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(1)ING. INFERENC. James. 1.. C. R.. Ffrench*. IrLtrOductiorL.. delightful misnomer? Oxford Dictionary not the most title of the Pocket be being a good two inches thick, could perhaps This volume, carried comfortably but us, dressed as we are, in the a large bunting most jacket, of would of pocket so fond And are not 五nd the thi喝a native surely speakers Weighty encumbrance･ it but must be from on dictionary nor so they cannot the that parted of, reliant in Now learners language, it about keep person･ their of a foreign aspiring to have bilingual dictionaries a choose contrast, variety of truly pocket-sized wide in an to be found one so as never from, and many do carry at wanting all times, learner should differ from It is only the native that the foreign natural emergency. is not for his on dictionary, this the in the obvious and only reliance speaker There a difference knows more is,also reas.n latter naturally, of that the words. both believe While a difference parties that the of attitude･ equally approach, is it comes to de丘nitions, has the last word the foreigner'sもelief dictionary when Progress true In his Pilgrim's the m.re towards comprehension, active and devout. ㍑a it were a help dictionary as if Bible, very present learner goes the armed with in time when assailed by the slightestdoubt･ of trouble," and consults it reverently In a is more like a maps･ The JOurney though, progress, Without speaker's native is to across some language, likely come the reader unknown novel in his own for help･ Instead･ hc turn to the dictionary he immediately but not will will words, the for indications mea一 try to context of the signs of surrounding and clues read de丘nition, and consulting believing in his own do-it-yourself his way ming and goes a last as resort. the oracle only A learner would do well to strive to emulate of the native speaker's methods is to text･丘nding his way a This not suggest that native speakers through should It bears r甲eating be emulated･ be envied, that, in lanthat they merely should to can be no kudos the role 6f either teaching attached guage and learning, there In both or learner, since potentially reversible･ native roles are always speaker do differ in that the learner the learner speakerand reading, the goals of the native knowas derive or to language as acqulre using the well practise enjoyment wishes in a foreign lanExtensive is a non for an ledge. sine qua education reading it, "A to as inclination leads Dr. Johnson man or, as put just ought read guage,. Is the. him; forwhat in 丘ve boars chore the. a. he reads as day, and in. elements. reader burden can. must. be. *英語教室(°ept.. be. reading. a. task. so. may. in. continually in any. a. reduced. of English). little good. A man young should read knoⅥ71edgeけ･ deal The task and of acquire if be more foreign language that much arduous will it is his dictionary, so if this worth asking plying Any the dictionary way. effort to dispense with will do. him a. great.

(2) James. 12. not. the. same. as. way. of such. a. more. with. that. speaker, will be that. native. ease. a. enjoyment. and. in comprehend The skills･ results competence win be de-. is attempting the learner he is practising; that the same. indicates. practice. self-help. veloped. but. time. saves. only. C. R. FFRENCH. robust than. active. and is. possible. to. less independent. a. with. if it is of self-reliance will reading. faster as as a just greater guitar and early possible, player will make his instrument from an if he learns to hold progress early age･ properly in language is Currently the focus and emphasis theory teaching of pedagogical his on on than the teacher the learner and his strategies and of learning rather It is felt that be more aware organisation made of of material･ students should in case di#erent learning, they the extensive and particular of reading methods of B上lt mere be exhorted to adopt the strategy of self-reliance outlined above. would approach practised. benefits. The. to. is not exhortation for the self-help strategy tages is practicable by learners. To resources,. what. it is possible While enough. it remains in theory, to be. be. what. to. guess. in. training. give. extensive. years. the. ago. actlVlty Of guessing The are guesses made hearing the sentence,. the. on. only. inves-. to. a available to the reader who makes his go the reader about making depend What can on? specific exercises. was or. of unknown,. meaning not. is necessary. advanthe idea. does. acquire? "inferenciI唱". term. whether. are. How skill of guessing? in of selトreliance virtue. The and exercises? is it to but how easy. several. claim. seen. it. theory. of. to. lユSeful in. the. tests. cloze extolled, Several. How. text.. a. claims. of clues. lkind. unknown word kind of facts will his. guess? What be constructed are. judge the. in. an. at. guess. more. as. Johnsonian. tigate. be. but. pragmatic,. "No-one. Bill," would. to. respect may. speci丘cally the in a text. words. unknown linguistic. o□. this reading. denote. to. coined partially also. extensive. grounds. infer on. Anyone. want marry pragmawould Anyone hearing defect or of character physique. "Peonies favourite be are 月二owers", would infer on sentence, my the able to 凸ower. is the a a type Inferencing use is linguistic that peony of grounds purely both linguistic to What pragmatic guess the meaning of and clues ofanunknown. follows is a consideration of inferencing. of the process. tic. grounds. 2.. Bill has. that. OrganisatiorL. some. of this Paper.. arLd Scope. assumes does the inferencing that the reader of lexis and study concerns The is di伍culties in text. learner type the that structural of envisaged aspect the meaning grammatical of word order, verb tense, and mood, understands deixis, and interclausal relations relations between subjects, verbs and their objects, In fact the texts by subordinating that and co-ordinating expressed conjunctions. are here are for upper intermediate set pieces quoted comprehension students of has not been English as a foreign language. The structure of the texts simpli丘ed.. This. 丘nd. not. Inferencing, structure. uistic. though,. could. is adapted. be to. taught. the. the inferencing of any available. This study is organised in follows divide headings what For. smaller. linguistic 1.. Clues. units. to. within. larger. the. at. lower. level of the unknown as. an. students. there. word. suitable is. of that. analysis. the spectrum The headings. word.. levels with. of are. clues :. always. variety, into. texts. a. whose. liⅢg･. variety of clues is, the皿ain. that types. ranging. from.

(3) INFERENCING. 2.. Deictic. 3. 4.. Clues Clues. within between. 5.. Clues. between. clues. the. clause.. propositions. propositions. with. no. connective･. l･_I is used for the purpose 0 of information stressed that this organisation 0 f do or use that readers should exactl), this type claimed analysis only･ It is not inferencing･ actually performing analysis in the above order when by a concluding taxonomy The section of clues outlined above will be followed implications. dealing with the pedagogical. be. It must. 3.. Clues. the. within. It may. at. from. first. word.. seem. anomalous the word. clues within. to. the meanlngS Of unknown it be better to this heading would be partiallyknown by the reader derivations elements of a王1d compounds guessing. speak of itself. Under. words A word may speak of partially unknown words･ in the following senses :五rstly, the individual is new a be known, but the resulting combination up that may makes word be knovn but one a may the this gis not secondly, meaning of reader; w()rd is in or (usually metaphorically the context･ extended idiomatic) that used. to. the sense. Derivations.. 3.(i). Many. people. knowledge. a. with. of Latin. or. Greek. have. had. the. experience. of. the meaning unknown English word of in a word of the classical root and the a氏Ⅹes, for example for in foreign a knowledge buildiI唱prOCeSSeS a一so students of word able. Certainly to But is a valuable inferencing. Marcband English (1960) and Jespersen (1942) aid in English. A 170 different types between list some process them of derivationai his do well to select the more familiarise teacher useful types and students would in following In his bear teacher the points: them. mind with selection the should to. trying. together. piece. using their like im-muト. an. knowledge. ( who. i. ). many. are. a氏xes. very. productive1-. for. example,. (Ⅹ)+er,. òne. Lmeanjng. X'es'.. (ii). are. polysemous:. employee outbreak. escapee. a艶es. son? ln. -ee. ouトin re-. in-. 3.(ii).. in. and and. for example･. outdo. and resign in invincible and inflammable repay. Compounds.. if the possibilities of inferencing the meaning of a compound word known? depends on both parts are The the meaning of the whole relationship inherent in For between the two parts. the the teacup example relationship word is tea. But in is a cup inherent English that the used fo7relationships compounds in the following: are very varied, as shown. What. are. pickpocket huncbback:. Jespersen. earthquake: outlines. :. a. man. who. a. man. whose. a. many. picks pockets back is buncbed. quake of the earth different relations. existing. in. English. compounds. but. has.

