made of no real spiritual satisfaction. Indeed they treat troubled travelers with all their might and hearts; but, as a result of their passive withdrawal from the hustle and bustle of life (as the father says, they have fled into a remote region as a result of failure in acquiring fame in a capitalized and money-oriented society) , there is no real spiritual contact between them and the travelers, but just cordiality. Their way of life is, in Hawthorne's eye, a temporary blessing in disguise that can be symbolized by the fatal shelter; it seemingly shows itself as a safer place to ordinary people, who bury themselves in everyday life and seek no higher truth in the eternal world where a spiritual home is "security"

itself. This is another kind of inward isolation from their fellow men, as bad as that of the unnamed ambitious guest. In other words, too much "Heart"

without "Head" and "Soul," or too much "Head" without "Heart" and "Soul," is also vulnerable. Hawthorne has found in both the family and the ambitious guest the "Unpardonable Sin," the deformed Heart and the deformed Head, m varying degrees.

This is not a way of showing Hawthorne's ironic viewpoint as a lot of modern critics regard it to be (most critical attention has been devoted to ironical structure of the story) , or of hinting at the inscrutable "Will of God"- Hawthorne' s cherished idea of "Man's accidents are God's purpose"; but of giving vent to his didacticism especially cherished since his youth that the separation of "Heart" and "Head" might be the "Unpardonable Sin":

The Unpardonable Sin might consist in a want of love and reverence for the Human Soul; in consequence of which, the investigator pried into its dark depth, not with a hope or purpose of making it better, but from a cold philosophical curiosity, -content that it should be wicked in what ever kind or degree, and only desiring to study it out. Would not this, in other words, be the separation of the intellect from the heart?

(8 : 251)

Heart seeks the "eternal beauty" in this limited, but wide, world: Head seeks

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for it beyond the earthly world. For some, like the ambitious guest, the grosser life is a dream, and the spiritual life is a reality; for others, like the family, the opposite is the case. Heart can intuitively feel the idea that God's way, unknown to human knowledge/Head, is in nature good and wise- Man's accidents are God's purpose. Seen from afar, the "Good and Beautiful"

is broadly manifest in His total design, while a human being is apt to see only partially the "Bad and Ugly" in his narrow mind/Head. In the words of the father of the story, "The old Mountain has thrown a stone at us, for fear we should forget him" ( 326 )-a typological looking at the foreshadowing phenomenon of a landslide. ·

In any event, what we should remember now is that Hawthorne denies both ways of living, buried only in "Heart" like the family or only in "Head" like the ambitious guest in the story.

The main point of the story is that the avalanche is a paradoxical symbol of the "Eternal Beauty" beyond the apparent Bad and Evil of mortality, just as the birthmark on Georgiana in "The Birth-mark" (1843) and the poison in Beatrice in· "Rappaccini's Daughter" (1844) are those of the "Original Sin." If the family and the young stranger really believed in the Home, symbol of the Good and Beautiful, they wouldn't have escaped into the shelter, symbol of temporary bliss. The avalanche should be interpreted as "life-in-death," just as plunging into a whirlpool is the only way of survival for the protagonist in Poe' s "Maelstrom."

ill "The Great Carbuncle" (1837)

There is another description about a picturesque party of adventurers among the White Mountains in "Sketches from Memory" (1835), called "Our Eve ning Party among the Mountains." /The company is made up of people in various lines of business seeking something valuable for each of them, which means they stand for Everybody. Their conversation leads to a legend of the vanishing Indians called the "Great Carbuncle" of the White Mountains: "In the mythol- ogy of the savage, these mountains were afterwards considered sacred and inaccessible, full of unearthly wonders, illuminated by lofty heights by the

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blaze of precious stones, and inhabited by deities, who sometimes shrouded themselves in the snowstorm, and came down on the lower world" (10 : 428).

According to the fabulous legend, those who behold the shining Carbuncle in- variably want to possess it and spend their life searching for it in vain; a spirit keeps watch about the invaluable jewel, "either by removing it from peak to peak of the higher hills, or by calling up a mist from the enchanted lake" ( 153 ) . Hawthorne betrays in this sketch his ambition to "frame a tale with a deep moral" (10 : 428) with the legend; hence, "The Great Carbuncle" that follows Scott's example in an American way.

The story proper also has the elements of the extravagantly fabulous, causmg us to read it in terms of symbolic narrative, parable and allegory, compared with "The Ambitious Guest" ; therefore, what on earth Hawthorne means by "a deep moral" should be mentioned in the final analysis in this essay.

