The Politics of the Japanese Language

Abst r act

The f i r s t dec a de of t he t went y- f i r s t c ent ur y i n J a pa n gi v es a n i ns i ght i nt o t he pol i t i c s of l anguage. 　Neol i ber al i s m, whi ch gi ves pr i macy t o t he f l exi bi l i t y i n l abor , weakened huma n t i es a mong i ndi v i dua l s . 　Thi s r es ul t ed i n t he f r a gment a t i on of J a pa nes e s oc i et y , and t he st at e was dr i ven t o enhance soci al cohesi on t o r ei nf or ce t he base of s over ei gnt y . 　I n or der t o cr eat e s oci al cohes i on and s ubs ume i t under t he s t at e, t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge wa s us ed a s a s ys t em t o dev el op a s ens e of uni t y i n t he pr es ent a nd a s a hi s t or y t o s t r engt hen t he s ens e of uni t y a l ong t he pa s s a ge of t i me. 　Howev er , t he s t r a t e- gi c us e of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge ma y l ea d t o a f ur t her di s i nt egr a t i on of s oc i et y , bec a us e i t ma y r epr oduc e exi s t i ng s oc i a l i nequa l i t y . 　By t a ki ng J a pa n a s a n exa mpl e, t her ef or e, I wi l l c ons i der i mpl i c a t i ons f or t he pol i t i c s of l a ngua ge f or t he next dec a de i n t he t went y- f i r s t c ent ur y .

The Pol i t i cs of t he J apanese Language

When we l ook ba c k a t t he hi s t or y of J a pa n i n a nd a f t er t he 1990s , i t i s c ha r a c t er i z ed by a c ont r a di c t i on i n whi c h J a pa n t r i ed t o a da pt i t s el f t o t he c ont ext of gl oba l i nt er depend- enc e by f ol l owi ng gl oba l t r ends on t he one ha nd, but i t a dher ed t o s pec i f i c i t y by r e- or ga n- i z i ng t he na t i ona l on t he ot her . 　Thi s c ont r a di c t i on i s a c ha r a c t er i s t i c of moder ni t y , a nd t he a dher enc e t o s pec i f i c i t y c oul d be under s t ood a s a n i nt er pl a y bet ween t he na t i on a nd t he s t a t e. 　Gl oba l i z a t i on a s a c ons equenc e of moder ni t y l ef t out s oc i a l r el a t i ons f r om pa r - t i c ul a r l oc a l i t i es , a nd s oc i a l r el a t i ons a r e expos ed t o gl oba l s oc i a l net wor ks , mos t of whi c h i s f or med by i nv i s i bl e ot her s ( Gi ddens , 1990, 1991) . 　Mor eov er , neol i ber a l i s m, whi c h i s a not her pr oduc t of moder ni t y , wea kened huma n t i es wi t hi n t he na t i on by t hr owi ng t hem i nt o t he c ha ot i c s i t ua t i on i n whi c h l a bor c ondi t i ons c ha nged r a pi dl y bef or e t hey ha d t i es wi t h ot her s . 　Thi s r es ul t ed i n t he f r a gment a t i on of J a pa nes e s oc i et y, s ha ki ng t he f ounda - t i on of t he na t i on- s t a t e’ s s ov er ei gnt y . 　The na t i on- s t a t e i s a s ys t em of gov er nment whi c h r es i des i n t he compl ex t hat t he nat i on- s t at e f or ms wi t h ot her nat i on- s t at es i n or der t o mut ua l l y a c knowl edge s ov er ei gnt y ov er t he t er r i t or y wi t hi n t he bor der s ( Gi ddens , 1985) ,

Koj i r o Mur a ka wa

(Received on October18,2012)

and i s of t en s een as r equi r i ng t hat pol i t i cs and et hni ci t y s har e t he bor der s ( Smi t h, 1995) . 　However , owi ng t o t he dynami s m of moder ni t y , “ s t at e and nat i on ar e at each ot her ’ s t hr oa t s , a nd t he hyphen t ha t l i nks t hem i s now l es s a n i c on of c onj unc t ur e t ha n a n i ndex of di s j unc t ur e” ( Appa dur a i , 1996, p. 39) . 　The s t a t e t hen needs t o r a i s e a s ens e of bel ongi ng i n t he na t i on t o r ei nf or c e t he ba s e of i t s s ov er ei gnt y .

I n or der t o c r ea t e s oc i a l c ohes i on wi t hi n t he na t i on a nd s ubs ume i t under t he s t a t e, t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge wa s us ed a s a s ys t em t o a r ous e a s ens e of uni t y i n t he pr es ent a nd as a hi st or y t o st r engt hen t he sense of uni t y al ong t he passage of t i me ( Yasuda, 2006) . 　I n ot her wor ds , t he s ys t ema t i c a nd hi s t or i c a l a s pec t s of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge pr ov i ded a t omi z ed i ndi v i dua l s wi t h a n a nc hor a ge i n whi c h t hey c oul d ha v e t i es wi t h ot h- er s by devel opi ng i dent i t y as member s of J apanes e s oci et y . 　However , t hi s nat i onal i s t mov ement ma y l ea d t o i s ol a t i on f r om t he i nt er na t i ona l s oc i et y a nd pa r a doxi c a l di s i nt egr a - t i on of J a pa nes e s oc i et y. 　The s t r a t egi c us e of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s ba s ed on a ma de- up pur i t y whi ch may wor k as an obs t acl e t o t ur ni ng peopl e’ s eyes t o t he di ver s i t y of l a ngua ge i n t he wor l d, a nd ma y t r y t o t r a ns f or m s oc i a l pr obl ems i nher ent i n t he s t r uc t ur e of J apanese soci et y i nt o i ndi vi dual s’ psychol ogi cal pr obl ems ( Mor r i s - Suzuki , 2002) . 　Over l ooki ng t hes e i deol ogi cal as pect s of t he J apanes e l anguage may l ead t o r epr oduci ng s oci al i nequal i t y i nher ent i n J apanes e s oci et y i n t he 21s t cent ur y , and by ext ens i on, ma ki ng i t di f f i c ul t f or J a pa n t o gl oba l i z e i t s el f .

I n t hi s pa per , t her ef or e, I a na l yz e t he J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es

t o exa mi ne how t he J apanes e l anguage i s us ed t o f os t er a s ens e of uni t y i n t he cont empor ar y f or m of gl oba l i z a t i on. 　To t hi s end, I wi l l f i r s t l ook i nt o t he dyna mi s m of moder ni t y , a nd di s c us s what ki nds of i nf l uences i t has on J apanes e s oci et y . 　I wi l l t hen at t end t o how t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge ha s t o do wi t h s oc i a l c onc er ns c a us ed by moder ni t y , a nd wi l l r ev ea l t he way i n whi ch t he J apanese l anguage i s used t o ar ouse a sense of uni t y i n t he na t i on. 　Fi na l l y , a na l yz i ng f or ma l pr oper t i es of J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es , I wi l l c on- s i der i mpl i c a t i ons f or t he pol i t i c s of l a ngua ge i n t he 21s t c ent ur y .

The Dynami sm of Moderni t y

One of t he pa r a doxes i n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on, whi c h br i ngs up t he i ma ge of i nt er -

1 　I n t hi s pa per , by ‘ J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es ’ , I mea n di s c our s es wr i t t en i n J a pa nes e a nd/or

di s c our s es wr i t t en a bout J a pa nes e.

connect ednes s of al l t he s t at es , i s t he i nt ens i f i cat i on of nat i onal i s m al l over t he wor l d ( Hobs ba wm, 1990; Smi t h, 1991) . 　Ac c or di ng t o Gi ddens ( 1999) , “ [ g] l oba l i z a t i on not onl y pul l s upwa r ds but a l s o pus hes downwa r ds , c r ea t i ng new pr es s ur es f or l oc a l a ut onomy” ( p.