(4) to. this the. "Compounds. say‥. i? which. way. therefore to. C. R. FFRENCH. James. 14. the relation know which If he parts･. tO. not. lS. the two The relationship. connect. grounds･. but say two nothing of relation between objects learner be understood･" (op･Lcit･p･137)･ The on an linguistic rule is operating compound unknown be on it must a pragmatic gness･ purely makes a. express. is to. between. tea. and. for. cup･. is. example. a. common. sense. One.. However is. in. inherent. relationships. cline of transparency ranging following list : : book-shelf shelf for books. There in. the. the. a. are compounds from the obvious. not to. that involves rest lobsters lobsteトpOt pot for catching to the : is eyesore aesthetically painful object that by force be entered place that cannot stronghold: (range) : very close (range) poinトblank there diversity types Faced of relationship, of with this on to inferencing can of compounds teacher give aid the on be made of must pragmatic grounds･ guess reader,s :. restcure. always the. transpareht･ as. opaque,. shown. cure :. context. surrounding. 3.(iii). The. the. at. (a). Metaphor.. is. little gu･idance. linguistic. grounds･. using. course. clues. the The from. time･. same. Different. "metaphor,,. woてd. eye. is. part. of speech･. here. used. in. a. very. wide. sense. requlreS. and. SOme. basic to mean meaning extension of a word,s ･taken sense the basic begs the theoretical questions of how and by whom view our the serve it is must present purposes; but is determined the view which a is a can here guess the meaning of metaphoreader whether question addressed is known･ For if the example･ basic sense sense a if the of word rically extended how his easy in He bed and as took up walked, basic sense of take up is known, uses? extended〃 is it to guess the meaning of the following "metaphorically at the meeting･ took up the point (a) They (b) He took up cricket for a hobby･ It. explanation･ sense. This. is. (c)川take obviously. take. from. up. you. up. in. (c). that. on. some. promise･. is further. extended the basic. from. the. basic. than. meaning. it is in. more must greater, knows meaning make who reader inference leap to (c) than (a)I This cline of metaphorical ima如ative mental in in the lS that follow･ also evidence extension of meaning _examples from that of the a involve of part of speech The丘rst set change of examples basic (ら) set the more meaning The (a) set contains the and the basic meaning.. (a),. that. extended. is,. a. :. use. 1.(a) (ち) 2.(a) (b) 3.(a) (b) 4.(a) (b). We. We. now. have. may. now. access access. Is this your pen? Who these penned He hurt his foot. Who He He. this information･ these data･ to. lines?. the bill? w山foot left for Nor耶.ay･ me leave to go･ gave. a.

(5) 15. INFERENCING. The the in. between. relationship corresponding. 1.(b). the in. words have. (b). the. is by. set. `to. means. `to. access'but between relationship. since. foot. pen,. access,. words. no. constant･. means. dots. 2.(b). pen'in. left. and. is. noun. not. not. in. the The. (a). set. have. `to. mean. there. constant･. and. access. verb. a. is. no. the and verb to in these cases･ The the teacher aid inferencing guidance cangive as to for a on gness must pragmatic grounds wllat, example･ simply make reader In 3 the ie; to write･ is the likely action･ connected most the noun Pen, with to a can be done inferencing reasoning: complicated what possibilities involve more to jump required bill that is connected the idea of a foot? And the mental with is 'permission･ from to depart leave as inference the verb meaning quite considerable these require also use other contextual clues･ Native speakers and probably would pen'.. linguistic. reasoning. pragmatic. involving follow-.. a. processes the. change･- of. Spring,. He. summer,. (e. e.. autum,. danced. the. nonce. of. two. examples. uses. of. words. that. his did･ in. lived. Anyone. cummings:. in. as. speech,. sense. make. winter,. he. his didn't,. sang. of. part. to. trying. when. a. pretty. how,. town). Antony. Sball. be. drunken boy Cleopatra. Squeaking I'th'posture. (shakespeare 3.(iii) In meaning. He. broke. 3.(a). (b).. Cleopatra.. (a). the. Ⅴ.. 2.. 220). set. the word. the. contains in a. used. word. metaphorically. used. in. extended. its basic sense･. arm. snorted･ absolute pig. for the tape to for President.. lS. He. ran. He･. ran. an. The. pears. are. And. the. perfect. be. that. seen. arm:. (but. afternoon. shape. :. that. sun.. slowly. ripened,. sense will make be as follows: will to the body･ attached. human). de丘nable. the. race.. characteristics. faded･--. slowly. extension. projecting object not. in. the. of the basic meaning the other collocation with words to the the select from reader. the. a. a. win. ripening. arises result of the collocation that iforces known some part of the meaning that will be selected in these cases. 2.. some. pig. Sam. as. 1.. see. arm. The. 4･(a)･ (b). 5.(a). (b). 6.(a). (b).. set. shall. greatness. of speech.. contains. his. l. and. playing rugby. is broken. of the chair He disliked the shape of the table. The idea took shape. a She wore colourful coat. It's a colourful idea.. The. (ら).. can. part. examples. (ち) set. the. and. my. of a whore. Antony and. following. 1.(a). (b). 2.(a).. It. :. (ち)Same. Metaphor. the. forth,. brought. in. in the (a) expressed It is the sentence. basic meaning that is The the context･ aspects as. in.

(6) James. 16. (but 3.. not. (but 4.. pig;. not. not. a. the. for:. run. a. large. member. (but. of attractive. characteristics. despicable. species.. tow･ards. a. goal.. progress). fruit). of. not. a. of. factors. What. FFRENCH. animal). progress make (but not linear spatial develop ripen:. 6.. set. visual). aglutton,. (but 5.. spatial). having. colourful:. C.R.. inference the extended meaning of his Li allows word? vhich similar extensions of basic For can one body belonging to meanings･ example, speak of parts of the human inanimate as in expressions like `the head a bed, foot a mountain, the objects, of of factor that determines the bowels of the earth', etc? Another the reader whether is the degree inference between the correct will make of similarity conventional in the Li in the L2 concepts those culture pigs, for example, and culture. Are as lower forms life in both 2, 3, 5 For examples regarded of cultures? and 6 the imagination use his to make must inference. He must the correct reader ask himself affect the reader's factor is the degree. One. a. questions,. such. as,. President?". In. imagination. in. meaningless. exercise. "in. what. what. can. circumstances. sense.can. an. to. ability. to. a. `move. man. develop?". afternoon. towards'. the. A. ofhce. to. use readiness inferencing The ability.. of the last. is part questions of the in 3(iii)a,,are included as last together example, with those examples words wbicb･ because cause to devote natlVe some of their unusual collocation, would Speakers to the extended Both the native foreigner use thought meaning. the speaker the and in same to an type inference. This pragmatic questioning process of order make in the lntroduction, fact bears out the claim made is not a that inferencing simply. natural process The cline in idioms peak hash, a baker's Faced. with literal. these. answering. in. features language, but of a particular both communication native speakers and learners. listed above comes to in the apparent of idiomaticity examples as, kick the bucket, someone's cats proper, rain settle such anddogs, bop:en, to eat nose. red tape, to go by Shanks's pony, the parson's the. manipnlating. in. of idiom,. this type. the. a. to. common. may. reader. it. recognise. not. be words, which forces If context. as. knows,. such. go. and. a. for. the. context meaning unless of the Ⅲakes to the reader of this interpretation. the literal abandon in the The meaning, there is no clue to the realmeaning themselves. words reader basic to 丘t as cannot the context, was meaning the the extend possible with be true The same homonyms, as ea7corn previous examples･ would of real such Of help human knowing one is no the ear; towards and guessing meaning of the. the. nonsense. other. In. word 4.. these cases clues for the meaning itself, and it is to this subject that. Deictic. and. a now. can. word. from. come. only. outside. the. turn.. C)ues.. English contains the fo77ner, such, speaker. of we. hearer. among closed set of deictic words These are the latter. words used to establish between the relationship a. are. which in. the. the,. communication. word. thz's, that,. between. that follows. them.

