The Challenge of Access to Sustainable Water for the Rural Poor in Cambodia : Socio-economic Impact Study of a Water Supply System for Village Residents in Kampong Speu Provinc

The Challenge of Access to Sustainable Water for the Rural Poor in Cambodia :

Socio‑economic Impact Study of a Water Supply System for Village Residents in Kampong Speu Provinc

著者名(英) Lowell John Gretebeck journal or

publication title

The Kyoritsu journal of international studies

volume 35

page range 173‑189

year 2018‑03

URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1087/00003217/

INTRODUCTION

Today,morethan1.2billionpeoplegloballydonothaveaccesstocleandrinking water,and2.4billionlackpropersanitationfacilities.Further,abouttwo-thirdsofthe world・spopulation―or4billionpeople―areconfrontedwithseverewaterscarcity atleastonemonthoutoftheyear.Thejournal,ScienceAdvances,cautionsthatthe

・globalwatershortageriskisworsethanscientiststhought・（WWC,2017）.Reflecting thesesameconcerns,theWorldEconomicForum now includeswaterscarcityamong thetopthreeglobalproblems,alongwithterrorism andclimatechange.Supporting thisperspective,awriterfortheHuffingtonPostasserts:

Theconsequencesofwaterscarcitycanresultineconomiclossesduetocrop failure,limitedfoodavailability andpoorbusinessviability,andcan threaten environmentalbiodiversity.Whenfacedwithscarcity,areasinneedofwater oftenresorttopumpinggroundwater,whichcanpermanentlydepletethesupply.

Watershortageshavealsoprecipitatedorheightenedthepotentialforglobal conflictsinplacesliketheMiddleEastandAfrica（Bellware,2016,para.9）.

Whatistheunderlyingreasonforthisgrowingwatercrisis? Simplyput,the problem is notnecessarily aboutthe availability ofwater,per se,butproper managementofexistingwaterresources.TheWorldWaterCouncildeclares,・There isawatercrisistoday.Itisacrisisofmanagingwatersobadlythatbillionsofpeople

― and the environment― suffer badly・（WWC,2017,para.1）. Despite the approachingcrisis,however,scientistsconcludethatthewaterscarcitydilemmacan besolved ifgovernments,corporationsand individualcitizensurgently begin to cooperateandeffectivelyshareallwatersourcesthatarecurrentlyavailable.

fortheRuralPoori nCambodi a:

Soci o- economi cImpactStudyofaWaterSuppl ySystem for Vi l l ageResi dentsi nKampongSpeuProvi nce

Lowel lJohnGretebeck

ImportanceofWater

Scholarsconfirm thatwateriscriticaltonationaleconomies,especiallysinceone- halfoftheglobalworkforceisnow engagedineightwater-dependentindustries― inclusiveofagriculture,forestry,fisheries,energy,manufacturing,recycling,building andtransport.Itisestimatedthat1.4billionjobs,representing42％ oftheglobal workforce,arelargelywater-dependent.AccordingtotheUnitedNations,accesstoa safeandaffordablesupplyofwater,combinedwithadequatesanitationservices,can improvelivingstandards,expandlocaleconomies,andresultinmoredecentjobs.The UNfurtheraffirms,・...sustainablewatermanagementisalsoanessentialdriverof greengrowthandsustainabledevelopment・（WWDR,2016,p.1）.

GlobalContextofIncreasingDemandforWater

Theworld・spopulationhastripledinthe20thcentury;however,ourthirstfor renewablewaterresourceshasincreasedashocking600％（TheWaterProject,2017）. Thefuturetrendofincreasedpopulationgrowth,togetherwithindustrializationand urbanization,willresultin seriouseconomic,human and environmentalcostsif immediatestepsarenottakentomitigatethegrowingwatercrisis.

Whilethelevelofwaterwithdrawalshavestabilizedineconomicallydeveloped countries,thesamecannotbesaidforpoorernations.Statisticsbringtolightthefact thatlessdevelopedcountrieshavebeenlargelyresponsiblefortheoverallincreaseof waterwithdrawals―whichnowstandsat1％peryearsincethe1980s.TheUNWater DevelopmentReportforewarns,・By2050,agriculturewillneedtoproduce60％more foodglobally,and100％moreindevelopingcountries・（StraitTimes,October,2016,p.1）. ThisisparticularlyproblematicforAsiabecause70％ofwaterisusedforagriculture purposes.Expertsinwatersystem developmentfurtherestimatethat・waterdemand formanufacturingisexpectedtoincreaseby400％betweennow and2050globally・

（StraitsTimes,October2016,p.1）.