31) . 　Gl obal i z at i on’ s pr es s ur e act ed on J apan’ s aut onomy , and r es ul t ed i n a s er i es of nat i onal i s t movement s f r om t he t op- down per s pect i ves t hr ough t he enhancement of a l ega l s t r uc t ur e t o pr ot ec t J a pa n’ s a ut onomy t o t he bot t om- up per s pec t i v es . 　I n 1999, f or exa mpl e, t he Na t i ona l Fl a g a nd Na t i ona l Ant hem La w wa s pa s s ed i n t he Di et , a nd i n 2000, t he t hen Pr i me Mi ni s t er s a i d a t a pol i t i c a l meet i ng t ha t J a pa n wa s god’ s c ount r y wi t h t he emper or a s t he c ent r a l f i gur e. 　Na t i ona l i s m wa s ma ni f es t ed i n t he a c a demi c f i el d a nd a t t he gr a s s - r oot s l ev el a s wel l . 　Ma ny c ons er v a t i v e i nt el l ec t ua l s , t hr ough t hei r publ i c a t i ons , t r i ed t o r e- exa mi ne a nd pa r t i a l l y j us t i f y J a pa n’ s i mper i a l i s m a nd c ol oni a l i s m dur i ng t he Sec ond Wor l d Wa r . 　Ar ound t he t ur n of t he c ent ur y , t he s a l es of t he J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge- r el a t ed books pi c ked up qui t e a bi t t o t he ext ent t ha t s ome of t hem s ol d mor e t ha n mi l l i on c opi es . 　Komor i ( 2002) s a w t he J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge boom a s a n ea r l y s i gn of bot t om- up na t i ona l i s m, bec a us e t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge ga v e a f i r m f oot hol d f or i dent i t y t o t hos e who had as cr i bed J apan’ s economi c pr os per i t y t o t he uni quenes s of t he J apanes e but wer e depr i ved of t he means t o i dent i f y t hems el ves i n t he mi ds t of r eces s i on. 　Thes e move- ment s c oul d be s een a s a n i nt er pl a y bet ween t he r ul i ng c l a s s es a nd ma s s es i n J a pa n ov er t he t ur n of t he c ent ur y i n t he s ens e t ha t t he f or mer us ed na t i ona l i s m a s a mea ns t o uni f y J a pa n a s a na t i on- s t a t e, a nd t he l a t t er us ed na t i ona l i s m t o c ons t r uc t i dent i t y. 　As I wi l l di s - cus s bel ow, J apanes e- l anguage di s cour s es , t hr ough whi ch t he s t at e t r i ed t o ar ous e a s ens e of uni t y i n t he na t i on, t ook t he s a me l i ne a s t hes e na t i ona l i s t mov ement s .

A pos s i bl e ans wer t o t hi s cont r adi ct or y pr oces s i s t he dynami s m of moder ni t y .

Gi ddens ( 19 90, 1991) s ees gl oba l i z a t i on a s t he expa ns i on of moder ni t y on a gl oba l s c a l e,

a nd v i ews t he r e- or ga ni z a t i on of t i me a nd s pa c e a s a di s t i nc t i v e c ha r a c t er of moder ni t y .

I n pr e- moder n cul t ur es, accor di ng t o Gi ddens, t i me was al ways connect ed wi t h

s pa c e. 　Yet moder ni t y s epa r a t ed t i me f r om s pec i f i c pl a c es t hr ough t he uni f or mi t y of t i me

mea s ur ement by t he mec ha ni c a l c l oc k, a nd t hi s empt yi ng of t i me wor ked a s t he pr e- c on-

di t i on f or t he empt yi ng of s pa c e. 　Soc i a l net wor ks wer e t hen l i f t ed out of pa r t i c ul a r l oc a l i -

t i es , and expos ed t o i nf i ni t e s pace. 　As Gi ddens ( 1991) s ays , t her ef or e, “ Gl obal i z at i on

concer ns t he i nt er act i on of pr es ence and abs ence, t he i nt er l aci ng of s oci al event s and

s oc i a l r el a t i ons ‘ a t di s t a nc e’ wi t h l oc a l c ont ext ua l i t i es ” ( p. 21) . 　I n t he s a me v ei n, Ha r v ey

( 1989) cal l s t hi s s pat i al - t empor al t r ans f or mat i on “ t i me- s pace compr es s i on” ( p. 240) ,

expl a i ni ng t he r ea s on a s f ol l ows :

I us e t he wor d ‘ c ompr es s i on’ bec a us e a s t r ong c a s e c a n be ma de t ha t t he hi s t or y of c a pi t a l i s m ha s been c ha r a c t er i z ed by s peed- up i n t he pa c e of l i f e, whi l e s o ov er c om- i ng s pat i al bar r i er s t hat t he wor l d s omet i mes s eems t o col l aps e i nwar ds upon us ( p. 240) .

Gi ddens a nd Ha r v ey s ugges t t ha t t he f ounda t i on of our l i f e i s bei ng r a pi dl y c ha nged by t he power of t he i nv i s i bl e t ha t wa s a r ous ed by t he r e- or ga ni z a t i on of t i me a nd s pa c e.

Bauman ( 2000) cal l s t he cur r ent s t age of moder ni t y ‘ l i qui d moder ni t y’ , i n whi ch s oc i a l c ondi t i ons f or peopl e’ s a c t i ons c ha nge bef or e t hei r a c t i ons c ha nge i nt o ha bi t s , a s i f nat ur al condi t i ons cons t ant l y change bef or e a l i qui d changes i nt o a s ol i d ( Bauman, 2005) . 　Among ot her t hi ngs , t he pa t t er ns a nd f r a mes of i nt er dependenc e t o c i r c ums c r i be i ndi v i dua l s ’ s oc i a l a c t i ons a r e f ounded a new by l i qui d moder ni t y’ s mel t i ng power bef or e a nyt hi ng el s e ( Ba uma n, 2000) . 　I n l i qui d moder ni t y , t her ef or e, t he f r a mewor k f or i den- t i t y i s r a pi dl y c ha ngi ng bef or e i ndi v i dua l s bui l d up t hei r i dent i t y ( Ba uma n, 2001) .

Neol i ber a l i s m, whi c h i s a t heor y of pol i t i c a l ec onomi c pr a c t i c es , s hows s uc h c ha r a c - t er i s t i c s of moder ni t y. 　I s ee neol i ber a l i s m a s t he i mmedi a t e s our c e of t he f r a gment a t i on of J a pa nes e s oc i et y, a nd t he pr ev a l enc e of neol i ber a l i s m i n t he wor l d ha s t o do wi t h wha t Gi ddens ( 1990, 1991) cal l s moder ni t y’ s r ef l exi vi t y , whi ch r ef er s t o t he i dea t hat newl y a c qui r ed knowl edge or i nf or ma t i on on a s pec t s of s oc i et y ( r e) s t r uc t ur es , or under c er t a i n c i r c ums t a nc es , t r a ns f or ms t he s oc i a l a s pec t s . 　Thi s qua l i t y of moder ni t y t hus c a us es a br ea k bet ween t he pa s t a nd t he pr es ent .

Neol i ber a l i s m ma de a br ea k wi t h a n ec onomi c doc t r i ne t ha t ha d been pr a c t i c ed i n

ma ny pl a c es of t he wor l d. 　The wor l d a f t er t he Sec ond Wor l d Wa r wa s c ha r a c t er i z ed by

t he economi c pol i cy cal l ed Keynes i ani s m, i n whi ch many s t at es put i ndus t r i al pol i cy

under t hei r c ont r ol a nd ma i nt a i ned t hei r i nf l uenc e on s t a nda r ds f or s oc i a l wa ges t hr ough

t he cons t r uct i on of wel f ar e s ys t ems , and Keynes i ani s m achi eved a moder at e s ucces s

( Ha r v ey , 2005) . 　As ec onomi c gr owt h c ol l a ps ed a nd l ow di v i dends bec a me t he nor m i n

t he 1970s , however , an al t er nat i ve t o Keynes i ani s m was s ought by t he upper cl as s es ,

becaus e i t became cl ear t hat t he Keynes i ani s m woul d not gi ve pr of i t t o t hem. 　By an

exper i ment wi t h neol i ber a l i s m i n Chi l e i n 1973, i t bec a me c ommon knowl edge t ha t t he

a l t er na t i v e t o Keynes i a ni s m ga v e mor e f i na nc i a l a dv a nt a ge t o t he upper c l a s s es under pr i -

v a t i z a t i on, a nd t he upper c l a s s es t hen bega n t o i nt r oduc e neol i ber a l i s m i nt o t hei r c oun- t r i es ( Ha r v ey , 2005) . 　Moder ni t y’ s r ef l exi v i t y a c c el er a t ed t he c ha nge of ec onomi c pol i c y i n t he wor l d, and one of t he cons equences was t he uneven di s t r i but i on of weal t h and power on a gl oba l s c a l e.

The hi st or y of neol i ber al i sm i n J apan i l l ust r at es Har vey’ s ( 2005) vi ews of neol i ber a l i s m. 　I n t he 1980s , J a pa n wa s l a ggi ng f a r behi nd s uper power s s uc h a s t he UK a nd US i n r es pons e t o neol i ber a l i s m, bec a us e a t t ha t t i me, J a pa n r ej oi c ed i n a n unpr ec e- dent ed economi c devel opment i n i t s hi s t or y . 　As J apan l os t i t s compet i t i venes s i n t he wor l d ma r ket ea r l y i n t he 1990s , howev er , t he r ul i ng c l a s s es of J a pa nes e s oc i et y bec a me a wa r e of t he need f or neol i ber a l i s m ( Wa t a na be, 2001) . 　When we s ur v ey t he hi s t or y of neol i ber a l i s m i n J a pa n f r om t he 1990s t o t he mi ddl e of 2000s , t her ef or e, a l i s t of pol i c i es f or r el a xa t i on of r es t r a i nt s c a n be dr a wn up.

