■Research Trends■
SriLankan
Studies in Japan
Social Sciences and 1-3umanities
●
Suzuki, Masataka
1. Introduction
Sri Lankan Studies in Japan started from an interest in early Buddhism, and investigations on Pali scriptures of Theravada Buddhism were grad-ually accumulated by scholars of Buddhism. Dipavaipsa and Mand-vamsa, both of which are ancient chronicles of this island written by Buddhist monks, were translated into Japanese in 1940.
Since the year of Buddha Jayanti in 1956, international exchange be-tween Sri Lanka and Japan has mainly been made through Buddhist monks. From the 1960s, many surveys on agriculture , industry, and business have begun under the economic assistance such as the Colombo Plan and other development projects. Fieldwork was conducted from the late 1970s, covering not only Buddhism and economic activities but also other topics such as society, religion, politics, law and geography. Studies on Tamil also began around this time.
From the 1980s, studies of cultural anthropology became popular and some articles and reports were written by scholars who had a good com-mand of native languages. But fieldwork was carried out less often in the late 1980s, because of the violent ethnic struggles since 1983 and the terrorism by JVP (Janata Vimukti Peramuna, People's Liberation Front) from 1986 onward. On the other hand, studies on ethnic problems were conducted, and a number of reports about developing schemes were made for the government along with the increase of economic assistance. An introductory book on geography, history, society, culture, politics
鈴 木 正 崇Masataka Suzuki, Department of Letters, Keio University. Cultural Anthropology.
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and regional situations of each province in Sri Lanka was also published [Sugimoto, Y. ed. 1987].
This review essay intends to describe, topic by topic, Sri Lankan studies in Japan which have been done in the fields of humanities and social
sci-ences from 1940 to 1993. 2. Buddhism
In the study of Doctrinal Buddhism in Sri Lanka, investigations on Pali Canon and on Buddhist history have been developed mainly by scholars of Buddhism. Books on the history of Theravada Buddhism, which spread from Sri Lanka to Southeast Asia in medieval times, were written by scholars based on their own experiences [Sasaki, Kyogo 1976]. Nara and Katayama, scholars of Buddhism and Pali language, tried to examine the cultural history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka from a viewpoint of cultural anthropology [Nara ed. 1980]. There were also studies on the present situation of Buddhism and the actual conditions in temples. Fujiyoshi, who actually experienced the life of a monk in Sri Lanka, completed his research work comparing his findings with situations in Southeast Asia [Fujiyoshi 1977]. E. Maeda also made researches based on his fieldwork on the existing forms of village Buddhism and forest Buddhism under modernization [Maeda, E. 1966, 1969]. In these studies, he focused on the changes of Buddhism from a viewpoint of scripture studies. Then there appeared studies which were interested in the rela-tionship between Buddhism and society.
In particular, studies on the pantheon, that is, the hierarchical order of supernatural beings in Popular Buddhism such as Buddha, deities and demons, were conducted using written sources [Katayama 1973, Sasaki, Kokan 1979]. Through these studies, the relationship between Buddha and deities, and their attributes became clear, throwing light on aspects of cosmology. Further, the relationship between the Great Tradition and the Little Tradition and that between religion and magic were dis-cussed to understand Sinhalese Buddhism. Examining both written sources andfieldwork data, Katayama investigated historical changes and continuity in the meanings of Bali rituals for planetary deities and Pirit (Paritta) rituals to protect people from evil spirits. He published his findings based on fieldwork for interpreting the scriptures [Katayama 1974, 1977b, 1982ab]. A common characteristic of the scholars on Sri
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Lankan religions is that many of them used to be, or still are, Buddhist monks, so that they pay attention to the practical aspects which they have experienced as monks. This is a unique trend of studies on Sri Lankan religion in Japan.
E. Maeda has been energetically working on Theravada Buddhism since the 1960s. In 1980, he began to study various aspects of Buddhism systematically and comprehensively. His studies included the .history of Buddhism, a survey of temples, the conditions of sects, religious move-ments under urbanization and their social background . He has sub-sequently published his reports [Maeda, E. ed. 1982] and his systematic study on them [Maeda, E. ed. 1986]. The latter elucidates the existent forms of Buddhism surviving in modern society and culture, and its meas-ures to cope with modernization, from a viewpoint of Buddhology, socio-logyand cultural anthropology, Maeda examines the methodology for the study of Theravdda Buddhism, the movement of Siam Nikaya sect, the relationship between temples and monks, and problems on the history o Theravada Buddhism and its modernization. Kamiya reports on the actual lives of monks in detail. Kitsudo studies the trends in Amarapura Nikaya sect and Rammannya Nikaya sect, and analyzes Popular Buddhism through proverbs to understand the characteristics of society and culture. Takahashi examines theories concerning the dichotomy of great tradition and little tradition, and investigates the Pirit ritual in historical perspec-tive. Totani surveys the social structure in village communities which sustain Buddhism. Oiwa studies rite of passage and calendrical rituals, investigating the role of Popular Buddhism in traditional villages and newly developed settlements.