A party of adventurers are trying to search for a precious stone fruitlessly so far in the White Mountains, each impelled by "his own selfish and solitary longing for this wondrous gem" (149). However, estranged high from the lower world, they help each other with a feeling of brotherhood in the wigwam of an aged Indian, called the Seeker, who could be likened to a wandering Jew. They all talk, in Chaucer' s fashion, about the circumstances that have brought them there. They speak of their innumerable attempts and failures to find the Great Carbuncle, each secretly believing he/she will be the luckiest with his/her own "sagacity or perseverance" ( 153) .

Asked what he will do with the precious gem, the Seeker says he would keep it buried with him forever in the grave: "I hope for no enjoyment from it -that folly has past, long ago! I keep up the search for this accursed stone, because the vain ambition of my youth has become a fate upon me, in old age.

The pursuit alone is my strength-the energy of my soul-the warmth · of my blood, and the pith and marrow of my bones. Were I to tum my back upon it, I should fall down dead" (153-4). Accordingly, for the joy of success in finding the stone, the Seeker is to be petrified in marble, "with his arms extended in the act of climbing [the cliff on which the stone sits], and his face turned upward, as if to drink the full gush of splendor" ( 162) . Death is

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literally the elixir of life for him.

Doctor Cacaphodel, an alchemist, has "wilted and dried himself into mummy, by continually stooping over charcoal furnaces, and inhaling unwholesome fumes, during his researches in chemistry and alchymy [sic]" (151). He is arrogantly sure of his possession of the precious gem "concocted in the laboratory of Nature" (154) and proposes critically analyzing it "to its first elements" (154) in hope for publishing a great book. He might find the secret of a miracle and win fame by allowing everybody to reproduce a Great Carbuncle of his/her own; but what he does not realize is that, in making counterfeits, he would destroy the Great Carbuncle itself, the symbol of an "Eternal Beauty" beyond mortality that can be seen only through mind's eye. After finding a large fragment of granite, however, he chooses to promote his proposed experiment with it rather than with the Great Carbuncle and gains his long-sought fame, sagaciously to himself but foolishly in Hawthorne' s eye. Satisfied with a worldly success the Doctor has thrown away any higher hope to find an

"Eternal Beauty" in the world.

Ichabod Pigsnort, a successful trader, is a mammon personified, bathing himself in the shining gold. Getting the Carbuncle is just a way to further im- mense wealth for him, nothing more. The long, desperate efforts to get it, however, soon give way to nostalgia for his native town but misfortune finds him captured by a party of Indians on his way home. He has to pay a heavy ransom, the last straw to the declining wealth caused by his long absence from business. Greed ironically attracts his fate as a beggar, /like Giovanni in

"Rappaccini' s Daughter" (1844) who grovels lowly in a hell on Earth, grieving over the lost fortune (Beatrice) and crying for the unattainable. He has lost the Heart and Soul of a sympathetic human being, depending too much on the speculation or the Head.

The unnamed man of skepticism, called the Cynic, wears a large pair of dark glasses that "deform and discolor the whole face of nature" ( 151) . He is Hawthorne' s artistic creation who does not appear in the sketch; in the tale he functions as an "ironic chorus," as Doubleday points out. The Cynic has set his foot on the adventure "for the sole purpose of demonstrating ... that the Great

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Carbuncle is all a humbug!" (157). So long accustomed to looking at every- thing with willful darker sight, he is literally blinded forever at the real sight of the gloriously bright Carbuncle. After all, he begins to desire for light so agonizingly that he throws himself into the tragic fire of London with the

"desperate idea of catching one feeble ray from the blare" ( 165) , as another wandering Jew. Young Hawthorne intrudes here bluntly and explains clearly for the readers, though this is artistically bad taste for the modern ones, that the Cynic is "one of those wretched and evil men, whose yearnings are downward to the darkness, instead of Heavenward, and who, would they but extinguish the lights which God hath kindled for us, would count the midnight gloom their chiefest glory" ( 15 7) . In other words, his blindness is a punishment for not trusting God's purpose symbolized by both natural, earthly light and heavenly blinding glare of the Great Carbuncle.

The fifth adventurer is a gaunt English poet, whose diet, Hawthorne tells humorously in a tall-tale fashion, is supposed to be "fog, morning mist, and a slice of the densest cloud within his reach, sauced with moonshine" (151).