Thi s s t r uc t ur a l r ef or m ha d a ha r mf ul i nf l uenc e on J a pa nes e s oc i et y i n t er ms of di s - pa r i t i es i n i nc ome, l oc a l a dmi ni s t r a t i on, a nd educ a t i on. 　The i nv es t i ga t i on of i nc ome di s - t r i but i on f or t he 2002 f i scal year r eveal ed t hat peopl e i n t he upper br acket s, who compr i s ed 25 per cent of t he t ot al popul at i on, account ed f or 75 per cent of t he gr os s nat i onal i ncome ( Mi ni s t r y of Heal t h, Labour and Wel f ar e, 2006) . 　Regi onal di s par i t i es al s o conf r ont ed a gr ave s i t uat i on, and di s par i t i es bet ween cent er and per i pher y or bet ween ur ba n or r ur a l a r ea s wi dened dur i ng t he pa s t 25 t o 30 yea r s i n t er ms of unem- pl oyment r at e, t he ef f ect i ve openi ng- t o- appl i cat i on r at i o, and pr ef ect ur al i ncome ( Tachi banaki , 2006) . 　Di s par i t i es i n t hes e t wo ar eas mi ght t hr eat en equal educat i onal oppor t uni t i es , becaus e t he per cent age of s t udent s enr ol l i ng i n pr es t i gi ous uni ver s i t i es depends on pa r ent s ’ a nnua l i nc ome. 　I t s houl d be not ed, f ur t her mor e, t ha t di s pa r i t i es i n educ a t i on ma y r es ul t i n a v i c i ous c i r c l e i n whi c h di s pa r i t i es i n i nc ome a r e r epr oduc ed by t he unequa l educ a t i ona l oppor t uni t i es .

The f r a gment a t i on of s oc i et y mea ns t he l os s of huma n t i es , whi c h l ea ds t o ent a i l i ng a nxi et y ( Ba uma n, 2000) . 　Ac c or di ng t o Gi ddens ( 1985, 1991) , when wha t he c a l l s ‘ ont o- l ogi c a l s ec ur i t y’ i s t hr ea t ened, peopl e f eel a nxi et y a bout t hei r i dent i t y . 　Ont ol ogi c a l s ec u- r i t y r ef er s t o a s ens e of s ec ur i t y t hr ough whi c h peopl e c a n ha v e a f eel i ng of t hei r l a s t i ng exi s t enc e, a nd t hi s i s br ought by ev er yda y r out i ne ( Gi ddens , 1985, 1991) . 　When peopl e

2 　Ref or m of Labor Ser vi ces Tempor ar y As s i gnment Law, Pr i vat i z at i on of t he J apan Hi ghway

Publ i c Cor por a t i on, f i na nc i a l r ec ons t r uc t i on, r ef or m of hea l t h c a r e s ys t em, a nd pr i v a t i z a t i on of

pos t a l s er v i c e wer e a l l c onduc t ed bet ween 1996 a nd 2006.

a r e a bl e t o def i ne t hems el v es i n da i l y i nt er a c t i ons wi t h ot her s , t hey do not ha v e a nxi et y i n r egar ds t o i dent i t y . 　I n l i qui d moder ni t y i n whi ch s oci al condi t i ons change cons t ant l y bef or e t hey have t i es wi t h ot her s , however , i t get s di f f i cul t t o f or m a s ens e of s el f as a member of t he s oc i et y ( Gi ddens , 1991) .

J a pa n demons t r a t es t hi s poi nt . 　Ac c or di ng t o t he 2007 Whi t e Pape r o n Nat i o nal Li f e ( Ca bi net Of f i c e, 2007a ) , neol i ber a l i s m a nd r el a xa t i on of r es t r a i nt s ha d t he ef f ec t of wea k- eni ng t i es wi t h ot her s . 　I t wa s t hus f ea r ed t ha t t he br ea kdown of huma n t i es ha d a nega - t i v e i nf l uenc e on s oc i et y , a nd t he wa ys t o r ebui l d t i es wi t h ot her s wer e s ought ( Ca bi net Of f i c e, 2007a ) . 　As a ma t t er of f a c t , Ko k umi n s e i k at s u ni k ans ur u s e r o n c ho s a ( A publ i c - opi ni on pol l a bout peopl e’ s l i v es i n J a pa n) ( Ca bi net Of f i c e, 2007b) a nnounc ed t ha t t hos e who f el t di s t r es s a nd a nxi et y i n da i l y l i f e a c c ount ed f or 67. 6 per c ent of 5, 941 pa r t i c i pa nt s whi c h wa s t he hi ghes t number ev er r egi s t er ed s i nc e 1958.

Fr i ght ened i ndi vi dual s t hen t r y t o l es s en t hei r anxi et y , s ear chi ng human t i es wi t h ot her s . 　As Ba uma n ( 2000) s a ys met a phor i c a l l y , t her ef or e, “ Ther e i s …dema nd f or i ndi - vi dual pegs on whi ch f r i ght ened i ndi vi dual s coul d hang col l ect i vel y , i f onl y f or a br i ef t i me, t hei r i ndi v i dua l f ea r s ” ( p. 38) . 　The s ea r c h f or i dent i t y a nd huma n t i es c a n be under - s t ood as t he emer gence of nat i onal i s m, s i nce t hi s ps ychol ogi cal phenomenon r eveal s i t s el f when s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l t i es a r e wea kened ( Hobs ba wm, 1990) . 　As Smi t h ( 1991) s a ys , f ur t her mor e, “ I t i s t hr ough a s ha r ed, uni que c ul t ur e t ha t we a r e ena bl ed t o know

‘ who we a r e’ i n t he c ont empor a r y wor l d” ( p. 17) . 　Na t i ona l i s m ha s t o do wi t h t he pot en- t i a l t o dev el op a n a f f i ni t y f or t he s ymbol s t ha t s t r es s a c ommona l i t y bet ween t hos e who s et up a pol i t i c a l s ys t em ( Gi ddens , 1985) . 　I t f ol l ows t ha t na t i ona l i s m by def i ni t i on keep

‘ Them’ out of s i ght ( Hobs ba wm, 1990) . 　La ngua ge t hen pl a ys a c r uc i a l r ol e i n t he na t ur e of na t i ona l i s m, bec a us e by t el l i ng hi s t or y , myt h, a nd t r a di t i on, i t pr ov i des member s of a s oci et y wi t h t he bl uepr i nt of what t hey s houl d be l i ke as member s of an et hni c gr oup ( Smi t h, 1991) . 　The J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge boom, whi c h i s ment i oned a bov e, ma y be a good exa mpl e. 　As Gi ddens ( 1985) s a ys , t he f a c t t ha t i t s exi s t enc e pr ec edes a ny gener a t i on of t he communi t y makes l anguage a f i r m f oot i ng f or t he member s of t he et hni c c ommuni t y . 　La ngua ge t hus gi v es t hos e who f eel a nxi et y a bout i dent i t y a f oot i ng f or t he r e- c ons t r uc t i on of i dent i t y .

Gi v en t he di s c us s i on a bov e, i t c a n be obs er v ed t ha t t he f l ui d s oc i a l c ondi t i ons c r e-

a t ed by moder ni t y pr ov i ded J a pa n wi t h a n oppor t uni t y t o r e- s t r uc t ur e i t s ba s e a s a na t i on-

s t at e t hr ough t he J apanes e l anguage. 　I n t he pr es ent , ever y count r y i s a nat i on- s t at e

( Gi ddens , 2001) , whi c h r ef er s t o t he pol i t i c a l a ppa r a t us t ha t monopol i z es a dmi ni s t r a t i on of t he t er r i t or y wi t hi n cl ear l y def i ned boundar i es ( Gi ddens , 1985; Hel d, 1995) . 　The na t i on- s t a t e’ s gov er na nc e i s a ppr ov ed by l a w a s wel l a s t he di r ec t c ont r ol of v i ol enc e, a nd t he l a t t er i s ma de pos s i bl e by i nt er na l s uppr es s i on ( Gi ddens , 1985; Hel d, 1995) . 　Mor e i mpor t a nt l y , t he v a l i di t y of t he na t i on- s t a t e, whi c h i s v es t ed wi t h s uc h power , depends on how muc h l oya l t y t he s t a t e c a n c omma nd i n t he na t i on ( Hel d, 1995) . 　I f J a pa n s uc c eeds i n a r ous i ng a s ens e of uni t y i n t he na t i on by mol di ng i t i nt o a pa r t i c ul a r et hni c i dent i t y t hr ough t he s t r a t egi c us e of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge, t hi s gi v es J a pa n a s ol i d f ounda t i on, whi c h c a n meet dema nds f r om t he pol i t i c a l ec onomy of gl oba l i z a t i on t ha t r equi r e ev er y na t i on- s t a t e t o wor k a s a c ol l ec t i v e c or por a t i on ( Ha r v ey , 2005) .