On the whole, the results of these studies are as follows. First, the position of Buddhism in the cultural system is examined from various points of view. Second, research on written sources is greatly stimulated by experiences gained from religion in practice. Third, differences between the elite and common people in their acceptance of Buddhism, and their measures to meet modern society are clearly pointed out . On the other hand, these studies tend to regard traditions as static and do not take account of radical transformations of Buddhism under political and economic change. A dynamic analysis is required for studying ritual changes, which take into account social changes such as emergence of charismatic Buddhist monks and proliferation of meditation centers as
116 Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies, 6, 1994
well as their relationship with ethnic struggles.
3. Politics
In 1965, E. Maeda and others tried to investigate the spiritual back-ground for modernization. The research was done mainly through examining written sources, and its results have many implications [Asia Ethos Research Group ed. 1969]. The book contains Maeda's study on the reaction of Buddhism to modernization and Yamada's study on the development of political consciousness among the Sinhalese. Through an analysis of Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Yamada looks into the formation of Sinhalese ethnic consciousness and traces the process of growing nationalism with Buddhism as its core from the ancient time to the present-day [Yamada 1967, 1972, 1974].
There are specific studies on British colonial politics [Takabatake 1977], plantations and emigrations [Nakamura, Hisashi 1964], movement for revolution [Nakamura, Heiji 1971], and revitalization movement of Bud-dhism [Shibuya 1980]. Ishii regards the political movement related to Kataragama, sacred place for Hindus and Buddhists, as a millennium movement in the Theravada Buddhism area and analyzes the causes of the movement's failure at the time of the decline of the Uda Rata kingdom
(The Kandyan kingdom, 1474-1815) [Ishii 1982].
As for the modern age, Yamamoto examines language nation-alism under the colonial regime [Yamamoto 1988]; Nagai tries to investigate the ethnic spirit in S.W.R.D. Bandaranayaka [Nagai 1967,
1983]; and Yoshimune looks at S. Bandaranayaka from a historical perspective [Yoshimune 1985, 1987]. These, however, are isolated works, and studies on political and social history from a broader perspec-tive have not appeared as yet. Recently, reports on ethnic struggles and studies on their causes have begun to come out [Saito, Y. 1988]. Shibuya points out that the formation of nationalism through colonization and the concomitant separation between the elite and the common people be-came the fundamental cause of ethnic confrontations. He then analyzes, historically, how the designation of Sinhala as the official language, which is advantageous for the major ethnic group, triggered the problems and led to the riot in 1983 [Shibuya 1985, 1986, 1991]. Taniguchi analyzes the ethnic problems and argues that they were radicalized by the change in the role of ethnicity from an expressive one into an instrumental one
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[Taniguchi 1985]. 4. Agriculture
In the 1960s and the 1970s, agricultural survey and research of guidance were conducted, accompanied by technological cooperation and develop-ment assistance. Results were published in a report on the developdevelop-ment in Dewahua [JICA 1976]. Since then, JICA has put forward a tech-nological cooperation project for small enterprises and a development program in the Mahaweli Ganga basin, and has produced many reports on these programs.
