English-Language Scholarship on Early Twentieth-Century Business History in Japan Part 1 : From the First Studies to the Postwar Era

English‑Language Scholarship on Early

Twentieth‑Century Business History in Japan Part 1 : From the First Studies to the Postwar Era

著者名(英) Andrew T. Kamei‑Dyche journal or

publication title

The Bulletin of the Research Institute for Japanese Studies, Kanda University of

International Studies

volume 6

page range (1)‑(30)

year 2014‑06‑30

URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1092/00001098/

Andr ewT.Kamei - Dyche

Thepr esentar t i cl eof f er sanout l i neoft hedevel opmentof Engl i sh- l anguagewr i t i ngont hehi st or yofJ apanesebusi nessi n t hef i r sthal foft het went i et hcent ur y.

J apanesebusi nessandeco- nomi csar eat opi cofper enni ali nt er esti nt heEngl i sh- l anguage wor l d.Manyoft hemostusef ulsecondar ysour cesonbusi ness hi st or yi npr ewarJ apanwer est udi esoft hecont empor ar ysi t ua- t i onatt het i meoft hei raut hor shi p.Whi l egener al l yl acki ngi nhi s- t or i calper spect i ve,t hesesour cesr emai nr el evantbecauset hey cancompl ementJ apanesemat er i al swi t hcont empor ar yi nsi ght f r om anout si deper spect i ve.Conver sel y,event hosewor kst hat ar eexpl i ci t l yhi st or i cali nscoper ef l ectasi gni f i cantdegr eeof i nf l uencef r om br oadervi ewsofJ apaneseeconomi csandbusi - nesspr act i cecont empor aneouswi t ht hei rpr oduct i on.Iti st her e- f or enecessar yt o consi dert hedevel opmentofwr i t i ngon J apanesebusi nesswi t hi nt hebr oadercont extoft het r aj ect or yof st udi esofJ apaneseeconomi cs,wher ehi st or i calt r eat ment sof t en

Ear l yTwent i et h- Cent ur yBusi ness Hi st or yi nJapan

―Par tI:Fr om t heFi r stSt udi est ot hePost warEr a ―

１ JapanesenamesaregiveninJapanesenameorder,exceptincaseswheretheyare authorswhoprimarilywriteinEnglishandemployEnglishnameorder.Theformatof individualnamingconventionisconsistentwiththeformtheauthorinquestionchose touse.ResearchersinterestedinbibliographicguidestoEnglish-languagewritingon Japanesebusinessandeconomichistorythroughthelatepostwarerashouldconsult YoshiTsurumi・sJapaneseBusiness:AResearchGuidewithAnnotatedBibliography(NewYork:

Praeger,1978),andWilliam D.Wray・sJapan・sEconomy:A BibliographyofitsPastand Present(NewYork:MarkusWienerPublishing,1989).

begi nwi t h1945andser vemer el yasabackdr opf ormor econ- t empor ar yassessment sofJ apaneseeconomi cdevel opment .

Theschol ar shi pcanber oughl ydi vi dedi nt of i vechr onol ogi cal er ast hatpar al l elchangesi nJ apan・ seconomi cdevel opmentand cor r espondi ngshi f t si nwr i t i ngbasedt her eupon.Thesear et he pr ewarer ai t sel f( c. 1905- 1945) ,t heear l ypost warer a( 1945- 1968) , t hel at erpost warer a( 1968- 1978) ,t heer aofJ apan・ semer genceas aneconomi cgi ant( 1978- 1993) ,andt hecont empor ar yer a( 1993- pr esent ) .Par tIoft hi sar t i cl et r eat st hef i r stt hr eeoft heseer as.

I.Pr ewarWor ks(c. 1905- 1945)

Ref l ect i ngwhatwoul dbecomeanongoi ngchar act er i st i cofmuch Engl i sh- l anguagemat er i alonJ apan,wor ksoft heear l ydecadesof t het went i et hcent ur ywer edi vi dedbet weent hoset hatwer e l ar gel yl audat or yi nchar act er( somedr ewupont hemol dsetby W.E.Gr i f f i sand/orLaf cadi oHear n)andt hoset hatwer emor e cr i t i cal .Thekeydi f f er encer est edi nanassessmentofJ apan・ s moder ni zat i onpr oj ect :t hef or merwor kscel ebr at edJ apan・ st r an- si t i onf r om t hef eudalt ot hemoder n,under st andi ngJ apan・ s emer genceasani mper i alpoweraswel l - deser ved,whi l et hel at t er wor ksconcei vedoft hi sascompr i si ngadanger oust hr eatt ot he West .Whatdi dnotdi f f erbet weent het wof or msofwor kwas t heor i ent at i on,whi chwasuni l at er al l yWest er n- based:whet her J apanwasunder st oodasagoodappr ent i cet ot heWestora t hr eatt oi t swoul d- bemast erdi dnotaf f ectt hepr i macyoft he

２ Forexample,RichardE.CavesandMasuVekusainIndustrialOrganizationinJapan (Washington:TheBrookingsInstitution,1976)discusszaibatsubrieflyasacontextfor alargerdiscussionofpostwarintermarketgroupings(60-62).

３ MasatoshiMatsushita・sJapanintheLeagueofNations(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity Press,1929),forexample,isanexcellentillustrationofhow theWesternempires remainedthestandardbywhichJapanwasjudged.

Westast hest andar dbywhi chJ apan・ sexper i encewast obeas- sessedandj udged.

Thi sbecamepar t i cul ar l ycl earast hesi t uat i on i nEastAsi andi pl omacydegener at edandJ apanbecamei ncr eas- i ngl yr ecogni zedasami l i t ar yt hr eatt ot heWest er npower s.

Iti s i mpor t antt onot et hatJ apan・ seconomi cpr owesswast r eat edas af acetoft hecount r y・ sst r engt hasani mper i alpower ,maki nga mar kedcont r astt opost warwor kst hatr ecogni zedJ apaneseeco- nomi cpowerassi gni f i canti ni t sownr i ght .

Int er msofwor ksspeci f i cal l yconcer nedwi t haspect sof J apan・ seconomy,onesi gni f i cantst udywasLaborCondi t i onsi n J apanbyShui chiHar adai n1928.Har ada・ sper spect i vesr ef l ecthi s t i mes:J apani sover popul at ed,r et ai nsf eudal i st i chol dover s,and dependsheavi l yonf or ei gncount r i es.Har adasket chesal abor cl asst or nbet weent hecompet i ngmodel sofcapi t al i smandcom- muni sm.Thef ocusf ormuchoft hewor k,however ,i ssquar el y ont heJ apanesest at e,emphasi zi ngi t sr ol ei nut i l i zi ngr esour ces andest abl i shi ngvar i ousent er pr i ses.Heof f er sl i t t l ei ndi cat i on t hatJ apanesebusi nessespossessanyagencynotgi vent hem i n ast at e- der i vedmandat e.A l ookati ndust r i alor gani zat i onand

４ FollowingChineseandWesterncriticismofJapan・sencroachmentinManchuria,K.

K.Kawakami・sinfamousJapanSpeaksontheSino-JapaneseCrisis(NewYork:Macmillan, 1932)onlyfannedtheflames,andEnglish-languageassessmentsofJapanbecameover- whelminglynegative.WillardPrice・sChildrenoftheRisingSun(NewYork:Reynal&

Hitchcock,1936)wasademeaningexample,chastisingtheJapanesefortheirsuppos- edlyhalf-heartedWesternizationandobsessionwithemperor-worship.Someworks begantopredictwarbetweenJapanandtheWest,suchasSutherlandDenlingerand CharlesB.Gary,WarinthePacific:A StudyofNavies,PeoplesandBattleProblems(New York:RobertM.McBride&Co.,1936),whileotherschartedtheriseofmilitaristel- ementsinJapan,notablyO.TaninandE.Yohan,Militarism andFascism inJapan (Westport:GreenwoodPress,1973;reprintof1934).

５ ThiswasthecasewithsuchworksasKennethScottLatourette・sbriefhistoryof Japan,TheDevelopmentofJapan(NewYork:Macmillan,1923),whichpositivelyevaluated earlytwentieth-centuryeconomicdevelopment,andWilliamHenryChamberlain・sJapan OverAsia(Boston:Little,BrownandCompany,1937),whichdealtinonechapterwith Japan・stransitiontoawartimeeconomy(318-337)

mar ket i ng,i l l ust r at edt hr ought heexampl eoft hesi l ki ndust r y, avoi dsment i oni ngasi ngl ecompanyname.Thesect i ononl abor r el at i ons,whi l ef ul lofst at i st i csdi vi dedbyi ndust r y,agai nsuggest s nor ealagencyont hepar toff i r ms.

Har ada・ spi ct ur eofamod- er nJ apaneseeconomi cwor l dest abl i shedandor gani zedbyt he st at e,l ar gel ydevoi dofcont r i but i onsbybusi nessesandwor ker s, wasr oot edi ncont empor ar yper cept i onsofeconomi cdevel op- ment .Itwasapi ct ur et hatwoul dcont i nuet oappeari nl at er schol ar shi p.