Met hod

I wi l l anal yz e J apanes e- l anguage di s cour s es t o r eveal t he way i n whi ch J apanes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es t r y t o a r ous e a s ens e of uni t y i n t he na t i on t hr ough pa r t i c ul a r wa ys of usi ng wor ds. 　Cr i t i cal Di scour se Anal ysi s ( CDA) meet s t hi s met hodol ogi cal r equi r ement . 　Ac c or di ng t o Fa i r c l ough a nd Woda k ( 1997) , “ CDA s ees di s c our s e – l a n- gua ge us e i n s peec h a nd wr i t i ng – a s a f or m of ‘ s oc i a l pr a c t i c e’ ” ( p. 258) . 　I n ot her wor ds , CDA hol ds t ha t di s c our s es s ha pe a nd a r e s ha ped by s oc i et y , a t t endi ng t o t he i mpa c t t ha t f or ma l pr oper t i es of di s c our s es ha v e on s oc i et y ( Fa i r c l ough, 2001, 2003) . 　CDA c ons i d- er s t hat “ di s cour s e may…t r y t o pas s of f as s umpt i ons ( of t en f al s i f yi ng ones ) about any aspect of soci al l i f e as mer e common sense” ( Fai r cl ough & Wodak, 1997, p.

258) . 　I deol ogy- l a den wa ys of us i ng l a ngua ge, whi c h under pi n f a l s i f yi ng a s s umpt i ons a nd r epr es ent t hes e a s t r ut h, a r e of t en i nv i s i bl e. 　Thr ough l i ngui s t i c a na l ys es of di s c our s es , t her ef or e, “ CDA ai ms t o make mor e vi si bl e t hese opaque aspect s of di scour se”

( Fa i r c l ough & Woda k, 1997, p. 258) , a nd t r i es t o r ev ea l t he wa ys i n whi c h f or ma l pr oper -

t i es of di s c our s es wor k on s oc i et y . 　By us i ng CDA, t her ef or e, I wi l l c onduc t a l i ngui s t i c

anal ys i s of how J apanes e- l anguage di s cour s es t r y t o ar ous e a s ens e of uni t y i n t he

na t i on. 　I wi l l pa r t i c ul a r l y a t t end t o t he di s c ur s i v e c ons t r uc t i on of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge

a s a s ys t em, a nd of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a hi s t or y .

J apanese- Language Di scour ses f or Nat i onal Uni f i cat i on

Ac c or di ng t o Ander s on ( 2006) , s uc c es s f ul r ev ol ut i ona r i es i nher i t t he wi r i ng of t he ol d s t a t e s uc h a s dos s i er s , a r c hi v es , a nd l a ws a s i f i t wa s t he el ec t r i c a l s ys t em t ha t gi v es ener gy t o a r es i dent by t he na me of t he s t a t e. 　Ya s uda ( 2006) a t t ends t o t he f a c t t ha t t he wi r i ng of t he s t a t e i s ma de up of wr i t t en l a ngua ge, a nd s ees t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a n el ec t r i c a l s ys t em t o c ont r ol t he J a pa nes e s oc i et y . 　He s ugges t s t ha t a l a ngua ge bui l t up a s a n el ec t r i c a l s ys t em ha s t he a s pec t a s a s ys t em a nd t he a s pec t a s a hi s t or y. 　As s een i n f i l es , t r ea t i es , a nd memor a nda , l a ngua ge a s a s ys t em ha s a s ync hr oni c f unc t i on t o c ont r ol s oc i et y . 　At t he s a me t i me, howev er , a s pec i f i c l a ngua ge t ha t pa s s es t hr ough t he s ys t em a s el ec t r i c i t y ha s di a c hr oni c c ha r a c t er s whi c h c oul d not be di s mi s s ed a s a s i mpl e s ys t em ( e. g. c ul t ur e, et hni c i t y , a nd i dent i t y) . 　Us i ng t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge di s c our s es i n s t r a t e- gi c wa ys , t her ef or e, t he r ul i ng c l a s s es c oul d f os t er a s ens e of s ync hr oni c uni t y t hr ough t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a s ys t em, a nd a s ens e of di a c hr oni c uni t y t hr ough t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a hi s t or y . 　To put i t di f f er ent l y , j us t a s a n X c oor di na t e a nd a Y c oor di na t e det er mi ne t he pos i t i on of a poi nt on c oor di na t es , t he s ync hr oni c a nd di a c hr oni c a s pec t s of t he J apanese l anguage t el l t he J apanese wher e t hey ar e i n f l ui d soci al condi t i ons.

Thr ough t he a na l ys i s of f or ma l pr oper t i es of J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es , I wi l l r ev ea l t he wa ys i n whi c h t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a s ys t em a nd t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a hi s - t or y a r e di s c ur s i v el y c ons t r uc t ed.

The J apane s e Lang uag e as a Sy s t e m: Lo v e o f Ho me and Lo v e o f Co unt r y

Fol l owi ng Ander s on ( 2006) a nd Ya s uda ( 2006) , I s ee J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es as an el ect r i cal s ys t em t o devel op an i magi ned communi t y i n t he pr es ent ( Yas uda, 2006) . 　I a t t end pa r t i c ul a r l y t o t he j uxt a pos i t i on of l ov e of home a nd l ov e of c ount r y a s a n exa mpl e of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a s ys t em.

I n t he 165

ext r aor di nar y sessi on of t he Di et on 15 December 2006, t he new Funda ment a l La w of Educ a t i on wa s pa s s ed, a nd i t wa s pr omul ga t ed a nd enf or c ed on 22 Dec ember 2006. 　Wha t ga v e r i s e t o t he di s c us s i on i n t hos e da ys wa s t ha t l ov i ng J a pa n a nd s t udent s ’ home s houl d be i nc l uded a s a n obj ec t i v e i n t he new l a w.

3 　I n t hi s pa per , ‘ l ov e of home’ i s us ed a s a gener a l t er m f or l ov e t owa r ds one’ s bi r t hpl a c e a nd

f a mi l y .

To f os t er a n a t t i t ude t o r es pec t our t r a di t i on a nd c ul t ur e, l ov e t he c ount r y a nd r egi on t ha t nur t ur ed t hem, t oget her wi t h r es pec t f or ot her c ount r i es a nd a des i r e t o c ont r i b- ut e t o wor l d pea c e a nd t he dev el opment of t he i nt er na t i ona l c ommuni t y .

St udent s ’ per f or ma nc e a t s c hool s a r e t hus a s s es s ed i n t er ms of how muc h t hey l ov e or s how i nt er es t i n t he hi s t or y, t r a di t i on, c ul t ur e, a nd gr ea t f i gur es of J a pa n ( Mi ni s t r y of Edu- c a t i on, Cul t ur e, Spor t s , Sc i enc e a nd Tec hnol ogy [ MEXT] , n. d. ) .

The t hen Pr i me Mi ni s t er wa s pa r t i c ul a r l y ent hus i a s t i c f or i nc or por a t i ng a des c r i pt i on of t he nur t ur e of l ove of home and l ove of count r y i nt o t he new Fundament al Law of Educ a t i on.

I t i s nec es s a r y t o nur t ur e l ov e of home i n t he s ens e of educ a t i on…i n or der t ha t t he young may have a sense of l ove of t he count r y i n whi ch t hey wer e bor n and r a i s ed. 　A s ens e of bel ongi ng t o t he c ount r y s houl d f ol l ow a s a n ext ens i on of i t [ l ov e of home] ( Abe, 2006, p. 91 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

Cul t i v a t i ng l ov e t owa r d s t udent s ’ home a nd J a pa n i n s t udent s ha d been t r i ed bef or e t hes e na t i ona l i s t mov ement s . 　I n Ko ko r o no No t e ( a not ebook f or mor a l educ a t i on) f or l ower s ec onda r y s c hool s , whi c h wa s di s t r i but ed t o a l l el ement a r y a nd l ower s ec onda r y s c hool s a s a s uppl ement a r y ma t er i a l i n Apr i l 2002, s t udent s a r e a s ked t o t hi nk of bea ut i f ul poi nt s f or t hei r home a nd wha t t hey c a n do f or t hei r home, under t he hea di ng “ Ther e a r e f a mi l i a r s i ght s , s ounds , a nd f a c es her e” t ha t i s des i gned t o a r ous e nos t a l gi a . 　Thi s i s f ol - l owed by t he s ec t i on on l ov e of c ount r y whos e hea di ng i s “ Lov e our c ount r y a nd wi s h f or i t s pr os per i t y” , a nd t hi s s ec t i on i nc l udes t he f ol l owi ng.