As regards academic contribution, the works by Nakamura, Hisashi , specializing in agricultural economics, are prominent. Having experi-enced a long-term stay in Sri Lanka, Nakamura mastered Sinhala lan-guage and studied the agricultural water supply system. He applied an economic anthropological perspective to his study, which investigated the culture embedded in the labor system. He analyzes the process of es-tablishing a plantation taking into consideration the relationship with South India [Nakamura, Hisashi 1964, 1965, 1976, 1977]. His study on irrigation agriculture is unique [Nakamura, Hisashi 1984, 1988a], in that he suggests that the dry zone society based on the water reserve system has an inherent possibility of overdeveloping. He emphasizes that the idea of common ownership which is neither private nor public plays a very important role in practices concerning tanks (reservoirs), and proceeds to make a typology of South Asian societies with irrigation agriculture as an index. From the theoretical point of view, he discusses agricultural recycling, agricultural economy on people's everyday life, and the rela-tionship between politics and local community. Nakamura's works
contain many suggestions for area studies in the future. As for agricul-ture in general, Tenma reports the present situation and development in the wet zone [Tenma 1977abc]; Nakamura and Sato compare the agri-cultural technology in each area [Nakamura and Sato 1980]; Adachi describes the technology of slash-and-burn agriculture in dry zone villages [Adachi 1987]; A. Sasaki studies changes caused by the introduction of crops from the New Continent [Sasaki, A. 1987]; and Sato examines the trend of agricultural production in general [Sato 1988]. Sato has studied agriculture in Sri Lanka for more than ten years and has published a number of reports. Regarding the types of rural villages, Nakamura ,
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Hisashi, Ouchi and others collaborated on a survey [Ouchi et al. 1980] which enables us to grasp the characteristics of each area succinctly.
As for geography, Yoshino did a study on changes of the climate [Yoshi-no 1982, Yoshi[Yoshi-no et al. 1982, 1983. Urushibara 1982] and Yoshimune analyzed the basic climate conditions [Yoshimune 1984]. In the report by Center for Southeast Asian Studies [Maeda, N. et al. eds.], Furukawa describes water buffalo breeding, Watanabe explains the present situa-tion of wet-rice cultivasitua-tion, and Takaya analyzes the change in cultivasitua-tion practices in dry zone villages. With regard to spatial perception, there is a case study of a village space near Kandy [Yamano 1984, 1985ab].
5. Society
Social anthropology has focused on Sri Lanka because of the combina-tion of caste and bilateral descent systems, and the existence of Dravidian kinship terminology there. As regards studies based on written sources, Togawa examines theories of caste and kinship from the point of view of the individuals [Togawa 1980]; and Takakuwa deals with theories on fisherman castes [Takakuwa 1984]. In fieldwork studies, Omori and Taniguchi survey the labour conditions inside a tea factory, Matara district, in the South. [Omori 1981; Taniguchi 1982; Omori and Tani-guchi 1984]; Omori also examines the relationship between social practice
and employment condition under development [Omori 1985, 1987]; Shibuya studies attitudes of the Sinhalese toward the Japanese [Shibuya 1984]; and Totani reports on families in up country villages [Totani 1986].
From the mid-1980s onward, fieldwork became elaborate. Adachi based on his fieldwork in dry zone villages, Matale district, researched into the situation of labour exchange and social relations by comparing a traditional village and a newly settled village [Adachi 1988]. In kinship studies, Shigyo, taking notice of the differences between personal names and the nomenclature systems of titles among the Sinhalese in Polon-naruva district, compares up country (Uda Rata) with low country (Pahata Rata). He puts forward a structural principle that penetrates into various social organizations such as patrilineal descent groups, local groups, and dyadic networks [Shigyo 1987, 1988].
Takakuwa, who carried on her fieldwork in a fishing village, Matara district, in the South, studies the situation of fishermen's family with no land. In particular, she discusses the socio-economic status of women,
their roles, networks of affines through women, the meanings of dowry in relation to the market system, and technological progress provided by power-operated boats [Takakuwa 1986, 1987, 1989ab]. Besides Taka-kuwa, Taniguchi looks for changes in status of Sinhalese women [Tani-guchi 1987], and Tanaka points out that women have a strong position in Tamil society [Tanaka 1992]. Regarding urban study, Tomosugi pub-lished a monogaraph in which he describes the relationship between society and economy in Galle, a city in the South [Tomosugi 1990]. In general, there is a relative lack of kinship studies in Sri Lanka, and further research on change of caste hierarchy, social relations in rural areas and cities, and non-Buddhist society are left for future study.
6. Culture
Extensive studies have been done on Sri Lankan culture. A lot of work has been done, particularly from the viewpoint of cultural anthropology, such as a study on cosmology by examining the relationship between Buddhism and folk religion, reconsidering the application of the dichotomy of the Great Tradition and the Little Tradition to Sinhalese society. Y. Sugimoto used written sources and examined the meanings of religious thought held by village people [Sugimoto, Y. 1978]. Akaike critically reconsiders the concept of the two kinds of tradition and also examines the works written by G. Obeyesekere [Akaike 1988]. Other major studies focused on the pantheon, the hierarchical order of supernatural beings; on cosmological complex that relates to religious practitioners, believers and religious institutions; and on rituals, especially the relationship between thoughts and ideas in their expressive forms.