(7) 17. INFERENCING. in conversation at work of this process example riotous party a friend the morning after a particularly meet 〃Did you did leave you the party?けor =What time to him are, words and my丘rst a the words "Have ever been to such riotous party?〟 or you that party?" enjoy I presume to a particular event that I am referring the, that, such a, establish that knowledge I am of the individual party to both assuming shared to be known of us, in this shared case,主s utterance, this The context o=he that both of us attended･ to an is, it is that de丘nite refers specific, The use and knowledge･ of the here to a in the real world or rather than (meaning one object, event individual person) the in and communication deixis is also present written Naturally class of things. the writer that deictic must one understand on words･ meeting of these reader, deictic word･ by the individualdenoted he is aware of the assumes of the existence before it has been bacause its existence melltioned be aware may of The reader between reader is writerand its existence or because in the text sharedknowledge that, text･ When refer backthe･ this, such of the rest of the the context given items, are or they called to text assumed in the mentioned previously wards anaphoric･ to be is presumed in italicised word fouow the Two sets which of examples by is linked The for inferencing･ unknown a candidate possible unknownand text･ In set the anaphora in later the丘rst the to mentioned another word anaphora to the same individualin is, both that refer that are links two coreferential･ words linked, the items are pragmatically In the set, the two second the real world. This section considers the of the second･ existence presupposing existence of tbe丘rst in guessing help the meaning of any linkgives the reader the anaphoric whether two know does the relationships not of which Note that the reader the unknown. assume he cannot so by automatically is being theanaphora signalled outlined above in the text･ is co-referential word with another that the unknown. the context of the I be as follows: would and. Co-referential. 4.(i).. :. Examples 1. He We. 2.. in. 旦.wn 3.. A. It. 5. We. was. climbed 6. The honour 7.. surprised trying. was. A. find. to. obstacle 8. The. a. drive. to. refused animal a labour of love,. the. thing. sparrow. in. of. one. beasts. the. through. the. gate･. such two. could. not. lay across be moved･. owl. sank. its claws. end. 1 and Example Anorak hyponymy･ respectively･. 2. butthe. but. agreement･. tree-trunk. obviously. move･. the into. road･ the. They. mouse. an. thing. quite useless･ proved the bird had the room,. him･ the work exhausted none of to an that looked rather forbidding; eSCarP before･ a highcliff but neither a contract of them companies signed. came. the. but. anorak,. to. wretcbed 4.. an. throughthewindow･. man. anapbora･. Set. brought. were. by. linked. words. First. had. An. utterance･. thing, anorakand show are hyponyms and sparrow if he assumes The reader･. realised and. the. with. victim's. us. intended. despair life. had. was. ever. to. that. this. soon. at. bird in a relation of and sparrow bird and terms of the superordinate can at hyponymic this relationship･.

(8) C. R. FFRENCH. James. 18. least inference that bird. These are not. is an inanimate is a type anorak of object and that a sparrow but are none less facts knowing. inferences the speci丘c worth beasts 3 and 4 show in a Examples labour land work, and animals relation of If assumes he is synonymy. the reader this relationship, that labour may conclude for beast is for The inference another word work and that another word animal. here is qulte SpeCi丘c, since these are very made close synonyms. 5. 6 show. and. The. synonymy. is largely. escarp reader. true. and examples. While. contract clijfT,. and. they helpful.. assumes. who. very. certainly. are. in. agreement. and. synonyms. a an. will make. near. relation of inference. that. that stand in afiⅩed linguistic relationship with show words 7 8 lying that do not. Ourknowledge that a tree-trunk each other, and show words across can be an or by an owl can be a the road that a mouse obstacle caught The is part linguistic, knowledge. victim pragmatic, not may construct of our reader a common sense between to treeJrunk relationship and obstacle, mouse and victim him. enable. to. 1-6. the. make. Repetition. 4.(ii). Every. inference.. right. Substitution.. and. Composition. English. student of that English. knows. `repetition. that. is. a. not. good to it, as uses thing'and the devices of hyponymy synonymy and avoid is also the device on illustrated above. There of sllbstitution. In a composition Shakespeare, for example, be may be referred to variously as `tbe 'immortal bard, literature, the dramatist, the poet, the author, the father of English the Bard of Avon to long or an individual over quite simply as `be'. Repeated reference stretches knowledge to the we extent may of text builds up our about that individual where knowledge. that Appendix use. A,. description teous. a. character. To words, for upper. other set. an. of. inference. to. comprehension explorer named is set up by the. illustrate. this. piece. Our Speke. little, ideas drank. we. look. must. at. is. intermediate feeling that he. a students which a rather selfrigh-. is. dissipations. were. not. jTor him,. his. own This information not planned unconscious virtue･ ahead, respectable, of help to as description inference the (line 23) reader smugly a￡t of the way will a man himself. Also it for express the such consider substitution of e7:Pedition might to construe between in lines46/47: a this allows the reader relation of equivalence. had one. able 4.. been. an. of these expressions to inference one. (iii).. Anaphoric. In the individuals. disaster. unqualiβed. relations. following that :. Examples it. basis. the. on. Set. identity. without. is. -. Two. the Wbetber. support 4.. one. between. link. anapborical. ideas. two. or. :. is. load. an. of reference.. :. not. to take advisable blisters require. plasters which 2. Less important gem rambling (Appendix B lines 31/32) 3. holiday-requlreS The walkiog. 1.. If be. practically nothing. accomplished the reader the other unknown, would. and of the other.. there examples co-referential. are. had. and. known. were. and wears. keep. the. 丘rst aid. a. (Appendix as. such. socks. and. framed. steady.. weight. woollen. least kit, not lines 52/53). socks. large. a. B.. with. or. can. shoes sack.. (Appendix without. for the. often. Light B. comforting be bought･･･. alloy frames. help. lines48/49) thin. 1ユndersocks. they.

(9) INFERENCING. be. should what In. worn. walking Example are. plasters. to. yougo when intend to. 1. plasters to be. assumed. your. boots.. new. (Apppendix. B. anaphorically of the kit. This is be example would. part. (-････).Tell 28-30). lines. linked. are a. buy. do.. you. 19. the specialists. an. jirst-aid with illustration of. kit two. because in. words. Another relationship. car the the bonnet. of and opened is If the reader assumes by the, he that the part-whole relationship signalled a fair as to may guess the meaning make of the unknown. 2 but in this case gear shows and socks and shoes in a relation of hyponymy hyponyms are as some are the mentioned examples of the superordinate Ltermand it. The can a hypothesis not construct like `gear is co-referential with reader can be to an at inference. that arrive something socks and shoes examples of', a. parトwbole He. out. got. 3 shows. and that the. The. sack.. this. load. means. which. framed. search. in. Sack. of load is hisknowledge. notion. may. reader. large. a. be. to. to. a. relation of ge?eral collocation･ to arise ln expected the context of in a likely that exists select notion. context.. In. 4 the relation of general collocation is buying in the the shop of with specialists definite article･ the author he assumes shows a feature concommitant of the general notion. does a. :. the understand correct inference.. link. idea. the Using. bought. the accepts are that specialists reader buyi喝Valking boots. If the reader of article here, he will be helped towards. definite. of the. meaning. to. stretched somewhat the thing is where. the. listed above in this section the deictic clues are not enough because, inference as we have seen, are so diHethere many provide complete by items in rent English can the reader not relations signalled anaphoric tell and from is in question. turn the anaphora Therefore we now alone which relati6nship to other types information for a the missing of clue which necessary maygive inference. complete In. all of the. to. 5.. Clueswithin. the. Watching does eye. rent. and the each. cases. a. the. the. clause.. mo.vements. a. of. in. move. not. a. in. word These. 5.(i).. line. the. Inferencing Consider. The. from. we. point,. can. easily focusing. Most places in the line of print. often the points of focus will be to be take the subject-verb-(object) relationship verbs, since readers A English sentence. may the amount reader well reduce of. bacause. print. of are predictions similar likely mlost assuming the relationships an inference be made may using the next･. eye･. practised reader's line but jumps continuous. from a. clue from examples. arrest. from. does the. in. sentence. the Y. Tbe X arrested inference for X, Y text. to. verbs. and narrow. Z. he. inferences between words as. on on. nouns. central. attentiongiven. is able. to. verb. that diffe-. see. a. to. in. predict what can that they. within. the. is. clause.. coming. to to. up. be. by made Very often. basis.. nouns.. the form: for Z. cannot. down. of Appendix. is the speci丘c if arrest only clue, but the in the丘eld of possible entries those slots. Some B how have the verbs show and be allow infe-. be.