Ext endi ng l ov e of home a l i t t l e f ur t her l ea ds t o a s ens e of l ov i ng J a pa n. 　The s ens e of l ov i ng t he c ount r y i n whi c h we l i v e a nd wi s hi ng f or i t s pr os per i t y i s qui t e na t ur a l … i t i s t i me we pr oper l y l ea r n a bout J a pa n a nd ga i n a new under s t a ndi ng of i t s exc el l ent t r a di t i on a nd c ul t ur e…　Lov i ng t hi s c ount r y l ea ds t o l ov i ng t he wor l d ( MEXT, 2002, p. 114 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

As t hes e exa mpl es s how, l ov e of home a nd l ov e of c ount r y wer e a pr i ma r y c onc er n i n t he

J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es a s a s ys t em.

Wha t i s s t r i ki ng i s t ha t l ov e of home a nd l ov e of c ount r y a r e j uxt a pos ed i n t hes e di s - cour s es as i f t hey wer e t he one and t he s ame. 　However , Hobs bawm ( 1990) di s t i n- gui s hes bet ween t hes e t wo t ypes of l ov e. 　Na t i ona l i s m r ef er r ed t o a n a t t a c hment t o one’ s homel a nd i n t he 19t h c ent ur y, a nd i t wa s i n a di r ec t l y oppos i t e pos i t i on t o t he s t a t e. 　Yet r ul i ng c l a s s es i n t he s t a t e t r i ed t o t r a ns f or m na t i ona l i s m i nt o a n a t t a c hment t o t he s t a t e out of r ec ogni t i on t ha t na t i ona l i s m ga v e gr ea t s t r engt h t o t he s t a t e i f r ul i ng c l a s s es c oul d wi n i t t o t he s t a t e’ s s i de. 　I nt er es t i ngl y , “ Thi s …wa s of t en pos s i bl e, by t he mer e pr oj ec - t i on of t he s ent i ment s of genui ne, exi s t ent i a l , i dent i f i c a t i on wi t h one’ s ‘ l i t t l e’ homel a nd on t o t he bi g one” ( Hobs ba wm, 1990, p. 90) .

Ac c or di ng t o Fa i r c l ough ( 2001) , c ons equent i a l r el a t i ons hi p bet ween t wo or mor e el e- ment s , whi c h i s t a ken f or gr a nt ed, i s i deol ogi c a l l y c ons t r uc t ed c ommon s ens e. 　I n t he above di s cour s es , by j uxt apos i ng ‘ home’ and ‘ count r y’ by t he l ogi cal connect or ‘ and’ ,

‘ home a nd c ount r y’ i mpl i c i t l y mea ns ‘ home = c ount r y’ , a nd ‘ l ov e of home a nd l ov e of c oun- t r y’ mea ns ‘ l ov e of home = l ov e of c ount r y’ ( Fa i r c l ough, 2001) . 　I n ot her wor ds , t hr ough t he r epet i t i on of key wor ds t ha t a r e us ed a s s ynonyms , c ont i nui t y i s es t a bl i s hed bet ween t he wor ds ( Woods i de- J i r on, 2004) . 　By t hi s di s cur s i ve s t r at egy , i ndi vi dual s ’ di ver s e a t t a c hment t owa r d t hei r home i s t r a ns f or med i nt o monol i t hi c l ov e t owa r d t he c ount r y .

The J apane s e Lang uag e as a Sy s t e m: A Li ng ui s t i c Hi e r ar c hy and Hy b r i di s m

The J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es a s a s ys t em c ont r i but e t o a c hi ev i ng na t i ona l uni f i - cat i on by t el l i ng peopl e t hat t hey ar e t he s peaker s of a wonder f ul l anguage whi ch has bot h uni quenes s a nd uni v er s a l i t y .

I n The Fr o nt i e r Wi t hi n: I ndi v i dual Empo we r me nt and Be t t e r Go v e r nanc e i n t he Ne w Mi l l e nni um ( Pr i me Mi ni s t er ’ s Commi s s i on on J a pa n’ s Goa l s i n t he 21

Cent ur y [ PMC] , 2000) , t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s r epr es ent ed a s f ol l ows :

Les t t her e be any mi s under s t andi ng, we s t r es s t hat J apanes e i s a wonder f ul l an- guage…　I f we t r eas ur e t he J apanes e l anguage and cul t ur e, we s houl d act i vel y a s s i mi l a t e ot her l a ngua ges a nd c ul t ur es , enr i c hi ng J a pa nes e c ul t ur e t hr ough c ont a c t wi t h ot her c ul t ur es a nd s howi ng ot her c ount r i es t he a t t r a c t i on of J a pa nes e c ul t ur e by i nt r oduc i ng i t i n a n a ppr opr i a t e f a s hi on i n t hei r l a ngua ge ( p. 20) .

As c a n be s een i n “ J a pa nes e i s a wonder f ul l a ngua ge” , t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s r epr e-

s ent ed i n an eval uat i ve way . 　Accor di ng t o Fai r cl ough ( 2003) , “ Di r ect eval uat i ve s t at e- ment s c a n be s een a s pr es uppos ed” ( p. 179) . 　Wha t i s pr es uppos ed i n t hi s r epr es ent a t i on i s a l i ngui s t i c hi er a r c hy. 　The r epor t pr es uppos es t ha t t her e a r e wonder f ul l a ngua ges on t he one ha nd a nd l es s wonder f ul l a ngua ges on t he ot her , s i nc e “ a wonder f ul l a ngua ge” i s

“ a di s c our s e- r el a t i v e ev a l ua t i v e expr es s i on” ( Fa i r c l ough, 2003, p. 179) . 　By c onc ept ua l l y c a t egor i z i ng l a ngua ges , t he s uper i or i t y of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s i mpl i ed i n t hi s r epor t .

I n t he l a s t s ent enc e, t hi s r epor t r ec ommends t ha t t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge be t r ea s - ur ed by a s s i mi l a t i ng ot her l a ngua ges i nt o i t . 　I n ot her wor ds , i t a r gues t he need f or t he J apanese l anguage as a hybr i d l anguage. 　I r egar d t hi s a r gument as a f or m of i nt er di s c ur s i v i t y . 　Ac c or di ng t o Fa i r c l ough ( 1992) , “ di f f er ent di s c our s es c ombi ne under par t i cul ar s oci al condi t i ons t o pr oduce a new, compl ex di s cour s e” ( p. 4) . 　I t i s a di s - cour se of Ni honj i nr on ( t heor i es of J apaneseness) t hat combi nes wi t h t he above a r gument . 　Ac c or di ng t o I wa buc hi ( 2001) , s i nc e t he 1990s , t he a bi l i t y t o a s s i mi l a t e di f f er - ent c ul t ur es i nt o J a pa nes e c ul t ur e ha s been s ee n a s a di s t i nc t i v e J a pa nes e i dent i t y i n a di s - cour s e of Ni honj i nr on . 　I wabuchi cal l s t hi s s t r at egi c us e of hybr i di t y ‘ hybr i di s m’ , and c onc l udes t ha t t he ma i n i nt er es t of t hos e who a dv oc a t ed hybr i di s m a s a c i v i l i z a t i on wa s t o pr es ent J a pa nes e- s t yl e c i v i l i z a t i on t o t he wor l d a s uni v er s a l . 　The l a s t s ent enc e s ugges t s t ha t a di s c our s e of Ni ho nj i nr o n c ombi ne wi t h a di s c our s e of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge under t he s oc i a l c ondi t i on i n whi c h na t i ona l uni f i c a t i on i s needed f or gl oba l c ompet i t i v enes s .

J us t a s t he di s c our s e of hybr i di s m t o es t a bl i s h J a pa n’ s na t i ona l i dent i t y c a n be a t t r i b- ut ed t o a r eques t of moder n pr oj ec t s t o c r ea t e J a pa n a s a di s t i nc t i v e na t i on- s t a t e i n i nt er - na t i ona l exc ha nge a nd c ul t ur a l het er ogenei t y a t t he i nt er na t i ona l l ev el ( I wa buc hi , 2001) , t he i s s ue of i nt r oduc i ng t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a hybr i d l a ngua ge t o t he wor l d c oul d be under s t ood as a pol i t i cal pr oj ect i n whi ch on t he one hand, t he uni ver s al i t y of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s ens ur ed by s t r es s i ng t he exi s t enc e of ot her l a ngua ges ’ el ement s i n i t , but on t he ot her , uni quenes s of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s gua r a nt eed by s eei ng t he a bi l - i t y of appr opr i at i ng ot her l anguages ’ el ement s f or i t as pecul i ar t o J apan. 　As a cons e- quence, J a panes e peopl e coul d us e t he uni quenes s and uni ver s al i t y of t he J apanes e l a ngua ge t o s t r engt hen t hei r i dent i t y a s t he s pea ker s of t hi s wonder f ul l a ngua ge.