Around 1980, fieldwork began in earnest; Katayama, who energetically works on Pirit, Buddhist rituals performed by monks, links scriptures with practices in his study of ritual processes and analyzes the aspects of amalgamation of Buddhism with folk religion regarding deities [Kata-yama 1979a]; Aoki considers the relationship between idea and practice in rituals from a viewpoint of speech act theory in urban temples in Colombo [Aoki 1980a]; Sugimoto studies the historical development of Pirit rituals in up country village near Kandy to examine the continuity between exorcism of the low caste and Hindu ideology [Sugimoto, Y.
1990].
120 Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies, 6, 1994
on fieldwork on rituals in a village near Balangoda, Ratnapura district, M. Suzuki tries to reconstruct cosmology through people's belief in deities and the influence of Hinduism, taking into consideration the relationship with Buddhism, conflicts among cultural elements, and social change [Suzuki, M. 1984]. Further, he discusses the relationship between reli-gion and society, and change of cosmology through his study on rites of passage, such as female puberty ritual, marriage ritual, and funeral ritual [Suzuki, M. 1985ab, 1988]. He also tries to unite extraneous cul-tural elements and indigenous ones based on his struccul-tural analysis of the rituals related to the deity Devol and the demon Gara [Suzuki, M. 1985c, 1986b]. Y. Sugimoto deals with the pantheon taking into consideration the ranking system of Buddha, deities, spirits, demons, and planet deities. He also examines the change in cosmology and investigates the historical relationship between Sinhala and South Indian cultures, in particular Tamil and Telugu, through the analysis on meanings of symbols and rituals such as Buddha's tooth relic in Kandy, Pirit and Kohomba Kan-kari in a village in Mahanuvara district [Sugimoto, Y. 1985a, 1988ab, 1989, 1990]. Shibuya did his fieldwork on Sokari, a ritual drama dedi-cated to goddess Pattini, in some villages near Badulla, and reports on various aspects of belief in the deity which are different from the low country. Further, he clarifies the aspects of harvest supplication and regeneration of order by analyzing the contents of narratives and the ritual to the rocess. Shibuya also pays attention to people's sensitive reac-tions to the present-day situareac-tions such as exclusion of Tamils as a scape
goat and the connection between festival and riot [Shibuya 1985, 1988]. Oiwa conducted fieldwork in up country village near Kandy for under-standing the conception of Buddha through offerings at rituals and for surveying the various aspects of folk religion [Oiwa 1982, 1985, 1991] ; Omori and Taniguchi reconsidered the syncretism in temples and shrines of rural area near Mdtara, in the South [Omori and Taniguchi 1983].
For more inclusive studies, there is a book outlining folklore, Bud-dhism, folk performing arts and geography [Iwata et al. 1982]. Other comprehensive studies on religion and culture through rituals and prac-tices were published. [Iwata ed. 1982; Iwata and Ikari eds. 1984, 1985 ; Aoki ed. 1985]. Future study should be focused on the situation of Buddhism in urban areas where new beliefs and practices are generated, and the distinction between monks and householders which until recently
has been clearly made, is obscured. The transformation of cosmology in the society challenged by ethnic disputes and domestic terrorism, and the conflicts between urban and rural Buddhism have been studied [Adachi
1993].
There are several studies about urban festivals which focus on Perahara, ritual procession [Kajiwara 1981, 1985; Suzuki, M. 1982; Sugimoto, Y.
1985b; Shibuya 1993], examining the social and cultural dynamism and the relationship between politics and religions. Most of the studies on pilgrimage concentrate on Kataragama from a viewpoint of social change; M. Suzuki examines the origin myth and spatial structure of the sacred place and suggests that new types of religion are created by the encounter of elite culture with the popular at Kataragama [Suzuki, M. 1986a, 1989]; Akaike studies the attributes of deities and rituals associated with them from a viewpoint of socio-cultural dynamics [Akaike 1982, 1992]; Aoki tries to compare Kandy Perahara with that of Kataragama from a view-point of communitas theory [Aoki 1980b].
Concerning healing rituals, particularly exorcism, there have been attempts at analysing their symbolic systems; Ashiwa reports on the ritual processes in detail and examines Sinhalese cosmology from the viewpoint of the Berava caste, tom-tom beaters, in the South. [Ashiwa 1984, 1988, 1991]; Ueda works on healing rituals from a viewpoint of image therapy and analyzes the situation in which mind, inseparable from body, is cured with reference to the client's background, and the mind and body are transformed [Ueda 1990ab].