Despiterapid globaleconomicgrowth in recentyears,itislikely thatfuture growthinsomecountriesmaybeimpededunlessimmediatestepsaretakentodevelop anadequatewatersystem infrastructuretomeetincreaseddemand.Inadditionto waterquantity,thequalityofthewatersupplythatisavailableisanequalconcern.

Governmentleadersand environmentalexpertsreportthatthequality ofwater availableisnow declining,andthehighcostthatisrequiredtotreatuncleanwater willplaceadisproportionateeconomicburdenonmanypoorercountries―including partsofAfrica,Asia,LatinAmericaandtheMiddleEast.Moreover,globalwarming isyetanotherfactorthatthreatenstheavailabilityofqualitywaterresources.As climatechangegeneratesmoresevereandintenseweather,theaccessibilityofclean waterwillbeaffected.

Finally,theglobalwatercrisishasaccelerated thespread ofcommunicable diseases throughout poorer nations and resulted in increased poverty. More specifically,itisestimatedthatover1milliondeathsannuallyarecausedbypoor qualityandaninadequatewatersupply,andthelossoflifeisexpectedtoworsenas watershortagesbecomemoreserious.Thelargenumberofdeathsunderscoresthe needforgovernments,internationalNGOsandlocalcommunityorganizationstowork togethertosecurewaterforthesemarginalizedcommunities（WWDR,2016）.Clearly, accesstoasafewatersupply,accompaniedwithproperhygiene,isimperativewhen safeguardingahealthysociety.

Governments throughout the world, in addition to quasi-government organizationsandNGOs,arenow takingtheleadtoensurethatthequantityand qualityofwaterissustainedforfuturegenerations.Recognizingthisimminentcrisis, theinternationalcommunityofnationsin2015adoptedtheSustainableDevelopment Goals（SDGs）:Goal6isto・ensuretheavailabilityandsustainablemanagementof waterandsanitationforall・（WWDR,2016）.

CambodiaContext

According to UNICEF,about6.3million Cambodians,comprising40％ ofthe population,donohaveaccesstocleandrinkingwater.Thismirrorsaglobalcrisisin whichoneinninepeopledonothaveaccesstocleanwater,andoneinthreelack propersanitation.Whiletherapidpaceofdevelopmenthasimprovedthelivelihoodof Cambodians,theavailabilityofnew sourcesofcleanwaterhasclearlynotkeptpace

（WWDR,2016）.TheStraitsTimes（October,2016,p.1）reportedthat・thedemandfor waterisspiraling.Rapidpopulationgrowthisfuellingmoredemandforfoodand goods,meaningagricultureandindustryareusingevergreateramountsofwater.・

Nationwide,only24％ oftheCambodianpeoplecurrentlyhaveaccesstoclean water,withthecapitalofPhnom Penhatacomparativelyfavorablelevelof69％.

Thereisalso greatdisparity among theprovinces:TheresidentsofPrey Veng Provincereportthat54％oftheresidentshaveaccesstosafedrinkingwater,compared toadismalleveloflessthan2％inOddarMeancheyProvince.Nationally,43％ofthe peoplerely on accesstodug wells,whileonly2.5％ haveaccesstopiped water.

Furthermore,only30％ofruralCambodianshaveaccesstowaterthroughtubewells, waterwells,treadlepumpsandnearbyponds（WEPA,2016）.

Inthenearterm ofthreetofiveyears,itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatrural Cambodiawillcontinuetobeseriouslychallengedbyalackofwateraccess.Asa result,thelivelihoodofthemostvulnerablepeople,comprisingmostlyoftherural poor,willbenegativelyimpactedbypoorhealth,alackoffood,andlimitedincome generation―thuskeepingmillionsinthegripofpoverty.DespitetheCambodia government・sstatedpolicytoprovidewateraccessthroughoutthenation,fullwater accessisnotexpecteduntil2025orlater.

ResponsetotheCambodiaWaterCrisis

InresponsetothelackofadequatewatersupplyinruralCambodia,international nongovernmentalorganizations（INGOs）,nationalNGOsandgrassrootsorganizations havecometogethertoprovideavarietyofwatersystemstohelpthoseinneed.These cooperativeinterventionstypicallyincludepipedwaterfrom anearbyreservoir,tube wells,orvariousformsofwaterharvestingduringtherainyseason.Thisseemsto suggestthatwhilegroundwatermaybereadilyavailableinmanyareas,watersupply systems have notyetbeen adequately developed― perhaps due to a lack of knowledgeaswellasfinancialresources.