Thef ol l owi ngyearsaw TheEf f e c toft heWor l dWarupont he Comme r c eandI ndus t r yofJ apan,compi l edbyKakuj i r oYamasaki ( whohandl edt hecommer ceaspect )andGot ar oOgawa( who handl edt hei ndust r y) .Thewor kconst i t ut esahi ghl y- det ai l ed accountf i l l edwi t hst at i st i cali nf or mat i ononnumer ousf i nanci al , commer ci al ,andi ndust r i alaspect sofJ apan・ seconomy,char t i ng t hef al l outf r om t heFi r stWor l dWari neachcase.Lacki nga cohesi vest r uct ur e,t hewor kr eadsasacol l ect i onofst at i st i cs,and agai nJ apani st r eat edasasi ngul arobj ectofanal ysi st hathappens t opossessnumer ousi ndust r i es・speci f i cbusi nessesdonotf ea- t ur e,andnei t herdol aborr el at i onsorsoci alaspect soft heeco- nomi cchangescover ed.

Thi ssameappr oachi smani f est edi not herwor ksaswel l ,such asJ ohnE.Or char d・ sJ apan・ sEc onomi cPos i t i on:ThePr og r e s sof I ndus t r i al i zat i on( 1930) ・whi cht akesi nt oaccountvar i ousi ndus- t r i es,r esour cemanagement ,andconsi der st hecont r i but i onoft he col oni est oJ apan・ seconomi cdevel opment ・andG.Moul t on・ s

６ Haradabrieflytouchesuponseveralrecentstrikesofwomenworkersinspinning mills,explainingthatthewomenareeducatedtofollowordersandevenwhenstriking needtodependuponmaleinitiative(Ibid.,120).Notethathegivesmaleworkerslittle agencyeither,however.

J apan:AnEc onomi candFi nanc i alAppr ai s al( 1931) ,a600- page accountt hati ncor por at esahi st or i calandgeogr aphi calcont ext bef or eembar ki ngonadet ai l edsynopsi sofever yt hi ngi nJ apan f r om i nsur anceagenci esandcr edi tr egul at i ont ot r anspor t at i on net wor ksandpubl i cut i l i t i es.Anext ensi vewor kbyt he・Mi t su- bi shiEconomi cResear chBur eau, ・whi chonemi ghtr easonabl y expectt opl ayupt her ol eofpar t i cul arf i r ms,i nst eadal soempl oys asi mi l arappr oach.G.C.Al l en・ sJ apane s eI ndus t r y( 1939)oper at es i nasi mi l arvei n.

Inal loft heseaccount s,adet ached,st at e- cent er edvi ewofeco- nomi cdevel opmentr emai nsconsi st ent .Ast r onggover nmenti s depi ct edwr enchi ngt hecount r youtoff eudali sol at i oni nt hel at e ni net eent hcent ur y( al t houghsuchhi st or yi sgi venshor tshr i f t ) andembar ki nguponadr ast i cpr ogr am oft op- downmoder ni - zat i on,adapt i ngeconomi ci nst i t ut i onsandt hesoci alf r amewor ks t osuppor tt hem( nevert heot herwayar ound) ,i nor dert oemer ge ast hepr i mar ypoweri nAsi a.Iti sat al eber ef tofi ndi vi dualen- t r epr eneur s,f i r ms,orl abor er s.Thecat egor i esofeconomi canal y- si sar er ecogni zedasWest er ni nor i gi nbutassumedt opossess uni ver salappl i cabi l i t y.

Int hi sway,ear l yst udi esoft heJ apaneseeconomymadea

st ar kcont r astwi t hschol ar shi ponJ apanesesoci et y,whi chwas

mor el i kel yt opr esupposedi f f er enceswi t hWest er nmodel sof

anal ysi s.Int he1938J apani nTr ans i t i on,f orexampl e,t heaut hor s

expl ai nt hatJ apan・ smoder ni zat i oncannotbeunder st oodi n

t er msofWest er nconcept ssi ncet hesepr esupposeanot herway

ofl i f e( i i i ) ;t heJ apanesear eauni f i edpeopl e,onei st ol d,wi t ht he

i ndi vi dual・J apanese[ bei ng]t hepr oductofacul t ur ewhi chhas

beenunbr okenf ormor et hanat housandyear sandwhi chper me-

at eshi sent i r el i f e・( vi i ) .J apan i spr esent ed ast r adi t i onal ,

unchangi ng,andgr oup- cent er ed;whi l eJ apanmayhavet akenup t het r appi ngsofeconomi cmoder ni t y,i tr emai nsi nsul at edagai nst

・moder ni deas・duet ot henat ur eoft he・J apanesesyst em・i t sel f . Indust r i al i zat i onappear smer el yamoment ar ybl i pwhenconsi d- er edi nl i ghtofsuchessent i al i stpr esupposi t i ons.

Her ei nl i est her ub:t heheavi l yst at i st i c- basedwor ksofeco- nomi canal ysi spr esupposed auni ver sal l y- appl i cabl eWest er n modelofeconomi cdevel opment ,wher easwor ksonJ apanese soci et yt endedt opr esupposebr oad,f undament aldi f f er ences bet weenJ apanandt heWest ,maki ngcompar i sonswi t hi npar t i cu- l areconomi cpar amet er sei t herdecept i veori mpossi bl e.Iti s wor t hnot i ngt hati nei t hercase,i ndi vi dualJ apanesei nst i t ut i ons andpeopl ewer er egar dedaspossessi ngl i t t l eagency,ser vi ng mer el yaspi ecesoft hesyst em,whet herunder st oodast heeco- nomi cpoweroft hest at eort hecul t ur alpoweroft r adi t i on.

A 1944 Amer i can wor k,J apan:I t sRe s our c e sandI ndus t r i e s ( Cl ayt onD.Car usandChar l esLongst r et hMcNi chol s) ,whi l e r ef l ect i ngt heobvi oust ensi onsofwr i t i ngaboutone・ senemydur - i ngwar t i me,wasacont r astt omanyot herwor ksi nt hati tcom- bi nedt heset womodel s,meshi ngi t seconomi cassessmentmodel wi t hanessent i al i stconsi der at i onoft heJ apanesepeopl eandso- ci et y( addr essedi nachapt eron・HumanResour ces, ・at opi cno- t abl yl acki ngi nt hepr evi ouseconomi cst udi es) .Theunavoi dabl e i mpactoft hel ossofl i f eupont heeconomy,andt heneedt ocon- si derf ami neanddi seasei nassessi ngt heheal t hofapopul at i onof

７ JapaneseperspectivesoncontemporaryeconomicissueswereofferedinEnglishin aworkpreparedbytheInstituteofPacificRelations,IndustrialJapan:AspectsofRecent EconomicChangesasViewedbyJapaneseWriters(NewYork:Secretariat,InstituteofPacific Relations,1941).Whileprovidingarangeofinsightsintoparticularindustriesandlabor policiesbysuchscholarsaseconomistRy・Shintar・,theworkprimarilyfunctionedas anapologiaforJapaneseimperialistexpansion.

wor ker s,aswel last hemat er i aldest r uct i onwr oughtbywar ,r esul t i nanassessmentt hat ,whi l el essst at i st i cal l y- dr i vent hanpr evi ous wor k,of f er smuchi nsi ghti nt ohowJ apan・ seconomywasper - cei vedatt het i me.Iti snot ewor t hyt hathumanr esour cesi sdi s- cussedi nt hesecondchapt er ,f ol l owedbychapt er sonagr i cul t ur e andani mali ndust r i es,andt hatt hechapt eronmanuf act ur i ng, whi l et hr eet i mesl ongert hant heot her s,occur sl ast ・ashar p cont r astt ot hecel ebr at or ywor kst hathadear l i ert r eat edmanu- f act ur i ngf i r standf or emost .TheassessmentofJ apanasasi ngl e ent i t y,aki nt oamonol i t hi cf i r m f or eshadowi ngt hel at e20t h- cent ur yconceptof・J apan,Inc. , ・mayhaveper si st ed,buti twas undeni abl yaf i r mcompr i sedofhumanent i t i es.

II.Ear l yPost warSchol ar shi p(1945- 1968)

Wi t ht heconcl usi onoft hewari nt hePaci f i c,Engl i sh- l anguage wor konJ apanexpandedsi gni f i cant l y.Forover seasschol ar s, r enewedaccesst oJ apanmeantnewmat er i al sandt hepossi bi l i t y ofaddr essi ngt hecausesoft hewar .Whi l eoneaspectoft hi sde- vel opmentwasapr eponder anceoft r eat ment soft heJ apanese

・ char act er , ・not abl yt hei nf l uent i alwor kofRut hBenedi ct ,anot her

wasar enewedengagementwi t hJ apan・ swar t i meeconomy.The

f i r stsuchwor kwasl i kel yT.A.Bi sson・ sJ apan・ sWarEc onomy ,

publ i shedr i ghtaf t ert heendoft hewar .Bi sson・ spr ef acei mmedi -

at el ysi gnal st hatanewpagehasbeent ur ned:hebegi nsbydi s-

cussi ngt hezai bat s u,not abl yt he・bi gf our ・・Mi t sui ,Mi t subi shi ,

Sumi t omo,andYasuda( vi i ) .Whi l enowacommont opi ci ncon-

si der at i onsofJ apan・ spr ewareconomi cdevel opment ,t hezai bat s u

wer enot i ceabl yabsentf r om pr ewarconsi der at i onsofJ apan・ s

economi cdevel opment ,whi chf ocusedonJ apan・ seconomyand

i ndust r i esashol i st i cuni t sr at hert hanasar enasi nwhi chf i r ms

andi ndi vi dual scompet edf ormar ket s.