Since the mid-1980s, as ethnic struggles grew more violent, there has been an increase in interest in politics, and the relationship between state and religion, especially regarding issues of kingship and political power, has become a main topic of concern. Sugimoto, comparing Hindu king-ship with Buddhist kingking-ship, attempts a comparative study which takes South Asian kingdoms into consideration [Sugimoto, Y. 1991]. As for kingship, Oiwa makes a historical study on Uda Rata kingdom [Oiwa 1988], and Suzuki investigates the relationship between the myth of the state in old chronicles and the expression of ethnicity [Suzuki, M. 1991].
In Tamil studies, Sekine, working in Jaffna, elaborates on the Tamil concept of pollution by looking at rites of passage concerning birth and death. He elucidates the change of the concept from that based on cos-mology to that based on ideology and points out the dynamic aspects of
122 Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies, 6, 1994
political power related to caste hierarchy [Sekine 1984, 1985]. As regards traditional Hinduism, though there is a report on rituals per-formed by temple brahmans in Jaffna [Ikari 1982], much is still open to future study. Having done long-term fieldwork in a fishermen village on the west coast near Chilaw, Tanaka makes a scrupulous study on the concept of Hindu deities and ritual process, the relationship between priests and spirit mediums, and ideological role of the dominant caste [Tanaka 1986, 1988, 1990]. He also explains that the concept of Sakti, divine power, is important in goddess cults; that rituals, related to political power, become an expressive device of ideology; that the political power changes the nature and qualities of deities; and that the social status of the patron changes through Sanskritization [Tanaka 1989, 1990]. His monograph is a great contribution to the study of Hindu cosmology and ideology [Tanaka 1991a]. Further, in his recent study, he analyzes a ritual process by drawing a parallel between the patron of the ritual and the king, and investigate its ideological function by examining the festival organization in a Hindu temple near Chilaw [1991b]. He also examines the government policy on Hinduism and fishing rituals [Tanaka 1993ab]. In case of the Sinhalese, strong Hindu influence is found in Pint rituals, idea of kingship, and festivals for deities. Skanda (Murukan) and Pattini cults have something in common with the Tamil belief, though there has been no serious comparative study on them. There is no work on either Christianity or Islam, which leaves many tasks for future study.
7. Law
In 1980, Chiba and others began their study on laws in Sri Lanka where multiple types of laws coexist. The results were published as a report [Chiba ed. 1984] and an essay collection [Chiba ed. 1988]. Chiba tries to understand the complex structure of coexistence of Western law and native law through studying how traditional indigenous concept of law exists and works in the present-day situation. He looks at law in the light of legal anthropology by putting law in the context of Sri Lankan legal culture. The essay collection consists of Okudaira's study which considers the situation of Sri Lankan law in the Indian cultural con-text, Yamada Takumi's study on the process of the transplantation of
Western law, Yasuda's study on the situation of the judicial system after independence, Yuasa's report on Islamic law found among Muslim families,
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Okuyama's study on traditional measures for settling disputes, Suzuki Teruji's research on the socialization of the judicial system, Omori's study on order in village community, Sugimoto's survey of general view on Buddhist law, Nakamura, Hisashi's study on the custom regarding water supply, and Taniguchi's research about women's status. Okuyama studies a practical aspect of customary law, based on cases of dispute settlements in villages, and tries to make a typology of the cases [Okuyama 1983]. Studies on law have just began and it is necessary to investigate the discrepancies between indigenous and extraneous concepts of law as well as to collect actual cases.