CAMBODIA NGOTAKESLEADIN WSSDEVELOPMENT

Realizingthathavinganadequatewatersupplyisessentialtothewell-beingof ruralhouseholds,anationalNGOinCambodia,LifewithDignity（a.k.a.,LWD）,began astrategicplanningprocessin2008toidentifyruralcommunitieswithpotentially availablewatersources,yetlackedawatersystem infrastructuretoallow accessto individualhouseholds.Duringthetwo-yearperiodthatfollowedfrom2010to2012, LWDwassuccessfulinconstructingwatersystemsinsixruralvillagesinthedistrict ofPhnom Srouchbypipingwaterfrom themountains,naturalstreamsandlakes.

LaunchofWaterSupplySystem ProjectinKampongSpeuProvince

Inearly2014,LWDidentifiedanotherareainPhnom SrouchdistrictofKampong Speuprovincetobealikelycandidateofanew watersystem project（thesubjectof thisimpactstudy）.Inthisparticulararea,threeruralvillagesofTeukTla,Mean Serey,andDambokRoung,weredeterminedtobeincloseproximitytoalarge,eight hectare,freshwaterlake.Inconsultationwithwatersystem engineers,LWDthereafter confirmedthatthiswatersourcewassufficienttoprovidesustainablewatertothe morethan260householdsinthesurroundingarea.Atthetime,thelocalresidents weretypically collectingwaterdaily from thelaketoprovideforminimalneeds.

However,thesmallamountofwatercarriedeachdaywasnotsufficientenoughto provideforsanitation,washing clothesand farming. In short,villageresidents remainedina・cycleofpoverty・,whichwasthedirectresultofnothavingasufficient supplywatertosupportfarmingandhouseholdneeds.Duetothisclearlydefined needforimprovedaccesstowater,combinedwithanidentifiedfreshwatersourcein thearea,LWD concluded thatthedevelopmentofa WSS projectin thisrural communitywasapriority.

LocalParticipatoryApproachandGenderEmpowerment

The next step in the planning process included that of consulting with governmentauthoritiestoclarifylandrightissues,afterwhichtimeLWDstaffheld numerous consultative meetings with local residents― including the village leadership― to collectively participate in planning for the new Water Supply System.Attheoutsetoftheconsultation,LWDclarifieditsmanagementrole,andalso reached consensusamong thevillagersregarding thelocalcommunity・sroleand responsibilities.Asproposed,LWDwouldassumealeadmanagementroletopromote theproject・ssuccess,byorientatingtheprojecttothelocalcommunity,organizing local stakeholders,facilitating the establishment of a Water Supply System Committee,monitoring day-to-day construction and training in the areas of watersystem management. Furthermore,LWD agreedtoraisefundsthrough its internationalpartnerorganizationstocoverapproximately80％ofconstructioncosts.

Atthesametime,localvillageresidents―throughtheWaterSystem Committee― would be expected to assume responsibility for the day-to-day planning, implementation,monitoring,maintenanceandlong-term financialsustainability.

Asasupplementarynote,genderempowermentwouldbepromotedbyrequiring that50％ ofthelocalmanagementcommitteecompriseofwomenfrom thevillage communities.ThisdecisiononthepartofLWD andthelocalplanningcommittee recognizedthatwomeninmanycountries―includingCambodia―continuetoface discriminationandinequalityintheworkplace.Theinclusionofwomenalsosupports afinding in aWWDR（2016） reportthatstates,・qualitativeanalysesshow that women・sinvolvementinmanagementofwaterresourcesandwaterinfrastructurecan improveefficiencyandincreaseoutputs・.

Figure1

ProjectSiteLocation:KampongSpeuProvince Source:CambodiaParliamentSeatDistribution,2013

KeyProjectObjectivesandDesiredOutcomes

Duringtheplanningconsultations,thelocalbeneficiariesagreedthattheoverall objectivesoftheWSSwouldbetoimprovecommunityaccesstowaterfordaily consumption,improvedhygieneandsanitationpracticesandincreasedagriculture production.Thecorollaryexpectedoutcomesoftheprojectincludesimprovedhealth, enhancedhouseholdincome,andincreasedagricultureproductionduetoimproved accesstowater.Long-term successoftheprojectwouldbemeasuredagainstthese expectedprojectoutcomes,asshowninFigure2below.