Bi ssonemphasi zest hezai bat s uasi nt egr alpar t soft heJ apanese economy,andi ndi cat est hatt henot i ont hatt hewarwasi ni t i at ed bymi l i t ar i st swhomer el ydr aggedt hezai bat s ual ongi sunt r ue.

Thi s・f i ct i on, ・cr eat edt oser vet hei nt er est soft hezai bat s uand t heAmer i canel i t e,pr esupposesadi sj unct ur ebet weenmi l i t ar i st s and t hezai bat s u,when i n f actt het wo wer ei nt er t wi ned.

Essent i al l y,bot ht hemi l i t ar i st sandzai bat s uel i t eswer ecompr i sed oft hesameol i gar chs,wi t ht hezai bat s ur eapi ngpr of i t sf r omi m- per i alexpansi onandwar .InBi sson・ swor ds,・Theepi t omeof moder nJ apani snott he・mi l i t ar i st , ・butt heZai bat su・( vi i i ) .In pl aceofasi ngl eeconomi cuni t( J apan)anal yzedver t i cal l y,Bi sson of f er sahor i zont alanal ysi sconsi der i ngconnect i onsamongi n- dust r i esandt hei rr el at i ont opol i t i caldevel opment s.Inaddi t i on t of ocusi ngont hezai bat s uasauni tofeconomi canal ysi s,t hen, Bi ssondeser vescr edi tf ordr awi ngat t ent i ont of l awsi nt hepr e- vai l i ngnot i onofast r ongdi vi debet weenmi l i t ar yandbusi nessi n- t er est si nt hepr ewarer a,andpur sui ngt her el at i onshi pbet ween J apan・ si mper i al i str eachandi t seconomi cpower .Al loft hese i deaswoul dcont i nuet obeofconsi der abl ei nf l uencei nt hef ol - l owi ngdecades.

Anot hersi gni f i cantwor kt oemer ger i ghtaf t ert hewarwasG.

C.Al l en・ sAShor tEc onomi cHi s t or yofMode r nJ apan.Al l en・ swor k wast hef i r stst udyi nEngl i sht oof f erchr onol ogi calcover ageof J apan・ sr ecenteconomi cdevel opmentf r om t heMei j iPer i odup t ot heendoft hePaci f i cWar .Al l en・ swor k,whi chsubsequent l y wentt hr oughnumer ousedi t i ons,i sst r uct ur edbyi ndust r y,and of f er scover ageofear l yt went i et hcent ur yeconomi cpol i cy,t he zai bat s u,andt hepl aci ngoft heeconomyonawarf oot i ng.

J er omeB.Cohen・ sJ apan・ sEc onomyi nWarandRe c ons t r uc t i on,

wr i t t ensever alyear sl at eri n1949,consi der st heyear sf r om1937 t o1949.Cohenendor sest he・ bl ockadet hesi s, ・t henot i ont hat hadt heUSi mposedanef f ect i venavalbl ockadeJ apanwoul d havebeenunabl et ocont i nuet hewar .Hi sanal ysi sdovet ai l swi t h Bi sson・ si nsi t uat i ngeconomi cconcer nsascent r alt ot hePaci f i c War ,put t i ngt hem f r ontandcent eri nhi sassessmentofJ apan.

Thi smakesf orasi gni f i cantcont r astwi t hpr ewarschol ar shi pt hat hadconsi der edt hemasbutonef acetoft her el at i vest r engt hof t heJ apaneseEmpi r e.Aswast hecasewi t hCar usandMcNi chol s i n1944,Cohenaddr essesl abor ,buther ehei nvest sasubst ant i al por t i onoft hewor konl aboranal ysi s,consi der i ngmat t er sof popul at i on,l abormobi l i zat i on,andwor kerpr oduct i vi t y.Li ke Bi sson,heaccor dst hezai bat s uacent r alr ol e,i ndi cat i ngt hatt hey wer eessent i al l yt hemast er sofJ apanbot hbef or eanddur i ngt he war .Unl i keBi sson,however ,Cohenhast headvant ageofhavi ng wi t nessedsever alyear sofGHQpol i cy.Whi l eBi ssonf ear edt hat t heOccupat i onaut hor i t i eswoul dbel i evet hevi ct i mi zat i onst or i es oft hezai bat s uandl eavet hecongl omer at esi nt act ,Cohenexpl ai ns t hatGHQcamet oseet hezai bat s uasbot hhavi ngpl ayedakey r ol ei nt hewarandl yi ngatt her ootoft hecount r y・ sabi l i t yt o wagewar .Thi sdi r ect l yf edi nt oMacAr t hurbei ngor der edt o di ssol vet hemassi vecar t el s.Thenot i ont hatJ apan・ seconomi c or gani zat i onandst r engt h・r epr esent edbyt hei mageoft heal l - power f ulcongl omer at e・posedat hr eatt oWest er ni nt er est si ps o f ac t o,woul dcont i nuet oasser tsi gni f i canti nf l uencewhenJ apan・ s r esur genceasaneconomi cpoweri nt he1970sand1980sdr ew har shcr i t i ci smf r omWest er ncr i t i cs.

Dur i ngt hesubsequentdecade,ast heOccupat i onendedand

J apani nt ensi f i edt her evi t al i zat i onofi t si ndust r yi nt hewakeof

t heKor eanWar ,t wol andmar kvol umesemer ged.Thef i r st ,by

Wi l l i amW.Lockwood,const i t ut edt hef i r stdet ai l edpost warhi s- t or i calanal ysi sofJ apan・ seconomi cdevel opmentf r om Mei j i t hr ought ot heear l yt went i et hcent ur y( Al l en・ sbr i efaccountnot - wi t hst andi ng) ,whi l et hesecond,byJ amesC.Abeggl en,wasa soci ol ogi calt r eat mentofJ apanesef act or i es.Int hef i r stwor k, TheEc onomi cDe v e l opme ntofJ apan( 1954) ,Lockwoodset soutt o demonst r at et hatt hei nt er nat i onalor der ,whi ch・[ J apan・ s]mi l i t a- r i st shaddonesomucht odest r oy, ・wasi nf actvi t alt ot hecoun- t r y,and mor eovert hatt hepr evai l i ng not i on t hatmoder n J apaneseeconomi cdevel opmenthadpr i mar i l yoccur r edwi t hi n f or ei gnt r adeandf act or yi ndust r ywasdeepl yf l awed( vi i ) .The f i r stt wochapt er sofLockwood・ swor kar eachr onol ogi calt r eat - mentoft heMei j iandpr ewarer as,r espect i vel y,whi l et her emai n- i ngei ghtchapt er sbui l dont heset oof f erananal yt i calengage- mentwi t haspect soft heeconomi cdevel opmentoft hecount r y, i ncl udecapi t al ,f or ei gnt r ade,andt echnol ogy.InLockwood・ s assessment ,t hedawnoft het went i et hcent ur ywi t nessedJ apan suf f er i ngf r om i ncr easi ngi nf l at i on,onl yt of i ndr espi t ei nt he Fi r stWor l dWarwi t hi t sat t endantboosti ndemandf orJ apanese goodsandser vi ces( t he・warboom, ・1914- 1919) .Thi swas f ol l owedbyaper i odofcol l apsei n1920,aqui ckr ecover y,and t henaper i odofst eadygr owt hi npr oduct i oncapaci t yandt ech- nol ogy,dur i ng whi ch J apan benef i t t ed f r om t heeconomi c demandsoft hecol oni alent er pr i se.Lockwood・ scont r i but i onl i es pr i mar i l y,however ,i nt hecor ecomponent sofhi sanal ysi s,whi ch t oget herconst i t ut ewhatwasi nal ll i kel i hoodt hef i r sti n- dept h Engl i shacademi ct r eat mentofmoder nJ apan・ seconomi ct r ans- f or mat i onf r om t heMei j ier ai nt ot het went i et hcent ur y( E.

Her ber tNor man・ sl andmar k1946vol ume,J apan・ sEme r g e nc easa

Mode r nSt at e ,havi ngbeenconcer nedwi t ht heMei j iPer i od) .

Thesecondwor k,Abeggl en・ sTheJ apane s eFac t or y( 1958) ,wasa cont empor ar y soci alst udy r at hert han awor k ofhi st or y.