(10) C. R. FFRENCH. James. 20. of the object or complement･ B..ts a sole. must･･････have moulded a often the verb have expresses whole-part fences. (1ine22). between relationship subjectand object, to guess concrete. This the reader the relationship allows and vben subject in discussion of the nature underfoot of the ground that sole is a part of a boot･ The Whe a good context clue for a speci丘c inference･ the wider of the text also provides in be are noun as sentence: the re phrases, the subject and complement of the verb is a type A cagoule (adapted from line39) of cape. between the hyponym･ cagoule, and cape, there is a relation of hyponymy in this case inferencing term･ We hardly since the speak of the superordinate need But in the丘rst text we sentence functions as a de丘nition this anyway. of sentence is inanimate. a in the sentence as take walking. form of recre丘nd the same relationship expressed a COnStruCt to recreation may The guess the meaning of ation. who wishes reader 'a can be'･ The is hypothesis that walking superordirecreation something such as sense, 'activity'suggests itself and further context, term and common specify nate. this. as. 5.(ii). Though because enced. Inferencing. from. Inferenci□g a a. are. from. the. 250. light alloy from. the. 5Prain. to. modi丘er: of the Pennine. miles. c?n ln. to. to. (line23/64). Way.. noun:. fanatical. of the. expressions. relation additive be ankle'must. grip. preposition. out. and. modi丘ed:. (line 6) miserable frames (1ine49). thoroughly. in. be. Moslem. inferencedfirstly text. the. sujrer erPoSure the'ir ankles,. sprain. st7･Onghold･.･(Appendix lead. to. an. a. inference. that. line 44/45) to. your. ankle'. being享n an. 'to. spraln. an. a. of verbal is partly hinted by what at less spoilt regions the wilder, on. A. do 'something you?n become mlS-ble, and. as. painful experience. the adjectives desolate and c) Considering desolate, to be boggy), we be (to predicates. 1.(b. (line12). inclement. windswept,. (1ine22/23) (1ine23). sole. modi丘ed. whole. Inferencing. to. modi丘er. rubber moulded deep tread for. Inferencing. (a) 1･(a). marshy,. B line5) (Appendix (line 10/ll). their ankles by accident･. sprain desolate. not. boggy,. are. verbs:. thousands. areas. They. to. nouns. year. These. (a) (b) (c). and. from. Every. (a) (b). 4.. constituents･. be inferenced of a verb may verb is central to the clause, the meaning be infernoun may nouns phrases and the meaning of of the surrounding on the verb･ The examples that follow constituents than the basis of other to grammatical according the inferencing possibilities within the clause grouped. (a) (b) (c). 3.. basis of other. the. on. activity･. the. show relationship. 1. Inferencing. 2.. time. spare. pleasurable. common. sense. roughly as ially as this paragraph boggy, marshy, windswept. a. they. describe･ to The. and basis how. carl. boggy Say. as. that. essentialparts. their. meaning. that these and refer to can dales･ The guess reader likely to be described･ especthey. Weknow. fells,. and. the. are these areas describes the nature of difncult terrain･ whole are inclement therefore all inferenced and. Desolate, as. possible.

(11) 21. INFERENCING. be but it will not of such terrain, between differentiate that will each. attributes inferences. this. on. possible. basis. to. alone. form. word. here are Because the nouns already verbs, of collocations with and b) boot. Common sense are both de丘ned as a defined: parts of partly sole and tread I)e a a boot must that the part what sole is, of made of rubber will tell the reader lead to an inference it is the Similar as reasoning will of rubber･ only part made as deep･ likely part of a sole to be described for i7･ead, as it is the most or Pennine Wa3, is a 3. The can inference that the path because road reader it is be walked because it is long and can the that capitals, welトknown･ and, of by tho7-Oughly･ Many slot occupied could fill the grammatical and semantic adverbs to has a broad area The of meaning reader and likewise for the adjective alloy. Iiowever, it seems likely in for these words･ from an inference that a choose making degree; one feels that adfor thorough13, being an opt of adverb reader would in that position･ frequent found Similar degree be type the most verbs of would a a description frame concerIthe that of reasoning suggest rucksack would would. 2.(a. it is. substance 4. ships.. preposition. Consider. the. Burton. the. semantic it is not. can. reader say. can. some. be. a. signal. several. different. a. are. priest,. a. out. here. other. for clues It is important. suggest. relation-. jaw',. etc,. expressing each word wounding and the adverbial phrase. a that, on the basis of prepositions alone, claim inference least can for the following The we word. for by the preposition, example, stro71gruled out. between. the. be to might suggested be inand not out priest got of. be something must that stronghold with come from this word must elsewhere.. not. semantic. the--,. `village,触ht, morning,. specific. possibilities be. because. Moslem,. to. used. relationship possible to at. arrive. is that. hold. in. wounded word could. Therefore. be. may. sentence. was. following. different. a. of.. made. One. as. Can. the The. by. reader. fanatical. prepositions. larger. in. and. spatial dimensions;. here. that types several of clue are alⅥrays in B builds Appendix word. of clues especially upaninterdependence how to in such and avoid accidents all relating to the topic of di氏cult terrain howl the illformation from one clause relates to the unknown word places･ Exactly on between This is the the the relationship clauses. of another clause will depend on. operation. clues. 6.(i). The The The The. The The. note. again. one. subject of the 6.. to. next. section.. between. De丘nition relations. propositions.. terms.. of. between. propositions (pi) I invited. in. text. a. are. here. classified. as. John and (pii) Mary･ I didn't invite but (pii) John adversatlVe relation: (pi) I invited John丘rst, (pi主)then l invited temporal relation: i invited John because (pi) (pi主)I invited Mary. causal relation: l invite If Ⅰ'11invite Mary. (pi主) (pi) John, relation: conditional additive.relation二. (pi). for this. It. will be convenient in 'I invited John. and. Mary'. Mary.. I invited. classi丘cation as. if they. follows:. i invited. to were. treat. conjunctions connecting. Mary.. between. clauses. phrases, as with the verb.