WaterSupplySystem ConstructionPlans

Drawing upon outsidetechnicalexpertisefrom governmentinstitutionsand privateindustry,LWD proposedthattheprojectbecarriedoutintwophases.As illustratedinFigure3,duringthefirstphase,alarge,10-meter-highconcretewater reservoirwouldbeconstructedthatholdswaterpumpedfrom anearbylake.Thesize andheightofthewaterreservoirwouldensureenoughpressuretoeffectivelypipe watertoallhouseholdsinthethreesurroundingvillagesforcurrentneeds,andstill provideabufferforfutureanticipatedgrowth.

Figure2

ExpectedProjectOutcomes

Figure3

WaterSupplySystem Reservoir

Thesecondphaseoftheprojectwouldinvolvetheconstructionofpipedwater linesfrom theconcretewaterreservoirtoeachindividualhousehold,asshownin Figure4.Related,LWDwouldarrangefortheprocurementanddeliveryofallneeded pipingsuppliestoeachcommunity.ItwouldthereafterbetheroleofthelocalWater ManagementCommittee,incooperationwithindividualhouseholds,tocoordinatethe diggingofsoilandconnectingPVCpipefrom thereservoirtoeachhousehold.Dueto alimitedbudgetandadesiretosupportthelocaleconomy,meninthehouseholds wouldvolunteermuchofthelabor―inadditiontolocallyhiredlabor―tocomplete constructionofthepipeddistributionsystem.

TargetedBeneficiaries

Figure4below illustratesthe266targetedhouseholdbeneficiariesoftheWater SupplySystem,comprising1,181inhabitants,inthevillagesofTeukTla,MeanSerey, and Dambok Roung. Ofthistotal,36.4％ or430arechildren and17peopleare considereddisabled.Fourteenpercentor37ofthehouseholdsareheadedbyafemale.

WSSProjectFinancing

The$60,000totalbudgetincluded$16,000forconstructionofthereservoirtank,

$38,000for the installation of the piping distribution system,and $6,000for administration,orientation and awareness-building activities. Naturally,local residentswereinitiallyconcernedaboutalackoffinancialresourcestocoverupfront construction costs.To easetheburden on thelocalcommunity,LWD accepted responsibility to seek internationalfunding from partnerorganizationsto cover approximately83％ or$50,000oftotalprojectcosts.Then,inanefforttopromote

・localownership and control・,localvillageresidentswould beexpected tocover approximately17％or$10,000ofthecosts,whichtakesintoconsiderationlocalincome levelsandpaymentcapacity.Additionally,itwasfurtheragreedthatlocalhouseholds shouldpayanominalfeeforwaterusage;thisamountwouldbedesignatedtocover ongoingmaintenance.

Figure4

WaterSupplySystem ProjectMap

StructurestoPromoteLong-term Sustainability

ApreconditiontoLifewithDignityandinternationalpartnerinvolvementinthis projectwastheestablishmentofsound structuresthatwould promotelong-term projectsustainability.Toreachthisstatedobjective,LWD firstagreedtoprovide grassrootstraining in theareasofwatermanagementand financialaccounting.

Furthermore,LWD acceptedaroleinestablishingaLocalGoverningBoard,which wouldensureproperoversight,transparencyandlong-term sustainability.From a financialstandpoint,sustainability would be further enhanced when recipient householdspayamonthlyfee,basedontheamountofwateruse.Allfeescollected wouldthenbeusedtoprovideforongoingmaintenanceandsupplementarytraining infutureyears,whendeemednecessary.

ASSESSMENTMETHODOLOGY

Theunderlyingpurposeofthisresearchistoassesskeysocio-economicchanges aftertheinstallationofanew WaterSupplySystem tosupportapproximately260 familieslivinginthreeruralvillagesofTeukTla,MeanSerey,andDambokRoungin 2014.TheworkinghypothesisofthisresearchisthattheWSSwillhaveadirect, positiveimpactonthesocio-economicvariablesofhealth,agricultureproduction,and familyincome.

Thisstudyuseda・mixed・quantitativeandqualitativemethodologicalapproach.

Thequantitativecomponentconsisted ofa25-question written survey thatwas translatedintoKhmer,theofficiallanguageofCambodia.Intermsofcontent,the surveywasdividedintothreesections:informationabouthouseholdcharacteristics and demographics,data related to household waterusebeforeand afterproject implementation,andidentificationofbenefitsofthenewlyinstalledWaterSupply System.Drawinguponinternationally-acceptedSphereProjectGuidelines,localNGO staff and project beneficiaries were directly involved in monitoring project implementationandgatheringdatatoassessprojectimpact.