8. Economy
There were early pioneering studies such as reports on population trend [Minami ed. 1962] and economic laws [Uchida. R. ed. 1964; Komatsu ed. 1972]. Economic surveys were conducted later on as investment ac-tivities and development projects increased [Kurimoto ed. 1963; Fujii ed. 1971]. At the same time particular studies were conducted; Nakagawa points out management problems in enterprises [Nakagawa 1984]; Naka-mura, Hisashi studies the relationship between the development of in-dustrial policy and small enterprises [Nakamura, Hisashi 1986, 1988b]; Uchida considers the process of building a plantation [Uchida, M. 1985, 1987]; and Ohira surveys labor movements [Ohira 1984]. Saito's report on development of communication by the electronic media [Saito, Y. 1984]. Naito's report on the overseas laborers who emigrated to Japan and to the Middle East [Naito 1990] elucidates reactions of Sri Lankan people to global situations. There is also a study on the relationship of commodities and money economy in urban areas from a viewpoint of economic anthropology [Tomosugi 1988]. With regard to economic development and assistance, there are reports such as Yanagawa's ex-amination of the development and assistance plans [Yanagawa 1988]. From a viewpoint of indigenous development theory, interest in the Sarvodaya movement, has also increased among Japanese scholars. 9. History, Archaeology and Physical Anthropology
There are not many elaborate studies on history of the Sinhalese. For the ancient period, Yamazaki examines the legend of King Asoka to analyze the discrepancy between facts and the legend of Mahinda Thero,
124 Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies, 6, 1994
who is said to have introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka [Yamazaki 1979]. With regard to the Uda Rata kingdom during medieval times, making full use of historical records, Takabatake conducts a detailed examination on land ownership by Buddhist temples (vihara) and shirines (devale), and on the royal or aristocratic prerogatives [Takabatake 1980]. Suenaga investigates land tenure systems in villages on the basis of written sources [Suenaga 1982, 1983] and Shibuya examines the feudal institu-tions of Uda Rata kingdom [Shibuya 1977]. Yajima studies oversea trade between the West and the East investigating historical documents written in Arabic [Yajima 1980]. Other aspects of ancient or medieval times, such as the history of the North, Raja Rata, have not been studied so far. The study of history of each area and relationship between Sinhala and Tamil is left as a topic to be studied in future.
There are no noteworthy results in archaeology except a report on the Buddhist ruins in Mahawei Gafiga basin [The Exploration Club of Hosei Univ. ed. 1975, 1978]. Japan has given a lot of assistance for the restora-tion of archaeological ruins, but serious studies on them are still left for the future. In physical anthropology, Abe has studied the Tamils soma-tically [Abe 1983].
10. Art, Music and Material Culture
In the 1930s, T. Sugimoto examined the murals at Sigiriya mountain as examples of Buddhist art and pointed out their similarities with the murals at Ajanta in India [Sugimoto, T. 1940]. Mikami examined ceramics excavated in Sri Lanka to analyze them in the context of the East-West trading route [Mikami 1985]. There is a comprehensive introduction to Buddhist art with photographs [Hayashima and Ito 1979]. Ito, interested in Theravada Buddhist art in Southeast Asia, describes the present-day situation of ancient and medieval ruins in Anuradhapura, Polonnaruva and other places [Ito 1993], and compares the Sri Lankan art style with that of Thai. However, there are no studies on Buddhist ruins, Buddhist murals or images of Buddha and the influence of Maha-yana Buddhism. As for music, there are no studies except S. Fujii's brief fieldwork on the Vadda tribe and Shibuya's brief introduction to popular music [Shibuya 1987]. Analysis of dance, drama, masks and other folk performing arts are left for future studies. With regard to material culture, Sekine offers case studies of house plan and related
rituals among the Jaffna Tamil [Sekine 1981, 1982]. As for everyday life, there is a brief report on cooking [Suzuki, T. 1986] and a study on the form and use of sea boats.
11. Language and Literature
Noguchi compiled a textbook of Sinhalese and a Sinhala-Japanese dictionary for Japanese learners, which are a great contribution to the study of language [Noguchi 1984, 1992]. Modern Sinhalese literature has been recently introduced to Japan and some of the works written by Ediriwara Sarachchandra have been directly translated from Sinhalese to Japanese. Neverthless, no studies have been made on oral traditions such as folktales. There have been no serious linguistic studies on Sin-hala and Tamil languages so far, though there is a linguist specializing in Japanese literature, S. Ohno, who has pointed out the similarities between Tamil and Japanese [Ohno et. al 1985]. Such an easy compari-son, however, is misleading, and he is highly criticized.
12. Conclusion
Although Sri Lankan studies by Japanese scholars have been progres-sing rapidly in the past ten years, studies are concentrated on Sinhalese society and tend not to take social dynamics and regional differences into consideration in detail. The topics focus on cosmology and religion, especially Popular Buddhism, often from the point of view of cultural anthropology based on the research in small scale societies. In the future, it will be necessary to combine various study methods with area studies and to extend the object of study from Sinhalese society to Tamil and Muslim societies. We must consider such topics as existing situation of Burgher (people of mixed-blood with Europeans living in cities), the con-version to Christianity, the development of seasonal workers emigrating overseas, the effects of economic development and assistance, and the present situation of plantations. We should also record and study social changes and new movements by collecting detailed information. Above all, practical tasks still remain for solving fundamental ethnic problems. Although these are very complex and difficult issues, it will be the main task of future studies in each area to make objective analyses and utilize them for practical solutions.
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