The J apane s e Lang uag e as a Hi s t o r y : A Hi s t o r i c al Fl o w o f t he J apane s e Lang uag e

As l ong as el ect r i ci t y t hat pas s es t hr ough t he el ect r i cal s ys t em i s a par t i cul ar l an-

guage, i t has a hi st or y whi ch cannot be di smi ssed as a si mpl e syst em ( Yasuda,

2006) . 　J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es us e t he l ong hi s t or y of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge t o l oc a t e J a pa nes e peopl e i n t he f l ux of t i me.

I n Ko r e k ar a no j i dai ni mo t o me r ar e r u k o k ug o r y o k u ni t s ui t e ( Conc er ni ng t he J a pa nes e La ngua ge Abi l i t i es Requi r ed f or t he Fut ur e Age) ,

t her e a r e pa s s a ges whi c h r epr es ent t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i n t er ms of t he f l ux of t i me. 　For exa mpl e, t he f ol l owi ng t r a c es t he hi s - t or y of t he J apanese l anguage, and expl ai ns t hat i t owes much t o t he f or ef at her s’

knowl edge.

The J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s f or med t hr ough i t s l ong hi s t or y , a nd i t i s t he ba s i s of our c ount r y’ s c ul t ur e. 　Or i t i s c ul t ur e i n i t s el f . 　Our f or ef a t her ’ s emot i ons s uc h a s s or - r ow, pai n, and j oy ar e accumul at ed i n each wor d of t he J apanes e l anguage. 　I t i s es s ent i al f or under s t andi ng and t aki ng over t he t r adi t i onal cul t ur e t hat our f or ef a - t her s c r ea t ed a nd f or dev el opi ng a new c ul t ur e ( Counc i l f or Cul t ur a l Af f a i r s , 2004, p.

3 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

The f ol l owi ng empha s i z es t he need f or t a ki ng ov er t he l ega c y embedded i n t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a pr es c r i pt i on f or pr obl ems i n t he pr es ent . 　I n a ddi t i on, t he f ol l owi ng di s - c us s es wha t t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge educ a t i on s houl d be l i ke i n t he pr es ent .

Fur t her mor e, i t i s a c r i t i c a l i s s ue t ha t t he dec a y of mor a l s t ha t ha s been s een i n J a pa - nes e s oc i et y i n r ec ent yea r s c a n be a t t r i but ed t o t he l a c k of a bi l i t i es t o under s t a nd t he s ens i t i v i t y a nd emot i on t ha t we ha v e a s huma n bei ngs …　Thes e a bi l i t i es a r e not na t ur a l l y a c qui r ed but l ea r ned ma i nl y t hr ough J a pa nes e l a ngua ge educ a t i on. 　The ma i n pur pos e of J a pa nes e l a ngua ge educ a t i on i s t o s t ea di l y c ul t i v a t e t he emot i ona l abi l i t i es , and by doi ng s o, t o enhance cul t i vat i on and f os t er a br oad per s pect i ve ( Counc i l f or Cul t ur a l Af f a i r s , 2004, p. 5 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

As t he t i t l e “ Conc er ni ng t he J a pa nes e La ngua ge Abi l i t i es Requi r ed f or t he Fut ur e Age”

s hows , f ur t her mor e, t hi s r epor t di s c us s es wha t t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge s houl d be l i ke i n

4 　Thi s doc ument wa s dr a wn up by t he Counc i l f or Cul t ur a l Af f a i r s i n 2004 t o dev el op J a pa nes e

peopl e’ s emot i ona l a s pec t s a nd c ommuni c a t i v e a bi l i t i es by i mpr ov i ng t hei r J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge

a bi l i t i es .

t he f ut ur e. 　Thi s r epor t i mpl i es a l ong uni nt er r upt ed hi s t or y of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge.

Ac c or di ng t o Woda k, de Ci l l i a , Rei s i gl , a nd Li ebha r t ( 1999) , “ t he di s c ur s i v e c ons t r uc - t i on of na t i ona l i dent i t y r ev ol v es a r ound t he t hr ee t empor a l a xes of t he pa s t , t he pr es ent , a nd t he f ut ur e” ( p. 26) . 　I n a s i mi l a r v ei n, Smi t h ( 1986) s a ys t ha t i ndi v i dua l s ’ f eel i ng of mea ni ngl es s nes s c oul d be ov er c ome by l i nki ng t hem t o “ per s i s t i ng c ommuni t i es whos e gener a t i ons f or m i ndi s s ol ubl e l i nks i n a c ha i n of memor i es a nd i dent i t i es ” ( p. 176) . 　I n or der t o i nt egr a t e a t omi z ed i ndi v i dua l s i n t he pr es ent , one of t he bes t wa ys mi ght be t o l i nk t hem t o a hi s t or i c a l c ha i n of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge. 　I ndi v i dua l s c oul d t hen ha v e a s ens e of uni t y t hr ough t he s ha r ed l a ngua ge, i t s hi s t or y , a nd i t s memor i es .

The Goodness of t he J apanese Language

Ther e i s no r oom f or doubt t ha t l a ngua ge i s c l os el y bound up wi t h na t i ona l i s m. 　A par t i cul ar l anguage i s es peci al l y i mpor t ant as a medi um f or l i nki ng wi t h t he good ol d da ys , a ut hent i c i t y, a nd t he di s t i nc t i on bet ween Us a nd Them, ea c h of whi c h i s c ons i der ed a cons t i t uent of nat i onal cohes i on ( Hobs bawm, 1990) . 　The J apanes e l anguage i s no exc ept i on i n t hi s r es pec t . 　Howev er , why a pa r t i c ul a r l a ngua ge c ont r i but es t o c r ea t i ng na t i ona l uni f i c a t i on i s not f ul l y expl i c a t ed. 　Ander s on’ s ( 1998) i dea of ‘ t he Goodnes s of na t i ons ’ gi v es a n i ns i ght i nt o t hi s ques t i on.

I n a j our nal i nt er vi ew whos e mai n t opi c i s a t er r i t or i al i s s ue of J apan, t he f or mer Pr i me Mi ni s t er Abe t a l ked a bout wha t c ons t i t ut es J a pa n a s a s t a t e.

When we t hi nk of ‘ J a pa n’ a s a s t a t e, we f i nd t ha t i t i nc l udes t hos e who l i v e i n J a pa n, t hos e who l i v ed i n J a pa n, a nd t hos e who wi l l be bor n i n J a pa n ( Ya ma mot o, 2007, p.

89 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

I n Abe’ s v i ew, t he pa s t , pr es ent , a nd f ut ur e J a pa nes e peopl e c ons t i t ut e J a pa n a s a s t a t e.

Abe t a l ked a bout t he unbor n a nd t he dea d i n t hi s i nt er v i ew, but he di d not des c r i be

t hei r f ea t ur es . 　As Ander s on ( 1998) s a ys , t her ef or e, “ They ha v e no s pec i a l l i nea ment a t

a l l ” ( p. 362) . 　The f a c t t ha t t he unbor n a r e not bor n yet l ea ds t hem t o bei ng c onc ept ua l -

i z ed a s a t ot a l l y i nnoc ent na t i on, a nd by di s r ega r di ng t he beha v i or a nd s oc i a l ba c kgr ound

of t he dead dur i ng t hei r l i f et i me, whet her t hey wer e r i ght or wr ong, t he dead ar e

pur i f i ed. 　I n ot her wor ds , bot h t he unbor n a nd t he dea d ha v e pur i t y ber ef t of ev er y s oc i a l

c ha r a c t er i s t i c . 　Ander s on ( 1998) c a l l s t hi s pur i t y “ monoc hr ome pur i t y” ( p. 362) , a nd s a ys t ha t monoc hr ome pur i t y gua r a nt ees t he Goodnes s of na t i ons . 　The pur i f i ed unbor n a nd dea d c ombi ne i n t he pr es ent a s i f t hey r ef l ec t ed ea c h ot her i n a mi r r or . 　Thr ough t hi s c ombi na t i on, whi c h Ander s on ( 1998) c a l l s “ c ombi ned ghos t l i nes s ” ( p. 364) , c ont i nui t y of monoc hr ome pur i t y i s ens ur ed, a nd i t a f f or ds a ba s i s f or t he Goodnes s of na t i ons . 　The na t i on t ha t r et a i ns a per f ec t pur i t y a s i t s ba s i s c a nnot be wr ong.