However ,i twast ohaveasi gni f i canti mpactbecausei twasone oft hef i r stwor kst oar t i cul at ewhathadher et of or er emai ned avaguebuti nt r i gui ngnot i on:t hatJ apanesebusi nesspr act i ces, andst yl eofmanagementi npar t i cul ar ,appear edi r r at i onalby Amer i canst andar dsyetwer epr ovi ngsuccessf ul ,t her easonbei ng t hei ror i gi ni nsomesor tofJ apanese・t r adi t i on. ・

Basedonhi s anal ysi sofaJ apanesef act or y,Abeggl enconcl udest hatassumi ng asubst ant i alsi mi l ar i t ybet weenJ apanandt heWesti nsyst emsof or gani zat i onandi ndust r yr el at i onsi spr obl emat i c,f orJ apanese f act or i esdependuponanor gani zat i onalher i t agequi t edi f f er ent f r omt hatoft heWest .

Abeggl enof f er st he・per manentempl oy- mentsyst em・asakeyexampl e,t her ebyt r eat i ngasl ong- est abl i shedsomet hi ngt hatwasi nf actaf ai r l yr ecentpost war phenomenon.

Int hewakeofAbeggl en,Engl i sh- l anguagewr i t i ngonJ apanese managementpr ol i f er at ed.Thenot i ont hatJ apanesemanagement

８ Thislineofthinkingwaslikelyrootedinacommontendencyatthetimethat,start- ingfrom animplicitassumptionthattheWesterneconomicandsocialmodelswere fundamentallyrationalincharacter,soughttoexplainpracticesthatappearedirrational (andyetfunctioned,muchtoWesternsurprise)astheproductofdifferent・traditions・

thathadpresumablyaccustomedpeopletobehavinginacertainfashion.Onlymuch later,withcriticismofEurocentrismintheacademy,diditbecomemorecommonto understanda・rational・modelasoneappropriatetothecircumstancesinquestionrather thanmerelyasoneofWesternprovenance.

９ AbegglenwasatonepointthepresidentofBostonConsultingGroupinJapan;in additiontohisbusinesscredentials,healsowroteonAmericanbusiness,onemajor workbeingthatwhichhewrotewithW.LloydWarner,OccupationalMobilityinAmerican BusinessandIndustry,1928-1952(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1955).At thetimeofwritingTheJapaneseFactoryhewasnotaJapanspecialistandneededto dependoninterpreterstocarryoutthestudy.

10 OtherdefiningfeaturesofJapanesefactoriesasarticulatedbyAbeggleninclude enterprise-specificunions,seniority-basedwages,theregularhiringofyoungrecruits, andtheprovisionofin-housetrainingforthoserecruits.

coul dbeunder st oodast hepr oductofJ apanese・ t r adi t i on・ ・a per spect i vegr oundedi nanessent i al i stvi ewofJ apanesesoci et y andcul t ur et hatcoul dbeobser vedevenbef or et hewar ・pr oved especi al l yendur i ng,l ayi ngt hegr oundwor kf orpopul arwor ks t hatasser t edt heuni quenessofJ apanesebusi nesspr act i ces.The t r endr eachedi t shei ghti nt he1980s,wi t hagener at i onof Amer i canbusi nessmenbei ngadvi sedt or eadGoRi nnoSho( The BookofFi veRi ngs)andcont empl at ewakat ogai ni nsi ghti nt o t hemi ndsoft hei rJ apanesecount er par t s.

Asi gni f i cantdevel opmenti nt heear l y1960swast hebegi nni ng ofspeci al i zedar t i cl esonJ apaneseeconomi candbusi nesshi st or y i nEngl i sh.Oneear l yar t i cl et hatcover edappr oxi mat el yt he samechr onol ogi calspanasLockwood・ s1954monogr aphwasM.

Br onf enbr enner ・ s1961pi ece,・SomeLessonsofJ apan・ sEconom- i cDevel opment , ・whi chexpl ai nedt hatJ apan・ seconomi cr esur - gencehadpr ompt edr enewedi nt er esti ni t sear l i ereconomi c devel opment .Br onf enbr ennerar guest hatJ apan・ seconomi c devel opmentwaspr edi cat ed on t hesuccessf uladopt i on of West er nt echnol ogy,butl i keLockwoodhest r essest hati twas notdependentonf or ei gnpower st odr i vet hi st r ansf or mat i on.

Hehol dsupJ apanasamodelofl at edevel opmentf r om whi ch devel opi ngnat i onscanl ear n,avi ewt hathasr esci ndedovert i me butst i l lasser t sacer t ai npul lf orcompar at i veeconomi cst udi es.

Somear t i cl eswer ewr i t t eni nr esponset oAbeggl en・ sar gument

i nTheJ apane s eFac t or y ,suchasSumi yaMi ki o・ s・TheDevel opment

ofJ apaneseLabour - Rel at i ons. ・Sumi yai ndi cat est hatAbeggl en・ s

ar gument ,par t i cul ar l ywi t hr egar dt o・per manentempl oyment , ・

wasi ni t i al l yal sof avor edbyJ apaneseschol ar s,buthassi ncef al l en

outoff avori nt hef aceofhi st or i calr esear ch;hear guesconvi nc-

i ngl yt hatbyt heear l yt went i et hcent ur y,bot ht hel abormar ket

andl aborr el at i onsi nJ apancl osel yr esembl edt hosei nEur opeat t heequi val ent・ t ake- of f ・st age.Pr act i cessuchas・per manent empl oyment ・wer ecal cul at edr esponsest ol at ereconomi cdevel - opment ssuchaswor kermi gr at i on,nothol dover sofJ apanese

・t r adi t i on. ・Thel at t ernot i on,however ,wasnever t hel esst oper - si stf ordecadest ocome.

Ot herar t i cl eaut hor saddr essedt hezai bat s u,of f er i ngahi s- t or i calcont r astt ot heeconomi cassessment sofent i r ei ndust r i es t hatwer eemer gi ngatt hesamet i me.

Onesucht r eat mentwas Shi bagakiKazuo・ s・TheEar l yHi st or yoft heZai bat su. ・Shi ba- gakicar ef ul l ydel i neat eswhatcompr i sedazai bat s u,emphasi zi ng t hatazai bat s uwasnotasi mpl emar ketmonopol ybutr at hera monopol yofcapi t al ,beneat hwhi ch,i nacompl exhi er ar chy,wer e l ocat edmar ketmonopol i esperse( 535) .Taki ngt het wogr eat est zai bat s u,Mi t suiandMi t subi shi ,asmodel sf orexpl ai ni ngt het ypi - calzai bat s u,Shi bagakit ur nst ot heMei j iRest or at i onandt hen char t st hedevel opmentoft heset wozai bat s ut hr oughi nt ot he ear l yt went i et hcent ur y.Ayearl at er ,i n1967,Mi t subi shir ecei ved i t sownt r eat menti napi oneer i ngar t i cl ebyKozoYamamur a,

・TheFoundi ngofMi t subi shi , ・whi chwasoneoft hef i r st Engl i sh- l anguagest udi esoft hehi st or yofaf i r mi npr ewarJ apan.

Int hi spi ece,Yamamur aquest i onst her ol epl ayedbyconcept i ons of・samur aispi r i t ・i nMei j ient r epr eneur shi p,suggest i ngt hat r at hert hanhi gh- handedsamur aiet hosi twasact ual l yMi t subi shi f ounderIwasakiYat ar ・・ sc h・ni nconsci ousnessandnot i onsof put t i ngt hecust omerf i r stt hatgai nedhi m ear l ysuccess.Mor e-

11 Thechemicalindustry,steelmanufacturing,andotherindustriesallbegantoreceive specializedattention.Toofferoneexample,KimuraHidemasaproducedapieceonthe aircraftindustry(・Japan・sAircraftIndustry,・JapanQuarterly13.4(October-December 1966):513-521).

over ,Yamamot oquest i onswhet hert hevi ewofent r epr eneur sas r ef l ect i ngsomesor tof・samur aispi r i t ・hi nt satanunder l yi ng Or i ent al i stappr oacht oJ apaneseeconomi chi st or yt hatpr esup- posesJ apaneseent r epr eneur swer edi f f er entf r om t hosef ound el sewher e.Fi ndi ngIwasakif undament al l ynodi f f er entf r omcon- t empor ar yAmer i can ent r epr eneur s,Yamamot o suggest st hat vagueconcept i onssuchas・Conf uci anet hos・and・samur ai spi r i t , ・of t eni nvokedwhendi scussi ngMei j ient r epr eneur shi p, needr eeval uat i on.