(12) C.R.. James. 22. deleted,. it. though. `Jobn and. is. that. admitted. love. Mary. FFRENCE. sentences. group. expressing. be. dealt. in. this. relations,. l.. a. 2.. a. 3.. but. John. conjunction: Mary. subordinating. I did. invite. not. grammatical Ì invited. conjunction: Mary. not. co-ordinating. I invited. l bad. although. invited. John.. a. sentential adverb: I invited John. Yet. 4.. a. These addressed reader. with the. whether. propositions Many. devices to. clause: I did. meani喝Of between relation. express. invite. not. Mary･. `connectives'.. al一 classi丘ed present the connectives between the relation. the. semahtic. connectives. noun. as. semantic. guess. can. Mary.. this,. whether. the. can. the. using. a. here. are are. clue. reader. from. made. this section any. invite. not. Notwithstanding. John.. lexical in. l did. adverb. sentential. I invited. only. one. in. The. two. Go. Granada. to. I fell off my. Causal:. bike. Accordingly we will丘rst be led by the surface can in terms. of the semantic Problems. with. The. surface. feature. some. possible. of. a. My. see. my and grazed deal with the question feature and, and then. mentioned. way.. 丘nd. guess･. expresses. temporal. a. for. several. mean･. of. the. whether to. proceed. guesses. reader's the. classify. discussion. ànd'. and. indicates. merely. The. that. the. it. propositions. bacause. we. cannot. in. can丘t. man. joins. if the. is essential. the. the. are. is. text. imagine. back. seat. Ford. propositions. that. the. are. common. topic. in. part. This. of. a. be. the Appendix is. topic. common. or. impossibility. the. in the examples A is Speke's. topic set up of unhealthy pleasures. He drank little and never (1ine6) smoked governs the following additive relation expressed were for him not (pi) The ordinary relaxatons. avoidance and. his. above.. about related if they are : common Thus the sentence purpose. are Sorry, the banks shut and I'm broke･ to is Coherent topic if we imagine the common a friend･ To turn to to give 丘nding any money Two. l. what knee.. propositions relatedness of is incoherent Thus sentence the following : pi and pii relation between died last week grandmother and (pi主)six. related to be coherent.. (pi). you'll. relations. 6.(ii).. in. and. one. words within two as the basis for `nevertheless'always. relation,. and of the. propositions,. unknown the. the. provide. a `subsequent】･y' `therefore' causative and relation, adversative be used But may connective and the most used relation. commonly : as below different shown relations, a He bought me a beer and gave me Additive: cigar･ He bought me a beer･ to the store Temporal: went and. Conditional:. questions. text. a. an. any. as. such. way･. with each otber'. be expressed by several di#erent same The semantic relation can two items. between ｡r lexical The propositions the adversative relation invite by Ì did not Mary'could be expressed Jobn'and cannot. in. the. if they. serve. of the speaker we Appendices, moderation. sentence. between and. a. (pi主)The--･dissipations. and.

(13) 23. INFERENCING. were. for. not. him.. that pii adds a further the basis of and or the heading feature moderation, of abstemiousness of under to dissipations as a lead guess to the reader this assumption will relarations; for a or Readers go synonym or relarations･ will probasynonym who co-hyponym the link with drank but those who appreciate bly choose pleasures or similar concept･ include the idea of ìllicit'or ùnhealthy'pleasures･ little and neve7may Smoked is line 9-ll in from we prudence c.nsider sentence shall assume also the which Let. us. the. unknown.. assumes. that the reader Speke,s character,. say. The. between. topic. common. of. he. the propositions determination. is. wz,'th great proceeded The Speke's character･ detect an equivalence will. with and (he proceeded great) structure and the exhibits a balanced with great planned ahead-proceeded. alert reader p7-udenre and. dete7-mination･. allows. prudence sentence. between. objecti.yes-(proceeded is. that prudence. a. with. human. great). This. compatible. characteristic so for the. with. careful. himself dejinite. set. the. to. reader. thought. ass?me. plannlng･ in its. and. first interprets the be especially who a71d reader would is to 'planning prior say that the and.setting of objectives'occur temporal sense; determinatio71 be may to the `proceeding, prudence results of and and therefore half in the丘rst described the mental of the sentence･ activity by and It is worth often exhibit a the fact that propositions joined considering term common aS toplC the the superordinate and the with relation of hyponymy. This. 〉. are. apt. :. (line 9) ぎ7op;shi:iof:islsアst三三ed:lye:,0て岩ごsiil?s holes--I(1ine21) 2.. tracks,. muddy the. In. i.. for. boggy. some. moors,. each. slippery. of which. area.Hline 10). term. rdinate guess. items,. or. of the by mentioned. member. those. already infer that fuls and dales will diHerent from mountains and knows･ This hypothesis speaker of. be. may. and. treacherous are. (lines).. regions hyponymic other. rock. unknown,. set,. items･. The knowing. If heknows. pot. subsumed may reader it is. an. the. under 'area'but. mountains. and that. supero-. down. narrow. not moo7･S,. his one. he. are. somehow also wild and unspoilt, be as much as may the average native which is made the basis of the additive relation partly on by and connectsal1 the co-hyponyms･ which expressed be sure be for in that they cannot always And may native speakers ambigous In tⅥ70 is the between intended. sentence propositions relation what Mary lit a cheroot left the John while was out and the teacher of the room, are. areas,. moors,. rOOm. a a leaving the room was if Mary's result of John's lighting are followed or if the two events if one only connected action the other cheroot, A arises both was out･ because the teacher situation they ,happened similar while A: from in the following Appendix example He his boots and walked barefoot. (line 9) discarded disknow but does not Here a expresses the reader temporal who relation and that be sure the pragmatic that it is so, since it is only on grounds could not carded is temporal･ before barefoot and discarding boots occurs that weknow walking be can What we were 'carried'then If the unknown the relation would additive. a has inferrlng is therefore that the option temporal and, say that the reader of is barefoot is done to boots before discarded possible･ Clearly walking something little information is a that provides purpose connective of itself other and general we. cannot. be. sure.

(14) C.R.. James. 24. than. loose. a. of the. ng. idea. additive. its meaning. in. discussion. that. context. from. is inferred. the. meani-. joins.. it. propositions. The. 6.(iii). of relatedness;. FFRENCH. relation.. DisjllnCtion.. a). we. have a. unknown. within. or,. it. when Whether. in. seen. construct. the. superordinate. B. we. is. for. necessary. if he. propositions is also the case with the In the following propositions.. This. symetrical sticks to the. line43). it. both. cover. two. one. (Appendix. to. of them.. one. joins. above idea. `regular. may. in. indulges. or. paths. free. to. the reader inference. to. disjunctive. idea. the. construct. is. an. connective. range. rambling. `ways. of walking here inclu-. superordinate Notice that the sentence two are The des a contrast propositions. expressed alternatives freedom in as tw･o a as `degree the scale such choice of path', but this ends of of is in vs･ by the contrast 7-egular opposition of sticks to vs･ indulges and provided is likeky to a these indications make free. The reader who picks up useful and here. accurate inference in. the. b). for which maps between the two. country. are. essential'･. Equivalence. two kinds of meaning a in discourse: sentence sucll possible to distinguish linguistic kettle boiling?'has a formed by as `Did the gramlnathe meaning but it also has a function tical and semantic constituents of the sentence, which In in this case a to a friend for a be function cup request the of of coffee. could ill relation a text as a has its external function to discourse the written whole. lt. is. i hear. large. at. world. but. sentence. each. within. a. text. has. its function. it･ This. to. internal. by virtue function. sentences meanlng relation other surrounding l were to a text write advocating call its propositional value. Suppose text in cars, 'might one-or 上lse my the contain well of Of seaトbelts : as following sentences the propositional value shown with : Seaトbelts Generalisation lives !. :. to. reference. are. sentences. For. the. of. it is. short,. In. other. parts. expressly. inferencing. speke. partly an. helpful. Zn. short. by. signalled a. purposes. propositional value signalled argument the main of the to, than changed, added rather. beginning. text,. the. of. a. ing. enforcement more. to use a have one･ not seat-belt if you madness be forced to wear Conclusion their seat-belts. people must conclusion, : In Reformulation many their lives to their seat-belts. other words, people owe is means death･ Indeed one's Emphasis: only of avoiding seaLbelt often one's : For in law has halved Exempli丘cation England, the example, enforcement of death rate. accident is because An initial generalisation of its lack of deictic often r.ecognisable. In. Summary:. the. its. of. l shall. reader. values in. of. the. other. etc･･ conclusion that a sentence with to that is 'equlValent'. an argument carries above is simply is, argument that the main presented In Appendix A, the sentence developed, or denied･ description is a of the of reformulation. preceding. appreciates reader who defined by he drank little between additive relation to. propositional. text,. (1inell). clues. the. in sho7･t, connectives it for can take granted. as. The. background. the. but. the. this realizes and. the. meaning. ne-ue7-. is. that abstemious SmOked･. propositional of unkno､vn. Thus. values words･. the of. a. quality. connectives sentences. already signal-. provide.