Soonafterthewrittensurveywascompletedandanalyzed,ItraveledtoCambodia onthreeseparateoccasionsbetween2015and2017tomeetvillageresidentstoconfirm theaccuracyofthequantitativedatacollection,andfurthertoconductqualitative interviews with both individuals and focus groups. This method of・research triangulation・provided moredetailed information aboutwaterusepatternsand helpedtounderstandthechangesthatoccurredasaresultofnewlyinstalledWater SupplySystem.Theinterviewsessionswithfocusgroupswerehomogeneousinterms ofgender,occupationandsocialbackgrounds,thusencouragingopendiscussionabout wateruseandkeychallengesfacingtheirvillagecommunity.

SOCIO- ECONOMICIMPACTRESULTS

The target area is located in Kampong Speu Province,which is located approximately50kilometerswestofthecapitalcityofPhnom Penh.Theareaishome tomorethan15garmentandfootwearenterprises,whichemploy13,000inhabitants.

Inaddition,theareahas16agriculture-focusedbusinesseswith12,000employees.Rice, sugarcane,palm tree,cassava,andmangofruitarethemainagricultureproductsof theprovince（Tourism Cambodia,2017）.

HouseholdCharacteristics

Thefieldsurveysamplingof70respondents（42percentresponserate）indicated that93％ofthehouseholdbeneficiariesareactivelyengagedinagriculture,compared to7％ofthefamilieswhoworkintheconstructionsectororareinvolvedinother day-laboractivities.Theparticipanthouseholdscommonlyreportthatchildrenhelp withagricultureworkastimepermits.Thearearemainscomparativelypoorwhen comparedtootherpartsofCambodia;KampongSpeuprovincehasapovertyratingof 23outof24provinces（Gretebeck,2017）.

Themajorityofthe216householdbeneficiariesoftheWaterSupplySystem reside inthevillagesofTeukTlaandMeanSerey Thesehouseholdsareoftencomposedof extended families, which may include nieces, nephews, distant relatives or grandparents.Also,itisimportanttonotethattheaveragesizeofthehouseholdsin thestudywas5.7members,whereastheaveragenumberofchildreninthesefamilies was2.5.Thefieldsurveyalsorevealedthataprimaryeducationlevelwasachievedby 75％ oftheresidents,ascomparedto17％ whoreportedsecondaryschoolastheir highestlevelofachievement.Sixpercentoftheresidentsreportedhavingnoformal schooleducation.

FamilyAssetOwnership

Ofthe70householdrespondents,only4％reportedautomobileownership,while 80％ possessamotorbikeand44％ own abicycle. Thisdataindicatesthatrural mobility is limited and thatresidents are highly dependenton limited public transportationtogetaround.Furthermore,wecanconcludethatinformationaccess ismoderatewithonly56％ofrespondentsreportingtelevisionownershipandalevel of17％ forradio.Incomparison,cellularphoneownershipishighat92％,andis considered the main source ofnews and information. Seventy percentofthe householdsreportedownershipofacow,while86％ hadchickenstosupporttheir livelihood.

Anothersocio-economiccharacteristicisthatofthequalityofhomeconstruction, wherebyonly6％ofrespondentsindicatelivingindwellingsconstructedofcement, followedby28％whobuiltprimarilywiththatchand26％withmud,respectively.A majorityor68％oftheresidentsreportedlivinginhomesthatareconstructedwitha combinationofmud,thatch,andcement.Follow-upsitevisitsconfirmedthatmanyof theresidentsresideinbasichousingstructures,whichconfirmedcomparativelypoor socio-economicconditions.

FamilyIncomeandExpenditures

Seventyhouseholdsreportedtheirmonthlyincomeandexpendituresonfood, healthcare,education,clothingandlighting. O n average,monthly incomeforthe residentsinthisthisstudyequaled458,000Cambodiariel,equivalenttoapproximately

$112dollarsorJPY11,500,withsomefamiliesreportingincomeoflessthan$50a month.Moreover,familiesreportedthatfoodexpensecomprisedthegreatestportion ofthefamilybudget,with25ofthe70familiesspendingmorethan50％ onfood supplies. This high percentage ofincome allocated to basic food supplies is characteristicofpeopleliving in poverty.Stillanothermajorexpenseallocation includedchildeducation,with16％offamilyincomeallocatedtothisbudgetcategory.