Anot hermaj orcont r i but i ont oschol ar shi pont hehi st or yof J apaneseeconomi csandbusi nesswast hear r i valoft hesecond vol umei nt hePr i ncet onmoder ni zat i onser i es,namel yWi l l i am Lockwood・ sTheSt at eandEc onomi cEnt e r pr i s ei nJ apan( 1965) .Thi s vol ume,whi chconsi der st hemoder ni zat i onofJ apanf r om an expl i ci t l yeconomi cangl e,br oughtt oget hernumer ousschol ar st o wei ghi nont henat ur eoft hatt r ansf or mat i on.KazushiOhkawa andHenr yRosovskyst ar tt hei rpi ece,・ACent ur yofJ apanese Economi cGr owt h, ・wi t ht hef ami l i arr ef r ai naboutabackwar ds i sl andnat i ont hatunder wentdr amat i ct r ansf or mat i on・akey el ementofwhi chwaseconomi c・t oemer geasawor l dpower . OhkawaandRosovskyempl oyamet hodol ogyder i vedf r omt he Eur opeanexper i ence,ar gui ngt hat・Thepr i memoverofi ndust r i - al i zat i onwast hesamei nEngl and,Russi a,Fr ance,J apan,orany- wher eel se, ・andwhi l et heyhol dt hatt her ear edi f f er entspeedsat whi chanat i onmaypasst hr ought hest agesofmoder neconomi c devel opment ,al lst agesar eessent i alandt hesumoft hepr ocess

12 TheauthorsechoLockwood・s1954textinpositingdistinctphasesofeconomic growthfromtheMeijiRestorationthroughtheearlypostwarperiod(Lockwood・sanaly- sis,recall,endedin1938),butfromamacro-levelperspectivetheycollapsetheseinto threebroadstagesofmoderneconomicgrowth:1868-1905,1906-1952,and1953 onwards.

i st hesame( 49) .Nat i onsar edi st i ngui shednotbyvar i antf or ms ofi ndust r i al i zat i onsomuchasbyt hevar yi ngl engt hoft hest ages andt hespeedoft hepr ocess.

Davi dS.Landes,ont heot herhand,i n・J apanandEur ope:

Cont r ast si n Indust r i al i zat i on・ pl acesemphasi ssquar el yon J apan・ si dent i t yast hef i r stnon- West er nnat i ont oi ndust r i al i ze,as wel lasont hespeedandsel f - dr i vennat ur eoft hati ndust r i al i - zat i on.Incompar i sonst oi ndust r i al i zat i oni nEur opehet akes not esofdi f f er encesr at hert hansi mi l ar i t i es,poi nt i ngt osuch mar kedcont r ast sast hesi gni f i cantr ol epl ayedi nEur opebyf or - ei gncapi t al ,whi l eJ apan・ si ndust r i al i zat i onwasal mostent i r el y f undeddomest i cal l y.Lockwoodmadeasi mi l arar gumenti nhi s 1954monogr aph,butLandesbui l dsi ti nt oal ar gerar gumentf or J apanesesel f - i ndust r i al i zat i on.Heemphasi zest hat ,unl i keEur o- peancount r i es,J apandr ewuponr el at i vel yl i t t l ei nt hewayof cont r i but i onsbyf or ei gner s,br i ngi ngi nonl yenought oser veas t eacher sunt i lt heJ apanesewer eabl et opr oceedbyt hemsel ves.

Whi l eLandesf ocusesont heMei j ier a,hi sst udyi shel pf uli n

count er - bal anci ngOhkawaandRosovsky・ svi ewofauni ver sal

modelofeconomi cdevel opmentwi t hanar gumentf orunder -

st andi ngJ apanasaspeci alcase.Thi sonceagai nunder scor esan

ongoi ngdi chot omybet weent hosewhounder st andt hemoder n

J apaneseeconomi cexper i enceasbutavar i at i ononauni ver sal

f or mf i r stest abl i shedbyt heWest ,andt hosewhounder st andi t

asaspeci aloruni quecaset hatmaydef ycompar i sont ot he

West er nexper i ence.Ot herpi ecesi nt hevol umear econcer ned

wi t hent r epr eneur i sm( at opi ct hatcont i nuedt or ecei veat t ent i on

f orsever alyear si nEngl i sh- l anguageacademi aasschol ar scom-

bi nedbusi nesshi st or ywi t hpol i t i calhi st or yt oassesst her el at i ons

bet weenent r epr eneur sandt hest at e) ,

gr owt hi nt heagr i cul t ur al

sect or ,

andconsumpt i on.

Unf or t unat el y,exceptf ort hebr oad- ersur veypi eces,t hear t i cl esi nt hi svol umegi veshor tshr i f tt ot he ear l yt went i et hcent ur y,movi ngf r omdi scussi onsoft heexci t i ng andt r ansf or mat i veMei j ier ai nt ot hepost warexpansi on,wi t ht he pr ewarer al ef tassomet hi ngofadeadzonei nt hemi ddl e.

In1966IwaoF.Ayusawapubl i shedA Hi s t or yofLabori n Mode r nJ apan,t hef i r stmonogr aphdedi cat edt ot hi st opi csi nce 1928.Whi l eear l i erwor ksdi ddi scussJ apanesel abor ,i twas l ar gel yi napassi vesense,wi t hwor ker sbei ngshuf f l edar oundby t hest at e・i ncont r ast ,Ayusawar est or est heagencyofl abor er s, expl ai ni ngt hei rat t empt st oor gani zet hemsel vesandasser tt hei r wi l lf orr ef or m.Theot hersi deoft heequat i on,management , r ecei vedar econsi der at i oni nM.Y.Yoshi no・ sJ apan・ sManag e r i al Sy s t e m:Tr adi t i onandI nnov at i ont woyear sl at eri n1968.Yoshi no・ s wast hef i r stwor kt oconsi dert hedevel opmentofJ apaneseman- agementf r om anexpl i ci t l yhi st or i calper spect i ve,al t hought he bul koft hewor ki sgi venovert oassessi ngt hen- cur r ent( 1960s) manager i ali deol ogi es.ForYoshi no,t her ei smucht obel ear ned f r om consi der i ngJ apanesemanagementi nt hecont extofi t s hi st or i caldevel opment ,butatt hesamet i me,keyel ement sar e t her esul tofadapt at i ont opar t i cul arpost warci r cumst ancesand cannotbeexpl ai nedsol el ybywayofanendur i ngJ apanese・t r a- di t i on・ofmanagement .

13 JohannesHirschmeier,・ShibusawaEiichi:IndustrialPioneer,・209-247;andYasuz・

Horie,・ModernEntreprencorshipinMeijiJapan,・183-208.

14 JamesL.Nakamura,・GrowthofJapaneseAgriculture,1875-1920,・249-324;and Sh・jir・Sawada,・InnovationinJapaneseAgriculture,1880-1935,・325-351.

15 AlanH.Gleason,・EconomicGrowthandConsumptioninJapan,・391-444,which considershowconsumptiongrowthparalleledeconomicgrowth,dividinghisstudyinto threechronologicaleras:1887-1925(whenconsumptiongrew steadilyalongwith economicgrowth),1925-1945(whenconsumptiondroppedoffinthefaceofhardship andwar),andthepostwarera(whenspectaculareconomicgrowthwasmirroredby spectacularincreasesinconsumption).

Whi l eoneaspectoft hepr ewarer at hatYoshi not ouchedupon wasbusi nessi deol ogy( suchast heconcept i onof・i ndust r i al pat er nal i sm・) ,t hegr oundbr eaki ngwor kont hatt opi chadcome outt hepr evi ousyeari n1967:Byr onK.Mar shal l ・ sCapi t al i s mand Nat i onal i s mi nPr e warJ apan:TheI de ol og yoft heBus i ne s sEl i t e ,1868- 1941.Mar shal lnot est hati ndust r i al i zat i oni nJ apanpr oduceda neweconomi cel i t e,aki nt ot hatcr eat edi nEngl andandAmer i ca f ol l owi ngt hei rr espect i vei ndust r i aldevel opment ,butunl i ket hei r compat r i ot si nEngl andandAmer i ca,t henew J apaneseel i t e l ackedi deol ogi calsanct i onf ort heexer ci seoft hei reconomi c mi ght ・t hi s,Mar shal lexpl ai ns,wasduet ot heper si st enceoft he t r adi t i onalval uesyst em.Essent i al l y,Mar shal lsuggest st hatt he per si st enceofConf uci anconcept i onsofbusi nesspr event edt he economi cel i t ef r omexer ci si ngt hef ul lext entoft hei rnewf ound power ・anar gumentt hatr i sksf al l i ngpr eyt ot hevagueconcep- t i onsYamamur acr i t i ci zed,ort henot i onofaper si st entJ apanese

・t r adi t i on・ofbusi nesst hatcont i nuedi nt ot hepr esent .Rat her t hanof f eranal t er nat i veval uesyst em t hatwoul daccommodat e t hei rr ol e,Mar shal lasser t s,J apanesebusi nessel i t escameout r ej ect i ng Angl o- Saxon capi t al i st val ues,amassi ng i mmense f or t uneswhi l edenyi nganyi nt er esti nmat er i alr ewar ds.