(15) 25. INFERENCING. The. 6.(iv). Two. are. (pi). (pii). (pi) An. is. Heard. sense. is. of what. but. are. if it. sァeet. the. is.sa､TOury･. pudding of (pi),. context. (pii). lS. coherently in the world. unexpected. because. is incoherent. those. as. ln. are. unheard. sweeter･. must. expressed, as we know. accord it, thus the. no. weknow. in. world. which. is. wealth. an. clear. reader. which. is to paragraph the of adversative Of but in line10, Appendix. be. is. desolate. The pleasure. areas providing designed these areas. has. in. complex. more. does. when. understand desolate.. inferencing. have. to. conco-. Burton's. thou.wld5. other. the. cases. but. connective. succes∫,.mentioned. the. four in. Structure. adversatlVe. is. relation. expressed. equally clearlv A Appendix. In. appreciate. inference. disaster. is. so not always the relation clear. Consider B. The is here notion that pleasure adversative but that some discomfort be faced in order must is that we Nature assumption expect underlying We for our are enjoyment. to占nd surprised. to. underlying, underlies. what. Conditional. 6.(Ⅴ). areas. that. benevolent. that Nature. The. from. gained. experience. who. would. nature. meaning. text. reader if he. balanced. is. larger. much The. previously.. be. that relation of text. stretch disaster (line 47)with. adversative. Speakeヲs. contrasts. The. to. a. subsumes. lines. to. an. may丘nd. however. can. common. unexpected. on the basis of the adversative possibility of inferencing in Appendix B, 1ines5/6. seen The adverse relation between few and In contrasts the assumption that fatalities minor allows with accidents.. this. a. with sentence. of height.. mitant A. the. when. ;ich but tall.. is. John. (pi主)Yorkshire in. however,. although,. in. as. unexpected. melodies relation,. adversative. but,. eg;. adversative,. but. sweet. merely. an. antonymy,. of. relationship is pudding. Plum. when. relation.. joined by. are. propositions in a. they or. adversative. be. feared,. unstated the use. than. rather assumptions. of. but. here. A by man. enjoyed, but a abound, reader has a good of chance. relations.. are here causal together and conditional relations grouped under for inferencing 'Conditions'because are the aids each provide used in The : by following ways sentences illnstrate types the tllree similar readers/ (a) Temporal: (pi) When you this button, (pii) the machine pushed selfde5t ruCted.. the. temporal,. heading. Causal:. (b). (pi). Because. you. this. pushed. button,. (pii) the. machine. 5elf-. may. self-. dest ructed.. (c). Conditi■onal. (pi). If. you. push. this. button. (pi主) the. machine. destruct. pi. sets. up. a. condition. for. wbicb. pi主 is in. (a) asubsequentaction,. in. (b). a. necessary. (c) a?ossible result･ then the reader, the result and understood in pi主 depends on the unknown the extent possibility of inferenclng of hisknowlin pi. A suitable example edge of the world relatiⅢg to the conditions expressed is from the text Even in are liable to have foul weather. The equlpsummer--walks walker's be B Appendix (lines ment must therefore jlerible. 34/35). in. If pi. is. by.

(16) James. 26. The. is the. condition. in. ofknowledge. this. equipment. that. 7.. between. A. C)ues. to. area. be. must. brings. reader. uncertainty. the. of. come. weather and the reader with a likely consequence. up. his frame searches fact for the of this. carried.. propositiorLS to. FFRENCH. C.R.. the. text. a. in. Wittt. rLO. COrLneetive. will be. it. that. assumption. is. The. coherent.. question. this section this assumption alone allow the inferencing addressed whether There are somevery that we take aspects of specific words. general of coherence assume to for granted we start may that the style and level of when read. Readers A description the current purpose. scienti丘c report of a text will be suitable to in to be text discuss Speke The proposes the appropriate register. that written will as. historical. a. character will describe signal the time. explicitly. that. assume. may. any. describe. not. will. texts. rative. can. events. occur. relationship. radical. in. change. of speaker, will be overtly expressed, are assumptions of wide scope and can ncing of speci丘c words. Another that aspect of coherence. a. principle. that. when. new. to. continue. B. `But. to. each man practically. the. on. these To. there.. end these. areas. it a a. of topic change change of paragraph. background in role a. areasv. a. or. But the. change these infere-. is the inferencing specific is presented, the reader will in due course･ For are. desolate. not. satisfy the. principle. by. example, accident'･. it. of coherence, The. are. uninhabited and uncultivated. follows have must the proposiwhat background the clue for inferencing good Similarly A, in Appendix and inclement. (line47) invite further description of what This would give a clue to the meaning of. that. reader. happened. the be by. text,. usually only play. why explain this anticipates appreciates who This is tional value of an explanation. marshy, meaning of boggy, windswept success (line43) and disaster the words must. detail. Also, naranatomical or, if not, after the other, will Furthermore, sentences. readers. one. will allow more information and unexplained he will be given an explanation. that in Appendix sentence the consider (linell). The paragraph cannot. strongly. anticipate. in. him. they between. as. a. expedition. if this. unknown･ function of headings, the cataphoric topic Faced a topic newspaper sentences. sentence such as with `There are a the expects of causes of anxiety', reader naturally what number causes. Indeed have follows to be an many enumeration those of people observed in a in other that the sequence of propositional values of sentences paragraph, is to development the thought, convention of the writer's and easily words subject Certain types have convenpurposes anticipated. of text with specific undoubtedly : a. a detailed tional structures contain and scienti丘c report will always generalisation. accomplished same The. nothing. can. principle headlines and. exempli丘cation any paragraph to. its structure.. by. a. or. of Among. seen. Bissex. evidence. expository. justifying explanation by. be. at. or. are. work. (quoted. in. in. falls into. writing. these. were. the. deductive. exempli丘cation,. Gilliland one. of. 1972) has twelve. structure,. the. inductive. a. also claimed. categories. according followed. generalisation structure,. that. a. set. of facts. two followed structure, they the the generalisatioll prove, and symmetrical tentence. blocks of opposing facts surrounding a Also Kaplan (1955) central topic to culture, being from genethe suggests that these structures vary oriental culture is familiar linear. At any rate the the occidental reader who with rally circular and.