He pursues something brighter than gold and tries to catch the "ethereal luster"

(155) of the Great Carbuncle for his spiritual activity. Inspired by the luster, every line of his poems would give him a "permanent monument," just like the ambitious guest hopes for: "Thus, long ages after I am gone, the splendor of the Great Carbuncle will blaze around my name!" (155). He is Vanity personified, again. Like the Doctor developing only the Head, he makes a similar mistake by regarding a great piece of ice as something corresponding to the glorious stone and the speculation on the ice inspires in him poetry, about which critics say: " ... if his poetry lacked the splendor of the gem, it retained all the coldness of ice" ( 164) . His production shows no warmth of the Heart and cannot touch the chord of other hearts; to him, the bright"stone might have been the essence of "Eternal Beauty," perfect combination of the Heart and the Head.

The Lord de Vere is of a gravedigger, Haughtiness personified, "in search of all the earthly pride and vain glory ... hidden among bones and dust" (152).

He would like to keep the stone flaming forever in the hall of the de Veres, to

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which the Cynic retorts: "The gem would make a rare sepulchral lump, and would display the glories of your lordship's progenitors more truly in the ancestral vault" ( 156) . Both of them wrongly seek for the Bad and Evil instead of spiritual light.

The last are a young man and wife, Matthew and Hannah, who make a strange pair in the party of adventurers. Matthew says they just need the brighter light from the precious gem in the long winter evening when the neighbors visit them, adding that the newly weds can see each other's faces with the ever-brightening light when awake at night; it would breed a brotherhood to share the fate of the village community. Theirs is not a "selfish and solitary longing for this wondrous gem" in the strict sense of the words, though Hannah betrays a "woman's love of jewels" (159). Filled with sweet matrimonial affection and "gathering strength from the mutual aids" (159), they go on a journey higher to a dreary place where only naked rocks meet them, with nothing else breathing. Desperate loneliness takes hold of them when they look back at the frightening wilderness: "And the lovers yearned to behold that green earth again, more intensely, alas! than, beneath a clouded sky, they had ever desired a glimpse of Heaven" (160). In a heavenly region they come to realize how happy they are in their earthly, humble cottage.

Soon the impenetrable mist enshrouds them completely and causes them to dream no more of the Carbuncle, when a glorious ray finds them standing on the brim of a beautiful mountain lake:

The pilgrims [Matthew and Hannah] looked whence it should proceed, but closed their eyes with a thrill of awful admiration, to exclude the fervid splendor that glowed from the brow of a cliff, impending over the enchanted lake. For the simple pair had reached that lake of mystery, and found the long sought shrine of the Great Carbuncle. ( 161)

It is when Mathew and Hannah have got a glimpse of the glorious light that they realize it is much too bright to have guests and sleep peacefully by at night;

it is beyond human usage. This knowledge could not have been attained unless they had climbed to the bleakest top of the mountain where the Great

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Carbuncle was, or if they had been satisfied with the beautiful scenery in the lower part of the mountain and had merely wished for the precious light.

Remember Hawthorne's allegory of Heart as a cavern; there is sunny beauty at the entrance (the lower part of the mountain), but deeper still (at the top of the mountain) there will be the perfect, eternal beauty. More importantly, a human being as a mortal can only live in this imperfect earth and hope for the heavenly light or the "Eternal Beauty" in the perfect world of God/Immortality.

If he/ she is really imaginative, he/ she can get the "Eternal Beauty," or God's purpose, in his/her mind's eye through imperfect Nature, through man's accidents. Matthew and Hannah have found that their mutual love and trust is the only way to God, to attain the Eternal Beauty in the imperfect world.

Therefore, Hawthorne says, it IS affirmed that "from the hour when two mortals had shown themselves so simply wise, as to reject a jewel which would have dimmed all earthly things, its splendor waned" (165). They need no heavenly light any more to see the Good and Beautiful in the human world;

they have the Great Carbuncle, or spiritual truth, in their own hearts and minds, in their mind's eye composed of Head, Heart and Soul.

In the final analysis, Hawthorne' s art of telling tales Is basically a

"paradigmatic interaction between the mind and the actual" in Baym' s words1n or "a neutral territory, somewhere between the real world and fairy-land, where the Actual and the Imaginary may meet, and each imbue itself with the nature of the other" (1 : 36) in Hawthorne's words.

Notes

Kagawa University (28 November 2005)

1) Hoffman, Form and Fable in American Fiction, Oxford University Press, New York, 1970, p.174.