WhatmakesMar shal l ・ sanal ysi smor et hought - pr ovoki ngt han ear l i erassessment sal ongt hel i nesofJ apaneset r adi t i oni st hat Mar shal ldi st i ngui shesbet weent hepr act i cesoft heseel i t es・

whi chcer t ai nl yamount edt omat er i alaggr andi zementandcapi t al -

i stvent ur es・andt hei deol ogi calposi t i ont heycl ai medt ouphol d,

al t houghhei scl eart hatt heel i t est hemsel veswer el i kel ysi ncer e

anddi dnotseet heset woascont r adi ct or y.Iti si nt hi sconsi d-

er at i onoft hei deol ogi calangl et hatMar shal l ・ scont r i but i oni sper -

hapsmostsi gni f i cant .Heef f ect i vel yar t i cul at eshowt hei deol ogy

ofbusi nessel i t esr ef l ect edt heval uesyst emsoft hei rer a,and how di f f er i ngconcept i onsoft her ol eofbusi nessi nsoci et y f ost er edcer t ai neconomi cdevel opment sandnotot her s.Thi s pr ompt sonet oconsi dert hewaysi nwhi checonomi csyst ems andbusi nesspr act i cesdevel opi nr esponset onotonl ydi r ecteco- nomi cci r cumst ances,butal soi deol ogi calci r cumst ances.Whi l e Mar shal lmayhavedr awnsi gni f i cantdi st i nct i onsbet weenJ apan andt heWestduet ot hel egacyoft r adi t i on,heemphasi zedt he di f f er encesi nbusi nessi deol ogynotpr act i ce,mar ki ngaconcep- t ualst epf or war di nsophi st i cat i onf r om t heAbeggl enposi t i on wi t hi t smor el i t er alper si st enceof・ t r adi t i onal ・val ues.Asi twer e, t heAbeggl enper spect i vei t sel fwast ocomeunderi ncr easi ng at t ackbyacademi csi nt hef ol l owi ngdecadeasJ apaneseeco- nomi cexpansi oncont i nuedatar api dpace,whi l esi mul t aneousl y popul arwr i t er si nbot hJ apaneseandEngl i shmovedi nt heot her di r ect i onbyat t r i but i ngt hi seconomi csuccesst ouni queJ apanese char act er i st i cs.

III.TheLat erPost warEr a(1968- 1978)

Thet r emendouseconomi cexpansi onofJ apandur i ngt hel at e

1960sand1970sr esul t edi nmor eandmor eat t ent i onbei ng

accor dedJ apan・ seconomi ct r ansf or mat i onandi nqui r i esi nt oi t s

or i gi n.Thi sl edt oanexpl osi onofwr i t i ngi nt heEngl i sh- l anguage

spher e.Var i ouseconomi st scont i nuedt opr oducewor ksi nt he

ol dmodeoft r eat i ngJ apan・ seconomyasasi ngl ef unct i oni ng

syst em,of t enst r essi nghowel ement sofWest er ni ndust r i al i zat i on

andmanagementhadbeenmodi f i edt osui tt heJ apanesecont ext ,

ordr awi ngat t ent i ont o・ pecul i ar ・aspect sofJ apanesebusi ness

pr act i cet hatcont i nuedt obeat t r i but edt ot heper si st enceofa

pr emoder nJ apanese・t r adi t i on. ・Theongoi ngr ol eoft hest at ei n

t heJ apaneseeconomyal socont i nuedt oat t r actat t ent i on,of t en bei ngsi t uat edasakeyst one,aswast hecasewi t hwor ksl i keK.

Bi eda・ sTheSt r uc t ur eandOpe r at i onoft heJ apane s eEc onomy( 1970) . Ot herwor kswer edi r ect l yconcer nedwi t hexpl ai ni ngpost war economi cexpansi on,suchast heapt l y- t i t l edHowJ apan・ sEc onomy Gr e wSoFas t .

Ast hecont empor ar yJ apanesemar ketbecame i ncr easi ngl yat t r act i vet oAmer i cani nvest or s,・how- t o・gui desf or USf i r msi nt er est edi npur sui ngvent ur esi nJ apanbegant o appear .Thi sf or mofl i t er at ur e,whi chwoul devent ual l yt ur ni nt o af l ood i n t hef ol l owi ngdecade,i ni t i al l yf ocused on how Amer i canf i r msandi ndi vi dualbusi nessmencoul dadaptt osui t t heJ apanesemar ket ,whi l el at erbookswentf ur t herandf ocused onhowt oadaptJ apanesemanagementpol i ci esi nt oUSf i r ms.

Suchbookswoul dof t eni ncor por at esomehi st or i calbackgr ound, butusual l yper si st edi nf ol l owi ngt henowwel l - est abl i shedmodel ofconcei vi ngofJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cesasuni queandr oot ed i nJ apanese・t r adi t i on. ・

Int er msofst udi esofbusi nesshi st or y,Abeggl en・ sTheJ apane s e Fac t or yr emai nedi nf l uent i al ,pr esupposi ngasi tdi dt heexi st ence ofanendur i ng,i deal i zedhi st or yt hatgavebi r t ht ot heJ apanese

・ t r adi t i onal ・busi nesspr act i cest hathesawaschar act er i zi ngf i r ms i nhi sday.Wi t hpopul arwr i t i ngr ef l ect i nghi st hesi s,butmor e speci al i zedacademi cwor ki ndi cat i ngot herconcept i onsoft he ear l yt went i et h cent ur yt hatdi scount ed t hepossi bi l i t yofa st r ai ght f or war dcont i nuat i onofasyst em ofbusi nesspr act i ces,

16 Theauthor・sshortanswertothetitularquery:・…theanswerisnottobefoundin anysingledeterminantofoutput.Rather,changesinalmostallimportantdeterminants werehighlyfavorableincomparisonwithothercountries,andinnonewasthechange particularlyunfavorable・(46).Inotherwords,luckandtimingwerejustasimportant asculturalfactorsmayhavebeen.

17 Oneearlyexampleofsucha・how-to・bookwasRobertJ.Ballon,ed.,DoingBusiness inJapan(Tokyo:SophiaUniversity,1967).

r esponsest oAbeggl enbecamewi despr ead.

Somewer eki ndert hanot her s.Thecul t ur alant hr opol ogi st ThomasP.Rohl en,i nForHar monyandSt r e ng t h:J apane s eWhi t e - Col l arOr g ani zat i oni nAnt hr opol og i c alPe r s pe c t i v e ,soughtt oof f era cor r ect i vebyconsi der i ngbankwor ker s,gi vent hatwhi t e- col l ar wor ker shadbeenunder st udi ed.Rohl enbeganhi sst udywi t ht he convi ct i on t hat・t r adi t i onal ・J apanesest r uct ur esoft hought , or gani zat i on,andi nt er r el at i onshi pwoul dber eadi l yappar ent i nmoder nor gani zat i ons;per hapsschol ar shadbeent oohast y t odi smi sst hi spossi bi l i t y,her easoned.Inhi sownanal ysi s,he of f er ssomet hi ngaki nt oat hi r dwaybet weenst udi esf ocusedon

・f unct i onal ・f act or s( emphasi zi ngchange)andt hosef ocusedon

・cul t ur al ・f act or s( emphasi zi ngcont i nui t y) .

Ot herr esponsest oAbeggl enwer el essposi t i vei nt hei rassess- ment .Tai r aKoj iar guedi nEc onomi cDe v e l opme ntandLaborMar ke t s i n J apan ( 1970)t hatt he・per manentempl oymentsyst em, ・ Abeggl en・ skeyexampl eofadi st i nctand・t r adi t i onal ・J apanese pr act i ce,hademer gedf r om economi cnecessi t y,notanol der J apanese・t r adi t i on. ・Rober tE.Col e,bestknownf orJ apane s eBl ue Col l ar( 1971) ,wr ot et hr eesepar at ear t i cl est ackl i ngt hei ssue.The f i r st ,・Funct i onalAl t er nat i vesandEconomi cDevel opment :An Empi r i calExampl eofPer manentEmpl oymenti nJ apan, ・i spar - t i cul ar l ysi gni f i cant .

Itcompr i sesacr i t i queofconcept ualmodel s oft hest r uct ur alchangesassoci at edwi t hJ apaneseeconomi c devel opment ,andbui l dsasyst emi cf r amewor kt hatof f er sf our concept i onsf orcompar i ngt her esponseofsoci et i est omoder n economi cgr owt h,basedont heaxesofst r uct ur eandf unct i on:

18 Theothertwoarticlesare・PermanentEmploymentinJapan:FactsandFantasies,・ and・TheTheoryofInstitutionalization:PermanentEmploymentandTraditionin Japan,・bothlistedinthebibliographybelow.

hi st or i ci sm ( di f f er entst r uct ur e,di f f er entf unct i on) ,f unct i onal al t er nat i ves( di f f er entst r uct ur e,samef unct i on) ,st r uct ur almodel - i ngwi t henvi r onment alef f ect s( samest r uct ur e,di f f er entf unc- t i on) ,andconver gence( samest r uct ur e,samef unct i on) .Thi si sa st epbeyondRohl en・ s・cul t ur al ・and・f unct i onal ・di vi si on,and of f er st hepossi bi l i t yofagr aphwher ei nvar i ousexper i encesof economi cdevel opmentcanbechar t edandcompar ed.

Inasi mi l arvei nt ot hatpur suedbyRohl en,i n1973・ sBr i t i s h Fac t or y ,J apane s eFac t or yRonal dDor er espondedt oAbeggl enby cr i t i qui nghi sposi t i ont osomeext ent ,whi l est i l lal l owi ngf ordi s- t i nctel ement soft heJ apaneseeconomi cwor l dt hatappear edt o owet hei rpr eser vat i ont ocul t ur alf act or s.Inhi scompar at i ve st udyofaJ apanesef act or yandaBr i t i shone,Dor ei dent i f i esdi s- t i nctadvant agesandshor t comi ngst o each model .