IdentificationofMajorSocio-EconomicProblems

Togainabetterunderstandingofthesocio-economicchallengesfacingthetarget households,individualswereaskedtoidentifytwosignificantproblemsfacingtheir family.Forty-fourhouseholdsor63％ofthesurveyrespondentssaidthatinadequate healthcarewasthemostseriousproblem.Thiswasfollowedbynoaccesstoclean drinkingwaterat54％andalackoffoodat50％.Itisnotsurprisingthatfamilies living in poverty identified these basic life survivalitems offood,water,and healthcaretobemostlacking.A cross-referencequestionfocusedonthelevelof dissatisfactioninsixareas:homequality,sanitation,healthcare,waterandelectric.In responsetothistriangulationinquiry,dissatisfactionwasreportedinthequalityof housing,with65％oftherespondentsreportingdissatisfaction.Thiswasfollowedby dissatisfactionwithtoiletfacilitiesat51％,inadequatehealthcareat56％,andalackof cleandrinkingwaterat36％,respectively.Insharpcontrast,alesserpercentageof 20％ oftherespondentswerenotsatisfiedwiththequalityofeducationthatwas providedtochildren.

BaselineWaterUsePriortoInstallationofWaterSupplySystem

Next,thesurveyinstrumenthelpedustomorefullyunderstandhouseholdwater usepriortotheinstallation oftheWSS. Forty fourpercentofthepeoplecited dependenceonacommunitywellasthemajorsourceofhouseholdwater,followedby portagefrom anearbylakeat37％.Withrespecttothosewhoreliedonthenearby

lakeforwater,residentsreportedthatwaterportageoftwotothreehourseachday putaseriousburdenonfamilytimeandenergy,thusnegativelyimpactingtheamount oftimethatcould havebeen spenton income-generation activitiesand farming.

Finally,anadditional14％oftheresidentsstatedthatnaturalrainfallwasthemain sourceofhouseholdwaterpriortotheWSS.Atthesametime,othersreportedthey werenotabletofully takeadvantageofrainfallduetoalack ofproperstorage facilities.

With respectto themain sourceofclean drinking water,thestudy further revealedthatvillageresidentssimilarlyusedthesamehouseholdwatersourcesas notedabove;however,49％or34householdsalsopurchasedbottledwater―atan averagemonthlycostof$7.50.Calculated,thismeansthatsomeofthepoorestfamilies werespendingasmuchas15％oftheirdisposableincomeonbottleddrinkingwater.

Despitethefactthathouseholdsgenerallyhadrudimentaryaccesstosometypeof watersourcepriortotheinstallationoftheWSS,64％oftherespondentsreported serioushealthconcernsduealackofacommunity-basedWSS.Infollow-upfield interviews,residentsreportedthatwater-bornediseasesanddiarrheawascommon duetouncleandrinkingandhouseholdwater.Individualsalsostatedthatitwas prohibitivetopurchasefilteredorbottleddrinkingwaterduetolow incomelevelsof lessthan$100permonth.Thewrittensurveytriangulatedthisfindingas51％ofthe residentschosenottopurchasebottledwaterfordrinking,citinghighcostasthemain reason.

KeyBenefitsoftheWaterSupplySystem

In an open-endedquestion,thewritten survey identifiedthegreatestuseand benefitsassociatedwiththeWaterSupplySystem,afteroneyearinoperation.The resultsshowedthat70％oftheresidentsidentifiedlaundry,cookingandagricultureas themostsignificantareasofuse. Mostpositiveimpactswerereportedinincreased incomeat37％,convenienceat33％andimprovedhealthat30％.A lesserpercentage of22％reportedcleanbathingtobeamajorbenefit.

Figure5

WaterSourcePriortoWaterSupplySystem Installation N＝70

Follow-up field interviewsconfirmed key benefitsofimproved health and an increaseinagricultureproductionasaresultofthenewlyinstalledWSS.A high percentageofthewomensaidtheynow hadmoretimetocook,careforchildrenand engageinmicro-financingactivities―whichwaspreviouslycommittedtodailywater portage. In termsoffinancialimpact,the average monthly household expense reductionaftertheinstallationoftheWSSequaled15,671Riel,equivalentto$3.88. Moreover,itissignificanttopointoutthatamajority or70％ ofthehouseholds projectedafutureincreaseinincomeearnedasaresultoftheWSS,whilemanyothers reportedthatthenewlyinstalledwatersystem willallow forthegrowingofmore vegetablesforfamilyconsumption.