2) Cf. Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Letters, 1813-1843 in The Centenary Edition of the Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne, Vol. 15, Ed. Thomas Woodson, L. Neal Smith and Norman Holms Pearson (Ohio State University Press, 1984), p. 224. In a letter to Pierce, dated 28 June 1832, Hawthorne writes: "I was making preparations for a northern tour, when this accursed Cholera broke out in Canada. It was my intention to go by way of New-York and Albany to Niagara, from thence to Montreal and

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Quebec, and home through Vermont and New-Hampshire. I am very desirous of making this journey on account of a book by which I intend to acquire an ( undoubted- ly) immense literary reputation, but which I cannot commence writing till I have visited Canada." All the subsequent quotations are from this edition, shown with the volume and page numbers in the parenthesis. Quotations from Twice-told Tales, Vol. 9, which is often cited in this essay, are shown only with the page number (s) in the parenthesis.

3) As early as in 1821 before entering the college, he tells about his wish to be an author "equal to the proudest productions of the scribbling sons of John Bull" (15 : 139) in a letter to his mother, dated 13 March 1821.

4) Hawthorne gives the thought-after sentiments in the preface for The Marble Faun (1859) : "No author, without a trial, can conceive of the difficulty of writing a Romance about a country where there is no shadow, no antiquity, no mystery, no picturesque and gloomy wrong, nor anything but a common-place prosperity, in broad and simple daylight, as is happily the case with my dear native land" (9 : 3).

In a sketch from "Sketches from Memory," he also says: "It has often been a matter of regret to me, that I was shut out from the most peculiar field of American fiction, by an inability to see any romance, or poetry, or grandeur, or beauty in the Indian character, at least, till such traits were pointed out by others" ( 10 : 428-9) , adding

"I do abhor an Indian story. Yet no writer can be more secure of a permanent place in our literature, than the biographer of the Indian chiefs" (10 : 429).

5- 6) The term "permanent" is used here to mean lasting one-time, while the term

"eternal" denotes occurring every time and lasting forever.

7) In The American Notebooks Hawthorne likens our heart to a cavern and tells about the "eternal beauty," one of his two core philosophies: "The human Heart to be allegorized as a cavern; at the entrance there is sunshine, and flowers growing about it.

You step within, but a short distance, and begin to find yourself surrounded with a terrible gloom, and monsters of divers kinds; it seems like Hell itself. You are bewildered, and wander long without hope. At last a light strikes upon you. You press towards it yon, and find yourself in a region that seems, in some sort, to reproduce the flowers and sunny beauty of the entrance, but all perfect. These are the depths of the heart, or of human nature, bright and peaceful; the gloom and terror may lie deep; but deeper still is this eternal beauty" (8 : 237). Incidentally, the other core conception is "Unpardonable Sin" mentioned in this essay.

8) Hawthorne here intrudes and explains: "Perhaps a germ of love was springing in their hearts, so pure that it might blossom in Paradise, since it could not be matured on earth, for women worship such gentle dignity as his, and the proud, contemplative, yet kindly soul is oftenest captivated by simplicity like hers" (304).

9) Cf. Alison Easton, The Making of the Hawthorne Subject, University of Missouri Press, 1996, p. 90. She points out: "If the characters in that tale had remained in the house, they would have survived, but there would then have been no story; indeed, to create narrative interest Hawthorne added the young man to the facts

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he had been given, and the tale thrives on might-have-beens and conjecture."

10) Most critics use the dichotomy, Head and Heart, to explain Hawthorne' s world. We should remember, however, that he always added one important factor, the Soul, to his artistic paradigm. Addressing her in letters, he called his wife Sophia "My Dove," a symbol of his Soul, when he asked for her special spiritual communion; in a usual situation he addressed her as "dear(est) Heart."

11) Baym, The Shape of Hawthorne' s Career, Cornel University Press, Ithaca andLondon, 1976, p.60.

Works Cited

(Quotations from The Centenary Edition of the Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne are cited parenthetically by the volume and page.)

Baym, Nina. The Shape of Hawthorne' s Career. Ithaca and London : Cornel University Press, 1976.

Easton, Alison. The Making of the Hawthorne Subject. Columbia : University of Missouri Press, 1996.

Hoffman, Form and Fable in American Fiction. New York : Oxford University Press, 1970.

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In this section we state our main theorems concerning the existence of a unique local solution to (SDP) and the continuous dependence on the initial data... τ is the initial time of

We have introduced this section in order to suggest how the rather sophis- ticated stability conditions from the linear cases with delay could be used in interaction with

This paper presents an investigation into the mechanics of this specific problem and develops an analytical approach that accounts for the effects of geometrical and material data on

Since weak convergence is preserved by continuous mappings, the weak convergence in H α provides weak convergence results for H 0 α -continuous functionals of paths and for some

While conducting an experiment regarding fetal move- ments as a result of Pulsed Wave Doppler (PWD) ultrasound, [8] we encountered the severe artifacts in the acquired image2.