Fi nal l y, anot herwor kt or espondt oAbeggl enar oundt hi st i mewas Mode r ni zat i onandt heJ apane s eFac t or y ,byRober tM.Mar shand Hi r oshiMamar i .Aswi t hDor eandsomeoft heot herpi eces,t hi s chal l engedsomeofAbeggl en・ sasser t i ons,butdi dsoal most ent i r el yout si deoft hef i el dofhi st or y.

Rat hert hanbei ngbusi nesshi st or yorevenbusi nessst udi esper

19 Inthisregard,Cole・sapproachrecallsapiecebyMaruyamaMasaoofferingasimilar twin-axismodelwherein variousformsofmodernitycan becharted,although Maruyamawasconcernedwithplottingforthepurposeofcomparisonvariousactual modernities,ratherthanconceptualmodelsofdevelopment.SeeMasaoMaruyama,

・PatternsofIndividuationandtheCaseofJapan:AConceptualScheme,・inChanging JapaneseAttitudesTowardModernization,ed.MariusB.Jansen(Princeton:Princeton UniversityPress,1965),489-531.

20 Forexample,theJapaneseareorderlybutlackindividuality,whiletheBritisharethe otherwayaround(9);theBritishsystem ischaracterizedbyindividualism,oralas opposedtowrittenagreements,andbelligerentrelationsbetweenworkersandparticu- larlyworkersandmanagement(142-144especially),resultinginlostproductivityand conflict;theJapanesesystemlacksindividualmotivation,butoffersmoreidentification withthefirm (163-165),andhasamorecooperativeandlessantagonisticrolefor unions(168-175).

se,t hesest udi esusedbusi nessesasevi denceofbr oaderconcl u- si onsaboutJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cesi ngener al .Iti snot e- wor t hyt hatwhi l emanyoft heaut hor st ooki ssuewi t hAbeggl en・ s ar gument ,hi scent r aloper at i ngassumpt i on・t hatt her ewasbut onechar act er i st i cal l y・J apanese・wayofor gani zi ngi ndust r y・

wentunchal l enged.Thehi st or i calr eal i t yt hatbusi nesspr act i ces ar ebynat ur edynami ci nchar act er ,emer gi ngf r ompar t i cul areco- nomi candsoci alci r cumst ancesi nagi vener aandt endi ngt o changewi t ht het i mes,wasdownpl ayedami dstt hear gument s overcul t ur e,andt hi scont i nuedt obet hecasef ormuchoft he Engl i sh- l anguageschol ar shi poft hef ol l owi ngdecade.

In1970t hej our nalTheBus i ne s sHi s t or yRe v i e whadaspeci al

i ssuededi cat edt oJ apaneseent r epr eneur shi p,wi t hsever alar t i cl es

per t i nentt oear l yt went i et h- cent ur ybusi nesshi st or y.Inani nt r o-

duct or y pi ece,・Ent r epr eneur i alSt udi es i n J apan, ・ Henr y

RosovskyandKozoYamamur anot et hatJ apanhascel ebr at edi t s

economi cent r epr eneur scompar at i vel yl i t t l e,andt hatent r epr e-

neur shi phasr ecei vedf arl essat t ent i ont hanhasJ apaneseeco-

nomi cgr owt h.In・TheJ apaneseSpi r i tofEnt er pr i se,1867-

1970, ・J ohannesHi r schmei erengageswi t ht hequest i onMar shal l

hadgr appl edwi t hear l i er :i ft hepur sui tofsuccessandweal t h

t hr oughbusi nesswasper cei vedasi deol ogi cal l yi ndef ensi bl e,how

di d J apaneseent r epr eneur sl egi t i mi zet hemsel ves,and mor e

br oadl y,howwasJ apan・ sdr amat i ceconomi cexpansi onsol dt o

t hemasses?Hi r schmei erar guest hati ndust r i al i zat i onandeco-

nomi cexpansi onwer er econcept ual i zedaspubl i cser vi ce,maki ng

busi nessdevel opmentpal at abl et ot hepubl i c;att hesamet i me,

f or ei gnmet hodsofcor por at eor gani zat i onwer ei nt r oducedand

l egi t i mi zed i n t hef or m off ami l i arpat er nal i sm.Meanwhi l e,

Hi demasaMor i kawaunder t akesacompar at i vest udyoft he

or gani zat i onalst r uct ur eoft heMi t subi shiandMi t suizai bat s u.Hi s appr oachi shel pf ulbecause,r at hert hant r eat i ngzai bat s uas monol i t hi cbl ockst hati mpededpr ogr essordevel opmentas someear l i erwr i t er shaddone,heconsi der showt heseenor mous car t el swer edynami cuni t st hatr espondedt oci r cumst ances, cent r al i zi nganddecent r al i zi ngasneededi nor dert oensur ef un- dament alcont i nui t yandf i nanci alst abi l i t y.Koj iTai r aconsi der s f act or yl egi sl at i oni nt hel at eMei j ier a,andbyi mpl i cat i on,t he r ol eoft hest at ei nset t i ngmanagementpr act i ceanddi r ect i ng i ndust r i al i zat i on.Koj i ・ spi ece,・Fact or yLegi sl at i onandManage- mentModer ni zat i ondur i ngJ apan・ sIndust r i al i zat i on, ・i shel pf ul becausei tar t i cul at est hevar yi ngagendasoft hest at eandi ndust r y el i t es.Fi nal l y,Rober tEvansJ r . ・ spi ece,・Evol ut i on oft he J apaneseSyst emofEmpl oyer - Empl oyeeRel at i ons, ・consi der st he devel opmentofl aborr el at i ons,butr ei nf or cest hei deat hatapar - t i cul ar l yJ apanese・ syst em・ofpr act i cesdevel opedt hatwasqui t e di st i nctf r omWest er nmodel s.

Onl yayearaf t ert hespeci aledi t i onofTheBus i ne s sHi s t or y Re v i e w,asi gni f i cantar t i cl eappear edi nanot hervol umeoft he Pr i ncet onModer ni zat i onSer i es,Di l e mmasofGr owt hi nPr e warJ apan.

Ar t hurE.Ti edemann・ scont r i but i ont ot hatvol ume,・Bi gBusi - nessandPol i t i csi nPr ewarJ apan, ・wasoneoft hef i r stpi ecest o speci f i cal l yf ocusont het i t ul art opi c.Ti edemann・ spi ecei spar - t i cul ar l yhel pf uli nt hati tcover sbot ht heMei j i - er adevel opment ofr el at i onshi psbet weenpol i t i calandbusi nessi nt er est s,andt he t r ansi t i onoft heser el at i onshi psi nt ot he1930s・adecadeofi m- mensesi gni f i cancei npol i t i calhi st or yt hathadpr evi ousl ybeen gi venshor tshr i f ti nst udi esofbusi nessandeconomi chi st or y.

Ti edemann,l i keRober tEvans,compl i cat est her el at i onshi pbe-

t weent hest at eandbusi ness,st at i ngt hatwhi l ei ndeedt hest at e

pl ayedakeyr ol ei ni ni t i al l ymol di ngi ndust r y,byt he1890sbusi - nesseshadt hei rownconcept i onsofwhatbestser vedt hei rown i nt er est s,l eavi ngt hest at et ocont endwi t ht hei rownwi l laswel l ast henow- f or mi dabl eeconomi cpowert heyr epr esent ed.Hi s accountoft her el at i onshi pbet weenbi gbusi nessandt hepol i t i cal par t i es,i nwhi cht heywer ei nt i mat el yi nvol ved,dr awsoutsome oft hedet ai l sofkeyr el at i onshi psi nt heear l yt went i et hcent ur y whi ch t o t hatpoi nthad been negl ect ed by schol ar shi p.

Ti edemannr eveal showt hebr eakdownoft hepowerofpol i t i cal par t i es,seenf r omt hevant agepoi ntofbi gbusi ness,pr ompt eda cr i si sast hebusi nesseswer enowshor noft hepr i mar ychannel t heyhadusedt oensur epol i t i calpol i ci est hatwer eofbenef i tt o t hem.Whatf ol l owedwasaper i odofr ef or mandnegot i at i onas bi gbusi nessst r uggl edt oadaptt ot henewsyst emandr espondt o, ort akeadvant ageof ,t her i si ngpoweroft hemi l i t ar y.