The unbor n a nd t he dea d br i ng a s ens e of s ha me on t he l i v i ng i n t ha t t he l i v i ng do not a c hi ev e t he s a me pur i t y . 　The wa y i n whi c h t he l i v i ng c ont r i but e t o t he Goodnes s of nat i ons has t o do wi t h s exual r epr es ent at i on. 　Accor di ng t o Ander s on ( 1998) , at hl et i c young ma l e bodi es a r e v i ewed a s a r epr es ent a t i on of na t i ona l s oundnes s i n ma ny c ount r i - es , a nd mot her i s t he onl y woma n f or whom young ma l es do not f eel s exua l des i r e a nd i n whom t hey put t hei r t r us t unc ondi t i ona l l y . 　Thi s r el a t i ons hi p mi ght expl a i n t he r el a t i on- s hi p bet ween t he na t i on a nd t he s t a t e mos t c l ea r l y , bec a us e “ I t i s She [ Mot her Count r y]

who s er v es a s t he ma gnet a r ound whi c h a di s or der l y myr i a d of young…ma l e s f or m t hem- s el v es i nt o a bea ut i f ul l y or der ed f i el d of f or c e” ( Ander s on, 1998, p. 367) . 　The f r a t er ni t y of t he l i v i ng f r a med by pol i t i c a l i nc es t t a boo t hen wor ks a s t he l a s t s our c e of t he Good- nes s of na t i ons . 　I n t he a bov e i nt er v i ew a bout a t er r i t or i a l i s s ue, Abe mi ght ma ni f es t hi s na t i ona l i s m a s t he Pr i me Mi ni s t er of J a pa n t hr ough t hi s i dea of t he Goodnes s of na t i ons . The r eas on f or t he us e of t he J apanes e l anguage f or nat i onal uni f i cat i on coul d be expl a i ned by us i ng t he not i on of t he Goodnes s of na t i ons . 　As not ed a bov e, t he pa s t of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s r epr es ent ed a s f ol l ows .

The J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s f or med t hr ough i t s l ong hi s t or y , a nd i t i s t he ba s i s of our c ul t ur e’ s c ul t ur e…　Our f or ef a t her ’ s emot i ons …a r e a c c umul a t ed i n ea c h wor d of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge ( Counc i l f or Cul t ur a l Af f a i r s , 2004, p. 3 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

Thi s r epr es ent at i on over l ooks t he f act t hat t he J apanes e l anguage as t he nat i onal l an-

gua ge i s a r es ul t of pol i t i c a l ma ni pul a t i on t o l es s en di s pa r i t i es bet ween s poken a nd wr i t -

t en l a ngua ges bet ween di a l ec t s ( Ya s uda , 2006) . 　I t s houl d be not ed, f ur t her mor e, t ha t

t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge wa s es t a bl i s hed by s uppr es s i ng non- s t a nda r d v a r i et i es f or t he pur -

pos e of i nt egr a t i ng t he na t i on ( Got t l i eb, 2005) . 　I n di s r ega r d of t hi s pol i t i c a l ma ni pul a -

t i on, t he J apanes e l anguage i s r epr es ent ed as an i nnocent l anguage as i f i t had not

exper i enc ed a ny c hr onol ogi c a l c ha nge.

The i dea of t he Goodnes s of na t i ons a ppl i es t o t he r epr es ent a t i on of t he f ut ur e of t he J apanese l anguage. 　Kor e kar a no j i dai ni mot ome r ar e r u kokugor y oku ni t s ui t e ( Conc er ni ng t he J a pa nes e La ngua ge Abi l i t i es Requi r ed f or t he Fut ur e Age) di s c us s es t wo a r ea s a s t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a bi l i t i es r equi r ed f or t he f ut ur e a ge. 　One i s t he a r ea t ha t i s needed t o ma na ge i nf or ma t i on c ent er i ng a r ound l a ngua ge, a nd t he ot her a r ea ha s t o do wi t h knowl edge of t he J apanese l anguage, cul t i vat i on, a sense of val ue, and s ens i t i v i t y . 　The J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s a ba s i s f or i dent i t y i s t hen r epr es ent ed i n t he f ol - l owi ng wa y i n t er ms of t he s ec ond a r ea .

Thi s a r ea f or ms a ba s i s f or ‘ a bi l i t y t o t hi nk, a bi l i t y t o f eel , a bi l i t y t o i ma gi ne, a nd a bi l - i t y t o expr es s ’ . 　Fur t her mor e, t hi s a r ea c a n be di v i ded i nt o t he pa r t of ‘ knowl edge of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge’ , whi c h i s di r ec t l y l i nked wi t h ‘ a bi l i t y t o t hi nk, a bi l i t y t o f eel , a bi l i t y t o i ma gi ne, a nd a bi l i t y t o expr es s ’ , a nd t he pa r t of ‘ c ul t i v a t i on, a s ens e of v a l ue, a nd s ens i t i v i t y’ .

　　The l a t t er [ c ul t i v a t i on, a s ens e of v a l ue, a nd s ens i t i v i t y] i s c ons i der ed a s a c om- ponent of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge pr of i c i enc y , but mor e pr ec i s el y s pea ki ng, t he l a t t er i t s el f i s ma i nl y s ha ped by t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge pr of i c i enc y , a nd pl a ys a r ol e a s a basi s f or ‘ abi l i t y t o t hi nk, abi l i t y t o f eel , abi l i t y t o i magi ne, and abi l i t y t o expr es s ’ . 　Mor eov er , t he l a t t er i s t he ba s i s of a l l ki nds of a c t i v i t i es , a nd i n t hi s s ens e, i t i s t he a r ea t ha t ha s a s er i ous bea r i ng on t he f unda ment a l s a s a huma n bei ng or a J a pa nes e ( Counc i l f or Cul t ur a l Af f a i r s , 2004, p. 8 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

Wha t c ha r a c t er i z es t hi s r epr es ent a t i on i s t ha t t hi s r epor t f oc us es onl y on ps yc hol ogi c a l

a s pec t s of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge. 　Ac c or di ng t o Mor r i s - Suz uki ( 2002) , one of t he c ha r a c -

t er i s t i c s i n di s c our s es of J a pa n’ s na t i ona l i s m i s t ha t t hey t r a ns f or m s oc i opol i t i c a l ma t t er s

of J a pa nes e s oc i et y i nt o ps yc hol ogi c a l ma t t er s . 　I n ot her wor ds , t he pr obl ems t ha t der i v e

f r om s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e a r e a t t r i but ed t o ps yc hol ogy . 　I t i s a good exa mpl e t ha t t hi s r epor t

c l a i ms i n a di f f er ent pa r t t ha t t he dec a y of mor a l s , whi c h ha s ma i n s our c e i n s oc i a l s t r uc -

t ur e, c oul d be t r ea t ed by t he educ a t i on of f eel i ngs t hr ough t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge. 　As

Ander s on ( 1998) s ays wi t h r es pect t o t he unbor n, t her ef or e, t he J apanes e l anguage i s

s t r i pped of a l l s ubs t a nt i v e s oc i ol ogi c a l s i gni f i c a nc e.

I t ha s been a l r ea dy not ed t ha t f r a t er ni t y f r a med by pol i t i c a l i nc es t t a boo gua r a nt ees t he Goodnes s of na t i ons ( Ander s on, 1998) . 　The f ol l owi ng r epr es ent a t i on of t he c ur r ent J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a ppea r s t o i mpl y t ha t J a pa nes e peopl e ha v e t he r el a t i ons hi p of ‘ br ot h- er s a nd s i s t er s ’ by l ea r ni ng t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s t he ‘ mot her t ongue’ .

a s i nt er na t i ona l i z a t i on pr ogr es s es , t he a bi l i t y t o t hi nk l ogi c a l l y…, t he need f or t he es t a bl i s hment of i dent i t y a s a J a pa nes e, a nd t he i mpor t a nc e of l ea r ni ng f or ei gn l a n- guages …ar e pas s i onat el y ar gued. 　A command of t he J apanes e l anguage as t he mot her t ongue s er i ous l y af f ect s al l of t hes e ( Counci l f or Cul t ur al Af f ai r s , 2004 [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] ) .

By a bs t r a c t i ng s oc i a l c ha r a c t er i s t i c s f r om t he pa s t a nd f ut ur e of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge, t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge i s gi v en monoc hr ome pur i t y , whi c h gua r a nt ees t he Goodnes s of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge. 　I t ma y f ur t her gua r a nt ee t he Goodnes s of i dent i t y a s t he s pea k- er s of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge. 　The J a pa nes e l a ngua ge a s t he ‘ mot her t ongue’ t hen wor ks as t he magnet ar ound whi ch a di sor der l y myr i ad of J apanese peopl e f or m a sol i d s oci et y . 　The Goodnes s of t he J apanes e l anguage may t hus f i t t he s t at e’ s pur pos e t o s t r engt hen t i es wi t h ot her s a nd enha nc e na t i ona l uni f i c a t i on.