A finallinkedimpactasaresultofWaterSupplySystem isanticipatedinthe areasofeducationandimprovedqualityofhousing.Asexplainedbymembersofthe WaterManagementCommitteeandvillageresidents,theuseofwaterforagriculture purposeswillenablevillagefarmerstoincreasetheirlevelofincomewhich will thereafterallow formoremoneytobespentonchildeducationandimprovingthe quality oftheirhomes. During themostrecentsitevisitin August2017,itwas noticeablethatamajorityofthepeoplestilllivedinhomesconstructedofmudand thatch;yet,itwasevidentthattheconstructionofnew homeshadalreadystarted, withresidentsnow transitioningintobetterconstructedhomesofbrickandcement materials.

HouseholdRecommendationsforEnhancedBenefits

Thefield interviewswith localresidentsalso provided very usefulfeedback regardingwaysinwhichthebenefitsoftheWaterSupplySystem couldbeenhanced.

First,villageresidentsfrequentlycommentedthatitisessentialforeachfamilyto improveone・swaterstoragecapacity.Thiswouldpermithomestoaccessandsave morewaterduringtherainyseason―thatcouldlaterbeusedduringthedryseason orperiods ofdrought. A second recommendation thatcame from community

Figure6

KeyBenefitsoftheWaterSupplySystem N＝70

discussionswastheneedtoinstallsuitablewaterfilters,thusimprovingthequalityof thedrinkingwater.Thesurveyindicatedthatonly37％ofresidentscurrentlymake useofwaterfilters,while63％simplyboilwaterfordrinking.Infact,healthofficials actuallyrecommendacombinationofusingafilterandboilingtoensurethecleanest drinkingwaterpossible.

FINALRECOMMENDATIONS

・EFFECTIV E USE OF AV AILABLE WATER RESOURCES:In an effortto furtherimprovethelivelihoodofruralvillageresidents,localandinternational NGOs― in cooperation with localgovernments and CBOs― should be proactivein educating and promoting theeffectiveuseofavailablewater resources.Whenupfrontcapitalresourcesarelimitedonthepartofthelocal community,these stakeholders should also work together to help rural communitiestoaccessbothgovernmentandnon-governmentfunding.

・DIVERSIFICATION OF WATER SOURCES:Theincreaseddemandforwater willrequireaconcertedeffortonthepartofallstakeholderstodiversifywater resources,includingsprings,wells,rainwaterandwastewaterrecycling.

・VOCATIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMS: The technical competencies of governmentagencies,NGOsandcommunity-based-organizationsintheareasof waterresourcemanagementand waterinfrastructuredevelopmentmustbe strengthenedthroughvocationaltrainingprograms.

・IMPROVE MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT STRUCTURES:Improvement in themonitoring,assessmentand reporting ofcurrentwaterconditionsin termsofbothquantityandqualityisneededonthepartofgovernments,local communitiesandNGOs.Watermonitoringsystemsareinadequatelyfunded, thusrequiringmoreresourcestobeallocated.

・FUNDS FOR RESEARCH AND INNOVATION:NGOs,community-based organizations,localgovernmentsandcorporatestakeholdersshouldcontinueto lobby nationalgovernmentofficialstoprovideneeded resourcestosupport researchthatisfocusedontheinnovationoflost-costwatersystemsthatare effectiveinimprovingthelivesofruralresidents.

CLOSINGCOMMENTS

TheimplementationoftheWaterSupplySystem hassignificantlyimprovedthe livelihoodofthevillageresidentsinPhnom Srouch.SincethelaunchoftheWater SupplySystem,improvementintheareaoffamilyhealthwasclearlyevident.This research confirmed thatclean drinking waterhasresulted in lowerincidentsof waterbornediseasesanddiarrhea.Inaddition,theavailabilityofwaterhasclearly

beenanessentialprerequisitetoincreasedincomeascropyieldsimprove.Wecan further conclude that the WSS has resulted in other related socio-economic improvements,particularlyasincreasedincomeisusedtosupportchildeducation, improvementofhomequalityandthestartofnew micro-businessenterprises.

Thelong-term sustainability oftheWaterSupply System hasbeen enhanced throughtheestablishmentofaWSSExecutiveCommitteethatmeetsregularlyto review thecurrentstatusoftheWSS,identifypotentialproblems,planforlong-term maintenanceandupdatethefeescheduleforwaterusage. Whilelocalcontrolis respected,long-term sustainabilityisfurtherenhancedasthenationalNGO,Lifewith Dignity,continuestocollaboratewithlocalleadersinprovidingprojectoversight,and ongoingtrainingintheareaofwatersystem management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ThisresearchwaspossibleduetothecooperationandsupportofLifewithDignity

（Cambodia）andtheJapanEvangelicalLutheranAssociation（Japan）.Ithasbeena privilegetowalktogetheronthisjourneytobetterunderstandtheimpactofthe WaterSupplySystem andhow wecancontinuetoimprovethelivelihoodofthe

・poorestofthepoor・inCambodiaandotherpartsofAsia.