(17) 27. INFERENCING. these. is equipped. structures. sentences. the. within. paragraph. framework. a. with. therefore. and. interpretations. for the the. on. unknown. he. words. puts. upon. those. within. sentences.. Inferencing. 8.. The. 8.(i). Teaching.. and. Place. in. of lnferencing. a. of Comprehension.. Theory. Teachers. to trying the nature teach, try always consider of the skills they are -terms are in they and decide valuable of the analyse them objectively whether to Without turn out set. question the desire skilled educational goals that are it is a is an one, but discussing the nature of practised readers admirable worth in what differs from it. Of ways the skill of inferencing native reader's skill and in the is as it occurs but are couse itself there comprehension unobservable mind, help some facts that any theory observable about reading of comprehension should by natives be carried to may that reading comprehension explain. These are,firstly, limitless speeds, with the eye focusing on out at seemingly relatively few words of to. Secondly,. text.. is,. that. is. vision. done. the. on. himself.. a). it. will be. sentence,. generic. focuses. eye. on. content. words. the. carrying. the. meaning. a. etc‥. description. a. narrative,. This. a. a. of kind. prediction makes information of the text. between b) knowledge of likely relationships. a. peripheral. amount. of work. of the. stretch a. of background. propositions. in. some. or. process. information,. most. words the. partly. whether the. the least. and of predictable words is able to reduce The assumed. skilled reader in this way by supplying processing graphic symbols He can because supply this meaning of the following: for structure the ability to predict a likely discourse. on. meaning ie;. text,. of. justi五cation of. a. or. of. grid. map. by. expressed. content. words.. c). knowledge. d). the. This of. of likely collocatio?s･ patterns. of grammatlCal predictability. theory. of comprehension. graphic. called It. symbols. combined theory.. integrative. an. is noticeable. sees. w･hich with. as. reading. production. of. simultaneous by meaning. knowledge. (a. ;o. a. of input be reader can. reception. the. to required reduce those graphic normal speed reading somewhat resemble required difference is most for inferencing The the meaning clearly seen of unknown words. in (b) above･ is able to reduce to The hegives native the attention reader conpebecause he can assume to some basing his extent, ctives their meaning assumptlOn between by the on knowledge the proposititions expressed of likely relationships. that. content. words, which connective, adversative. John. of. in. of. he. course. eg,. understands.. 'although'between. the. above). For example, following two. native. a. learner. reader. unsatis丘ed-･-he does not who. and. foreigner. was. can. we. assume. propositions. an :. a apparently successful man. have to use to the connective unsatis丘ed would inferenclng, inference on The any that word. process then, often requires make of focusing that charact･ eye the kind of more often regressive concentrated, searching, di氏cult texts. In other both activity Crises native words, readers' when reading. But. was. types. the. input. on. reliance. know. deal. with. difhculty. in. the. same. way..

(18) C. R. FFRENCt{. James. 28. fact that must recorded the results of comprehension sion linear photostat-like copy of the text, like a sentence exist some mechanism. be. Another. for by. accounted. theory. a. of comprehen-. in memory in a usually stored but in terms Clearly there must of concepts･ into units parser translates sentences ･wbich in tex･t occurs are the the concepts meaning expressed of and comprehension when loglC is that against the the against reader'sknowledge of world and verified It has his knowlfamiliar to him. been use out that the must often pointed reader to it is felt that this process inferences the and resembles edge of the world make In his conceptual system. native of ideas in the text against short, reader's checking but a natural is not an inferencing purposes, activity simply created for pedagogical is that. of language. aspect. 8.(ii). not. use.. Inferencing. Good. are. Tests.. Comprehension. and be. distinguished. from. by. A. not. On. operatlng. A that. ability. of testing test. cloze no. clues. because and that. they they do. This. itself and to be the to. easy. not. di庄erential is. due. to. in. the. of training of the right sort｡ test inferencing of ability, except of course suitable are are by Oller Cloze tests (1979) present. praised word they test global as well as local understanding administer, a. the. problems often di氏cult. are. alternatives. suitable. the. lack. to. from. suffer. However, textual scope. little difference betreveal. ability a have shown wide lack of correlation. test. of that. suggests. paper. within are. types. large. very. of. inferencing. of. other. seems. be. may. unknown that tests. claims for whom. students. reading method. One. any. Douglas (1979) ween. ones. poor. the. depth. of their combut meaning prehension. only understands word also is able to good reader from he can follow the structure, on comment the style of the passage and which in reaIf training the autbor's purpose and attitude. also draw conclusions about ding a is to be successful, it must develop foreign language students'imaglnative improving as as theirknowledge penetration they of word of what read well and as as be dealt local must Inferencing sentence meaning with. well meaning:global in grasping do give training since the clues exercises global meaning, students can. readers. are questions, choice which by presence may their and distortion of what he understood,. of. multiple. to. construct. susceptible reader that is a has A to a reader may supply who understood nothing. cloze test is has been some distortion understood also a test of encoding ability and of what testee to a Imagine cccur comes may the missing that the cloze word. when supply in Appendix A Even item falls on an (line12). a say abstemious unknown word, suggest. an. to. answer. or. an. learner that. who. the. has. followed. the. functions. sentence. be. smoked-will. a. answer. system. to. as. a. supply. unable be word. does. he. if required. of. summary. clues. operating. of previous. the correct He know･. word,. on. texトbe because, of. course,. abstemious. is. a credit for supplying but this may do justice to the full extent not synonym of the stlCh as `moderate', One by he has inferencing must that the concept suppose reader's understood･ take the form semantic either of a wide comprehension of an unknown wordwill into his own man'or area of a translation such as `typical quality of a Victorian is to a a more If the reader out language write specific concept･ asked representing do better justice to his compredescribing he has understood he may sentence what. precisely. hension. the. than. could. not. by. a. cloze. may. test. be. this word, especially drank little and never. to. given. encode. what. be. has. understood.

(19) 29. INFERENCING. in. one. word. is felt then. It. that. best. the. to. way. is to. inferences. test. in. ask. even if this means question, gloss of the words a be from tion, not discoura畠ed writing and students should `genus type found et di圧erentia' instead traditional of the are Such tests have most not very that revealed students good Perhaps one for this is that many of the reasons words. a. one. to. students. two. or. sentence. definition in. explanaby. example dictionaries･. most. of. guessers are. unl(mown. accustomed dictionary･. to. a. write. to. The large. turning the unknown word on tend to be made the basis of local rather than means that the simple scope clues, which collocatior'al clues are used in preference facts suggest to from cross the text. These those connectives and reference within types to be training given that certain need emphasis. of up. simplygiving inferences. 8.. (iii). that. an. where made. are. Inferencing. occurs,. skill training.. to be intensive･ It is not realistic to needs more more extensive expect merely with and reading･ skills to be be moreknowleThe meaning of a庄Ⅹes needs taught so that the readerwill derivations In teaching in his approach to unknown sets dgeable of known words･ to be aware nature the teacher of the antimotivating of of a氏Ⅹes, however, needs in is iⅡ1pOrtant area learning too learning. Another rote Of study vocabulary much. The. training. for. given. inferencing. improve. to. inferencing. into are the basic meaning extended of known words metaphowhich are some common in be investigated there rical metaphors should whether large language are by the of words extellded･ meaning of numbers everyday which An has been done by Lakoffand Johnson (1980)･ exploration of this question in formation be learnt more or Derivational must processes and metaphorical word. the. in. ways. It. use.. less by. but. rote,. heightened. a. of the. awareness. in English. is expressed. meaning. way. will result. be teaching, encouraged vocabulary students should definition by more through than the meaning example of words through by or by `genus et differentia'definitions. The advantage translation of de丘nition it an is not but that translation, sentence only that avoids exalnple will example in collocation that fi1l the also show the kind of words other slots with normally a Learning help the meaning Of through the unknown word example word. will As. to. of the. part. method. of. learn. kind of learning he practises inferencing when student to learn to tolerate the same basis on the clause. the of clues within interpropositional Clues that are more cross-reference and especially textual are It is here that most training lleeds to be given. suggested clues; and it is probably inferencing in front some that the teacher well-chosen examples perform of of the on to can be done bow operate the the class and clues unknown show what word, are of hyponymy noting and the relations and synonymy especially how substitution used to reader question. on. gamble inserted. word.. Also. note,. paraphrase. expansion. Some. good. in. repetition. avoid to. the of. a. into. reader or. short. examples. the the. the text. inference. text,. Can. be. a. passage. question. asked form,. diagram to. Training. he. match of this tecnique. to. the form take by answering. can. has. made that bears. reformulate using the new the style and in use can be. on. what. the. meaning. he. has. words･ purpose seen. of a. in. A. asking. true. read,. or. of. the. perhaps. the. false new. in. is similar exercise longer text. of another book the course called.