In1973,at wo- vol umeconf er encewor kent i t l edEc onomi c

Gr owt h:TheJ apane s eExpe r i e nc eSi nc et heMe i j iEr awaspubl i shed,

basedonpaper spr esent edata1972conf er encet hatbr ought

t oget herJ apaneseandWest er nschol ar st odi scussvar i ousaspect s

ofJ apaneseeconomi cdevel opment .Thewor k・ si mmedi at eval ue

wast opr ovi deEngl i sh- speaki ngaudi enceswi t har angeof

J apanese per spect i ves on moder n economi c devel opment ,

accompani edbysubst ant i alst at i st i calwor k.Thear t i cl esconsi d-

er edsuchi ssuesast her oot sofagr i cul t ur aldevel opmentf r om

t heTokugawat hr oughMei j ier asandt her ol et hosepl ayedi ni n-

dust r i al i zat i on( akeyt opi ci nJ apaneseschol ar shi pdur i ngt he

1960sand 1970s) .Par t i cul ar l ynot ewor t hyf orhi st or i ansof

J apanesebusi nessar eMi yokoShi nohar a・ spaperoncycl esof

gr owt hi nmanuf act ur i ngpr oduct i on,andKuni oYoshi har a・ s

paperonpr oduct i vi t yi nt hemanuf act ur i ngsect or .Whi l esol i d

schol ar shi p,however ,bot hpi ecesassesseconomi cout puti nt hei r r espect i vesect or sasawhol e,r at hert hanconsi der i ngt her ol eof i ndi vi dualmar ket sorbusi nesses,t her ebyper pet uat i ngt hel i mi t a- t i oni dent i f i edwi t hol derJ apaneseschol ar shi poneconomi c hi st or y.Thevol umesasawhol eempl oyamacr o- l evelscopewi t h emphasi songover nmentr egul at i onandbr oadassessment sofi n- dust r i algr owt h,wi t hapr i mar yconcer nr emai ni ngt her ol eoft he st at ei n・ gui di ng・J apaneseeconomi cdevel opment .

Sever alar t i cl esr el evantt obusi nesshi st or yal soappear edi n J apani nCr i s i s :Es s ay sonTai s h・De moc r ac y( eds.Ber nar d S.

Si l ber manandH.D.Har oot uni an)whi chwaspubl i shedi n1974.

Aki r aIr i ye・ spi ececoncer nseconomi cexpansi oni nr el at i ont o J apan・ scol oni alt er r i t or i es,whi l eKozo Yamamur ai n ・The J apaneseEconomy,1911- 1930・of f er sal ookatt heJ apanese economyi n t hesecond and t hi r d decadesoft hecent ur y.

Yamamur anot est hel ackofat t ent i onaf f or dedt heTai sh・er a,

suggest i ngt hati naddi t i ont oar el at i vel ackofmat er i al s,t he

er adef i essi mpl ecat egor i zat i on;f ur t her mor e,economi st s・pr e-

occupat i onwi t heconomi cgr owt hhavel edt hemt of ocusont he

t r ansf or mat i veMei j iandpost warer asi nst ead.Thi si saf ai r

assessmentoft hest at eoft hef i el datt hatt i me.Yamamur a・ sown

cont r i but i oni st or e- assesst hezai bat s u.Hecl ar i f i eshow,f arf r om

t her ol eoft hezai bat s ubei ngast r ai ght f or war dcont i nuat i onf r om

ear l i erper i ods,t heTai sh・er asawi mmensecapi t alaccumul at i on

i nt hei rhands.Hechal l engest henot i ont hatzai bat s ugr owt h

anddomi nancewasaf or egoneconcl usi on,andr eveal si nst ead

t hemul t i pl ef act or si nvol ved.Geor geO.Tot t en・ spaperont he

NodaSt r i ke( 1927- 1928) ,・J apaneseIndust r i alRel at i onsatt he

Cr ossr oads, ・al sobear sbr i efment i onasaval uabl econt r i but i on

t ost udi esofear l yt went i et h- cent ur yl abori nJ apan.Thepi ecei s

hel pf ulasacor r ect i vei nt hati tst r essest heagencyofhi st or i cal act or sandt her angeofopt i onsavai l abl eatanygi vent i me:i n spi t eofwhatpost warst udi esof・J apanese- st yl emanagement ・ mayhavear gued,eveni fsuchacoher entsyst emofpr act i cesdi d exi stear l i er ,i twasneveraf or egoneconcl usi onbutr at hera cour sechosenf r om amongmanypossi bi l i t i es・amor e・West - er n・st yl eofmanagementmayhavebeenj ustasl i kel yt odomi - nat ehadot hercondi t i onsbeenpr esent .

In1975,Gar yD.Al l i nson・ sJ apane s eUr bani s mwaspubl i shed.

Thewor kf ol l owst hedevel opmentoft hecompanyt ownof Kar i yaovert hecour seofahundr edyear s( 1872- 1972) ,t r aci ng t heeconomi candi ndust r i alt r ansf or mat i onf r omt heper spect i ve oft her egi on.Whi l emuchoft hewor ki sconcer nedwi t hel uci - dat i ngt hei mpactofpar t i cul arf i r msi nt hepost warer a,i tof f er s amodelf orr egi onaleconomi chi st or yt hati ncor por at est her ol e ofpar t i cul arbusi nessesi nshapi ngt hatr egi on:t heMi kawa Rai l way,f orexampl e,wasbot hgeogr aphi cal l yandeconomi cal l y t r ansf or mat i ve.

Thef ol l owi ngyear ,HughPat r i ck・ sJ apane s eI ndus t r i al i zat i onand

I t sSoc i alCons e que nc e sappear ed.Thewor ki ssub- di vi dedi nt ot hr ee

sect i onscor r espondi ngt ol abor ,i ndust r y,andsoci alaspect s

ofi ndust r i al i zat i on,andef f ect i vel ybr i ngst oget herschol ar si n

sever alf i el ds.Tuvi aBl ument hal ・ saccountoft heshi pbui l di ng

i ndust r y,Ryoshi nMi nami ・ spi eceont hei mpactofel ect r i cpower

onmanuf act ur i ng,andKozoYamamur a・ songener alt r adi ng

compani esal lbearconsi der at i on.Al lt hr eepi ecesi ncor por at e

sol i dhi st or i calper spect i ves.Bl ument hal ・ spi ece,・TheJ apanese

Shi pbui l di ngIndust r y, ・r esembl est he・ i ndust r y- model ・J apanese

schol ar shi pt hatt r acesapar t i cul ari ndust r y,gi vi ngonl ycur sor y

not i cet opar t i cul arf i r msandt hei rst r at egi eswi t hi nt hei ndust r y

i nquest i on( Mi t subi shiandKawasakibot hf eat ur ebr i ef l y) ,whi l e Yamamur ai n・Gener alTr adi ngCompani esi nJ apan・of f er san appr oachbasedmor eoncasest udi es,dr awi ngupont heexampl es ofMi t suiBussan,C.It oh&Company( f oundedbyCh・beiIt oh) andIwai& Company( f oundedbyBunsukeIwai ) .Mi nami ・ s pi ece,・TheInt r oduct i onofEl ect r i cPowerandIt sImpactont he Manuf act ur i ngIndust r i es, ・ut i l i zesani ndust r y- wi deassessment t oconveyt het r ansf or mat i vei mpactofel ect r i cpoweri ncom- par i sont ool deri ndust r i alt echnol ogi essuchasst eamengi nesor wat erwheel s.

Fi nal l y,t heear l y1970swi t nessedatl eastonewor ki nEngl i sh dedi cat edt oapar t i cul arf i r m:J ohnG.Rober t s・Mi t s ui :Thr e e Ce nt ur i e sofBus i ne s s ,i n1973.Rober t sempl oysaconvent i onalnar - r at i vet ot r acet hedevel opmentofMi t suif r omi t sf oundi ngi nt he EdoPer i odt hr ought hepost warer a.Unf or t unat el y,whi l el i kel y oneoft hef i r stcompanyhi st or i esofaJ apanesecompany i nEngl i sh,t hewor khassever aldr awbacks.

Fi r st ,whi l enot of f i ci al l yendor sedbyMi t suii t sel f ,t hewor kwasbegunf r om ar t i cl eswr i t t enatt hebehestoft hecor por at i oni nt he1960s, whi chi mpl i esi ti snotaneut r alwor kofschol ar shi p.Second,t he wor ki snotpar t i cul ar l yanal yt i cali nmet hodol ogy,opt i ngi nst ead f oracel ebr at or yaccountofMi t sui ・ ssuccessi neachgener at i on, agai nstat hi nl y- sket chedandst er eot ypi calbackdr opofaf eudal J apanwr enchedt hr oughmoder ni zat i on.

Over al l ,t hel at e1960st hr ough1970swi t nessedsi gni f i cant devel opment si nEngl i sh- l anguageschol ar shi ponear l yt went i et h- cent ur yJ apanesebusi nesshi st or y.Themostsi gni f i cantoft hese

21 Whiletherewereearlier,oftenshortEnglish-languageworksaboutspecificJapanese companies,thesewereusuallycontemporaryaccountsarrangedbythecompaniesin question.

i ncl udedchal l engest ot henot i onofasi ngl et r aj ect or yofeco- nomi cdevel opment ,ashi f tf r om anear - excl usi vef ocusont he r ol eoft hest at ei ndi r ect i ngi ndust r i al i zat i ont oaconsi der at i onof t her ol epl ayedbyent r epr eneur sandbusi nesses,t heemer gence ofwor k on t he pr evi ousl y- negl ect ed economi c hi st or y of t heTai sh・Per i od,andmor especi al i zedst udi esonpar t i cul ar i ndust r i es.Theset r endswoul ddevel opf ur t heri nt hesubsequent decade,whi l eatt hesamet i meWest er nschol ar si ncr easi ngl yhad t ocont endwi t ht her esur genceofol derconcept i onsandpr e- supposi t i onsi nt hef or m ofpopul ar ,wi despr eadwr i t i ngsabout J apaneseeconomi csandbusi nesspr act i ces.

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