Par adoxi cal Di si nt egr at i on of J apanese Soci et y

The r ul i ng c l a s s es i n J a pa n ha v e t a ken a c t i v e s t eps t owa r ds gl oba l i z a t i on on t he one hand, but on t he ot her , t hey have been dr i ven by necessi t y t o cr eat e soci al c ohes i on. 　Ka ng a nd Mor r i s ( 2002) c ompa r ed t he pr es ent s t a t e of J a pa nes e s oc i et y t o s t eppi ng on t he a c c el er a t or a nd t he br a ke s i mul t a neous l y , a nd s a y t ha t s uc h a s i t ua t i on i nev i t a bl y gi v es r i s e t o di s t or t i on. 　I f ea r t ha t t he di s t or t i on ma ni f es t s i t s el f i n t he f or m of pa r a doxi c a l di s i nt egr a t i on of J a pa nes e s oc i et y .

The bi gges t caus e of t he par adoxi cal di s i nt egr at i on of J apanes e s oci et y l i es i n t he

r epl a c ement of s oc i a l ma t t er s by ps yc hol ogi c a l ma t t er s . 　Al t hough J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s -

c our s e s s t r es s l ov e t owa r d J a pa n, a s l ong a s l ov i ng i s a n a r t whi c h i s a c qui r ed ( Fr omm,

1956) , s eei ng l ov e a s a t ot a l l y ps yc hol ogi c a l ma t t er c a r r i es a pr obl em wi t h i t . 　Ac c or di ng

t o Fr omm ( 1956) , t he pr oc es s of ma s t er i ng a n a r t i s ma de up of bei ng wel l i nf or med of

t heor y a nd doi ng c ons i der a bl e pr a c t i c e. 　Ma r r yi ng t heor y wi t h pr a c t i c e l ea ds t o ma s t er -

i ng a n a r t .

Gi v en t ha t ev er yone does not ha v e a n equa l a c c es s t o knowl edge ( Gi ddens , 1990) , howev er , di f f er ent i ndi v i dua l s ha v e di f f er ent degr ees of ma s t er y of t he a r t of l ov i ng. 　I n J apan, as not ed above, t her e i s a cor r el at i on bet ween di spar i t i es i n i ncome and educ a t i on. 　Thos e who ha v e mor e ec onomi c a nd c ul t ur a l c a pi t a l ha v e ea s i er a c c es s t o mast er y of knowl edge and t he ar t s t han t hose who have l ess capi t al ( Bour di eu, 1984) . 　Regi ona l di s pa r i t y ma y a l s o a f f ec t t he degr ee of ma s t er y of t he a r t of l ov i ng i n t hat t he cent er can of f er mor e oppor t uni t i es f or access t o knowl edge t han t he per i pher y . 　Repl a c i ng t hes e s oci a l ma t t er s wi t h ps yc hol ogi c a l ma t t er s ma y t r i gger f ur - t her f r a gment a t i on of J a pa nes e s oc i et y .

J apanes e- l anguage di s cour s es may s egr egat e mi nor i t i es f r om J apanes e s oci et y . Ac c or di ng t o Bour di eu ( 1991) , t he l egi t i ma t e c ompet enc e of a l a ngua ge c a n be s een a s l i n- gui s t i c capi t al , whi ch pr oduces “ a pr of i t of di s t i nct i on on t he occas i on of each s oci al exc ha nge” ( p. 55) . 　I n J a pa n, needl es s t o s a y , t he l egi t i ma t e c ompet enc e of t he J a pa nes e l a ngua ge f unc t i ons a s l i ngui s t i c c a pi t a l . 　For ma ny of mi nor i t i es , howev er , t he J a pa nes e l anguage i s not t he f i r s t l anguage. 　They l ack l i ngui s t i c capi t al , and t hi s l eads t o t he deni a l of equa l oppor t uni t i es i n educ a t i on, empl oyment , a nd s oc i a l s ec ur i t y. 　Ev en i f t hey ha v e bi l i ngua l a bi l i t y, J a pa nes e- l a ngua ge di s c our s es , whi c h exc l us i v el y f oc us on ‘ J a pa nes e- nes s ’ , el i mi na t e t he pos s i bi l i t y of ‘ t hi r d s pa c e’ ( Bha bha , 1994) .

As Sel l ek ( 1997) s ugges t s , whi l e mi nor i t i es onl y f or m a s mal l por t i on of t he t ot al popul at i on of J apan, t hey have a bi g i nf l uence on whet her or not J apan can gl obal i z e i t s el f . 　J us t a s ext er na l a nd i nt er na l et hni c di v er s i t y a r e i nt er r el a t ed, s o J a pa n needs t o s ee i t s l i ngui s t i c di v er s i t y a s a gl oba l l a ngua ge s ys t em by goi ng beyond exc l us i v e na t i on- a l i s t mov ement s .

Concl usi on

As Bour di eu ( 1999) s a ys , a nxi et y ha s been us ed a s a wa y t o c ont r ol s oc i et y i n ma ny

count r i es . 　Anxi et y i t s el f may be no mor e t han a s mal l r i ppl e on t he s ur f ace of t he

mi nd. 　As s een i n J a pa nes e s oc i et y, howev er , t he ps yc hol ogi c a l r i ppl e t ends t o s ea r c h a n

obj ec t of a s s i mi l a t i on f or ont ol ogi c a l s ec ur i t y. 　When t he ps yc hol ogi c a l r i ppl e j oi ns a nd i s

s wal l owed up by t he s t at e- l ed movement f or r e- s t r uct ur i ng J apanes e s oci et y , exi s t i ng

s oc i a l i nequi t y ma y be r epr oduc ed. 　As demons t r a t ed a bov e, l a ngua ge c a n pl a y a c r i t i c a l

r ol e i n t he r epr oduc t i on of s oc i a l i nequi t y . 　Ther ef or e, wha t i s r equi r ed f or t he s t udy of t he pol i t i c s of l a ngua ge f or t he next dec a de i n t he t went y- f i r s t c ent ur y i s t o unr a v el t he mec ha ni s m by whi c h l a ngua ge c ont r i but es t o r epr oduc i ng s oc i a l i nequi t y .

We can get an i nsi ght i nt o a way t o achi eve t he obj ect i ve f r om t wo i nt el l ec t ua l s . 　Tol s t oy ( 1900) s a w na t i ona l i s m a nd r a c i s m a s t wo s i des of t he s a me c oi n, a nd deni ed t he exi s t enc e of s ound na t i ona l i s m. 　He t hus c l a i med t ha t t he onl y j us t i f i a bl e l ov e i s l ov e f or t he huma n r a c e.

As Tol s t oy s ugges t s , t he deni al of nat i onal i s m i t s el f i s one of t he ways t o achi eve s oc i a l equa l i t y. 　Yet gi v en t ha t na t i ona l i s m c oul d be s een a s a ps yc hol ogi c a l t i e wi t h a pa r - t i c ul a r s pa c e whi c h i ndi v i dua l s c ons t r uc t t hr ough t hei r s oc i a l pr a c t i c es ( Mor r i s - Suz uki , 2007) , i t i s not eas y t o t ot al l y deny nat i onal i s m. 　Ci t i ng a pas s age f r om Hugo of St . Vi c t or ’ s Di das c al i c o n , Sa i d ( 1994) gi v es a s ugges t i on a s t o t hi s poi nt .

“ The ma n who f i nds i t s homel a nd s weet i t s t i l l a t ender begi nner ; he t o whom ev er y s oi l i s a s hi s na t i v e one i s a l r ea dy s t r ong; but he i s per f ec t t o whom t he ent i r e wor l d i s a s a f or ei gn l a nd. ” The mor e one i s a bl e t o l ea v e one’ s c ul t ur a l home, t he mor e ea s - i l y i s one a bl e t o j udge i t , a nd t he whol e wor l d a s wel l , wi t h t he s pi r i t ua l det a c hment a nd gener os i t y nec es s a r y f or t r ue v i s i on. 　The mor e ea s i l y , t oo, does one a s s es s es ones el f and al i en cul t ur es wi t h t he s ame combi nat i on of i nt i macy and di s t ance ( p.

259) .

I i nt er pr et t hi s s t a t ement a s get t i ng a c r i t i c a l per s pec t i v e t owa r d our own homel a nd. 　We s houl d c a s t a c r i t i c a l eye on, dec ons t r uc t , a nd r el a t i v ez e our c ul t ur a l , et hni c , a nd pol i t i c a l home. 　The cr i t i cal eye makes i t pos s i bl e f or us t o conduct a cl os e i ns pect i on of t he na t i v e c ount r y f r om ev er y a ngl e. 　We c a n t hen get a n ov er a l l pi c t ur e of t he s t a t e, keepi ng a cer t ai n di s t ance f r om i t . 　Thi s may l ead t o unr avel i ng t he mechani s m i n whi ch l an- gua ge i s i nv ol v ed i n t he r epr oduc t i on of s oc i a l i nequa l i t y a nd enf or c i ng bet t er l a ngua ge pol i c i e s .

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