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provincial-Profile/Kampong-Speu（October1,2014）

TheChal l engeofAccesstoSustai nabl eWater fortheRuralPoori nCambodi a:

Soci o- economi cImpactStudyofaWaterSuppl ySystem for Vi l l ageResi dentsi nKampongSpeuProvi nce

Lowel lJohnGretebeck

In responsetotheglobalwatercrisis,internationalNGOs―workingin close collaboration with community-based-organizations― have introduced new, innovativeandlow-costwatersystemsthatuseavailablelocalwaterresourcesthat meetbasicwaterneeds.Since2008,anationalNGO inCambodia,LifewithDignity

（formerlyLutheranWorldDevelopmentCambodia）hastakentheleadbyproviding WaterSupplySystems（WSS）tomorethan10villagecommunitiesintheprovinceof KampongSpeu,located50kilometersfrom thecapitalcityofPhnom Penh.LWDhas assumed an important leadership role by orientating water projects to local communities,organizingcommunity-levelstakeholders,facilitatingtheestablishment ofWaterSupplySystem Committees,monitoringday-to-dayconstructionandtraining intheareasofwatersystem management.Furthermore,LWD worksthroughit・s internationalpartnerorganizationstoraisefundstocoverbasicconstructioncosts, whileatthesametimeworkingwithlocalresidentstoassumeresponsibilityforthe day-to-day planning, implementation, monitoring, maintenance and long-term financialsustainability.TheunderlyingobjectivesofLWD・smissionistoprovide accesstowaterfordailyconsumption,betterhygieneandsanitationpracticesand increasedagricultureproduction. Thecorollary outcomesofthesewaterprojects includesimproved health,increased household income,and enhanced educational achievement.Long-term successofthiswaterprojectwillbemeasuredagainstthese aforementionedobjectives.

Thepurposeofthisempiricalresearchistoassesskeysocio-economicchanges afterLWD implementedanew WaterSupplySystem toapproximately260families livinginthethreeruralvillagesofTeukTla,MeanSerey,andDambokRoungin2014. TheworkinghypothesisofthisresearchisthattheWaterSupplySystem willhavea direct,positiveimpactonthesocio-economicvariablesoffamilyfinances,aswellas healthandsanitation.

In cooperation with LWD and community stakeholders,Dr.LowellGretebeck developedanassessmentmethodologythatevaluatedvarioussocio-economicchanges, measured againstkey baselinedata. Using a quantitativesurvey,data from 70 householdswasreceived,compiled,codedandanalyzedinaccordancewithSPHERE InternationalGuidelines.Followingthisquantitativedatacollection,qualitativefield

interviewswereconductedwithlocalfocus-groupsandindividualsonthreeseparate visitstoCambodiawhichconfirmedquantitativesurveyresultsandprovidedrelevant insightintoresearchfindings.

Throughthisstudy,theresearchersoughttoanswerthefollowingkeyquestions:

1）Whatproblemsareassociatedwithcurrentwateruseamongthe・poorestofthe poor・inruralCambodia?2）Whatarethemostsignificantsocio-economicimpactsof anewlyinstalledWSSatthehouseholdlevel?3）InwhatwayshastheWSSenabled familiestoimprovetheirfinancialstatusthroughincreasedagricultureproduction― aswellasthereallocationofincreasedsavingstootherbudgetareas―includingchild education,nutrition,healthcareandmicro-businessinitiatives.

Theresultsofthisacademicinquiryshow thattwooftheprimarybenefitsofa WaterSupplySystem arethatofimprovedhealthandincome.Thisresearchalso confirmedthatcleandrinkingwaterhasresultedinlowerincidentsofwater-borne diseasesand diarrhea. In addition,theavailability ofwaterhasclearly been an essentialprerequisitetoincreasedincomeascropyieldsimprove.Wecanfurther conclude that the WSS has resulted in other related socio-economic changes, particularlyasincreasedincomeisusedtosupportchildeducation,improvementof homequalityandthestartofnew micro-businessenterprises.

Keywords:watersupplysystems,povertyalleviation,LifewithDignity,Cambodia