(20) `Reading. one. no. to. need to. words. in. Thinking. and. in且uence. hopes. text. compose. he. propositions. do. These. and has. questions,. guessed. 1977),. are. designed. de丘nition,. a. with. answer. Council. exercises. he. not. so. and can. prove,. is a book whose that the reader has that, by using the new as to himself as much. which so. correctly.. by use isgiven of connectives for example, the right connective, have the power of locomotion.. uslng. Plants. FFRENCH. Englisb'(British. will expand. his inference. explain. anyone else, that Training in the. to. C.R.. James. 30. learner. the. asking. to. join. two. JOln. and Animals nsing. the Where. can. move.. `wbereas' learning purposes. connective. the. that. students will will be advisable be done Tbis can a. discourse. train. by. well random. in. sentences. of. to. qulte. face. to. them. to. the. process. we know example when it for written scienti丘c purposes, sentences. propositional of values. SpeCi丘c,. English. recognise. the. for. in. a group which sp that they form rearranged and connected a followed by supporting say, generalisation. of be. must. order. a. pattern,. approximaton,. gradual. recognisable is the expansion exercise of a skeleton of gradual approximation Again a to do this the in set sentences. passage of randomly ordered order using has to on he must the sentences, the inference student gamble made understand in the the right connectives and he must also use places. right But to imaginative or reporting the reading of many sttldents will be con丘ned fiction. In imaginative fiction inferencing be nor.e di氏cult because the will author's examples.. with Another. are. have. typically. be idiosyncratic his use may view and consequently of language will show world But it is nb even development. logic-defying thought unusual collocations and to a foreign in a for a young meet great author simpli丘ed text. shame student Several at series of texts of this type are available for English, aimed all levels of new in imaginative literature type this Inferencing of will be readers. of words if takes form new the not just easier the simpli丘cation made of eliminating words, by substibut of increasing the number them, using repetition of clues surrounding implied all the case verbs, explicitly stating relations surrounding One logical development feels that suppositions and indicating clearly by connectives. Nor texts than the originals. simpli丘ed shorter, should be longer, not should editors be wary exercises of supplying vocabulary of the types mentioned above side by tntion,丘11ing. even. side. the. with to. motivation. most works of our literature is always. study. a. laudable desire. Appendix Speke put. about in. trutb He 5. was. navian very man. for. 30,. was. at. time. one. it; he. some. came. tall and. slender. and. a. was. his blue. never. ･that life he. were was. he. eyes. looked. The smoked. for Speke; not prepared. of. a. student's. A. younger. West. Moreover. appearance.. little and of his age. he. that from. study. part. language.. a was story than Burton, and although an blood there was no Anglo-Indian with mixed to Country family that dated back Saxon times.. years. six. for. authors, to. to. and fair hair gave he ate after himself;. him a. great. rather a Scandideal but drank. ordinary relaxations and dissipations of a young in his life was air, the､open and to丘thimself to lengths. Once in Africa he even go great.

(21) I NFERENC. discarded 10. his he. ahead,. set. ING. boots barefoot and walked himself de丘nite objectives,. so. to. as. and with great prudence and determination. a man I10tion young well to the Victorian of what in his habits, he bad the gift of methodical and and. 15. exterior there was rather prosaic Like Burton, Speke had entered. had. fought. in. the. a. toughen. having. proceeded. 20. 31. himself.. He. up. his. once. planned be mind. made he measured up very short, to be: ought abstemious, steady, friendship. Underneath that cool In. certain. charm. lndian Army, at though Like Burton be had Punjab･ the. an. ear一ier age and for solitary in the shooting in lndia and. taste. as? cadet, and in India･ different kind; he used to expeditions thoughof a very g? distant Himalayas. Speke had a mania for shootingfew specimens Tibet, be says, did not fall to his gun jonrneys on local leave took and his various him into very remote no bad been before. places where, possibly, other European This. was. own. virtue. part in. of the toughening-up He was this matter.. process, not. like. and Speke his brother. was. not. a. unconscious in India,. of. he. his. o氏cers He never ìdled away his time or be was into debt': somewhat got smugly･ And in away the mountains opening colmtry collecting specimens ; uP the unexplored and the authorities approved of this. in India, long before Burton, Speke Already he met had a great in view; object he had decided soon his long leave fell due he would as a that as journey make to the headwaters Africa, from through east coast travelling the unexplored of the Egypt･ Nile, downstream to On he then and the way sail specimens would gather birds and he would build up a history of rare animals, and eventually natural in his father's country museum house in England･ Of his three leave from year's to be two were on the army, spent ′third be tO the journey, year Ⅵ7aS the and home･ He recuperate at his be ten money, his years' saved planned, alld when in lndia was be sailed for Aden, service up in1854 carrying with him $1000 worth beads barter he to 0f and other goods with which proposed enlist the help of be crossed to the African the natives when mainland. wrote. later, 25. 30. 35. It. before years the outset journeyof the present for the first time･ Speke met had been in Aden explorers only a few Burton turned up on when with several other young o丘cers the outward journey of his Abyssinian soon expedition, and it was that Speke arranged should his own scrap plans and join forces with them. From Burton's had been a distinct this first African point of view adventure success･ With it was many the dagger personal manoeuvringssort of cloak and so he had first himself in affair he loved got out fanatical Moslem the welland of that days. 40. 45. 50. was. the. at. this poinトsome. two. two. bad a on then stronghold of Harrar, and the others the made rendezvous with For Somaliland Speke, however, coast･ bad been an the expedition unquali丘ed disaster･ His side of it had accomplished Soon had practically nothing･､ after Burton in joihed the coastal party早t Berbera April a concerted on the rush had been made by the local Somali camp in the desperate at midnight, tribesmen that and struggle had ensued one had been killed, Burton had beeムwounded in of the Englishmen Speke, having been tbe jaw, legs arms, bad and repeatedly stabbed about the and been taken prisoner.. (from. "Sir. Richard. Burton". by. Alan. Moorehead:. quoted. in. Fouler. 1977).

(22) James. 32. C.R.. Appendix. 10. in丘nite. 35. 40. of. variety. be. walks. climbing shop. whether be worn when. 30. become. has. are. so. popular The. that. manufacturers. now. an provide be determined. almost by the. choice should walker's For a summer the seriousness stroll in Surrey of his hobby･ Cairngorms in dress as for it is not to the winter･ necessary important his boots are his most piece of whatever the walker's ambitions, but for lowland are high1andStrong walking road and equlpment･ shoes satisfactory more boggy moors, require slippery rock potholes tracks, and treacherous muddy a Boots be have can must even best moulded waterproof, than the provide･ shoes Leaking support･ a丘rm ankle rubber sole with a deep tread for grip and provide be as dangerous boots are while slipping and sliding can extremely uncomfortable, as numerous as different the price range it is annoying･ The as of boots are makes in a or to buy It is in the caption them specialist walking suggests･ advisable amount. 25. Britons. million. walking. 15. 20. B.. or less serious form to take as a more walking estimated 250 a from They thousand year the whole range the丘ve who walk of ,ecr6ation. for an invigoWay to the hundreds of thousands町ho ramble miles of the Pennine to so on With many there are bound few hours walking rating occasional weekends･ fatalities hit the headlines but every year The few thousands sprain be accidents. Much or become this just of thei, ankles, thoroughly miserable･ suffer exposure can be discomfort, however, avoided. from in the wilder, I less spoilt regions Most is gained of Walking satisfaction are fells, the dales, the hills, the mountai-ns our islands. The and the moors where is at its五nest･ But these areas as a and a lonely romance physical pleasure walking done has not deliberately by accident･ The farmer the walker are desolate not boggy, They are turn by leaving a marshy, windswept them uncultivated･ good You to inclement need to be equipped all but the hardiest livestock･ and forbidding but also to enjoy nature at its worst･ not only to survive. Five. 5. FFRENCH. equipment･. and. they thin undersocks should socks with or without is a space between It is boots･ buy yonr that there you essential you intend todo･ what walking the toes and the end of the boot･ Tell the specialists can Less important often Ask their advice. and shoes gear such as socks rambling be Socks, Street High though, be bought at Army should woollen sbops･ surplus and a thin pair underneath･ prefer to wear and many walkers The are liable to have foul weather･ Even in summer most of the popular walks from be to the designed protect flexible must therefore and equlPment walker,s can be hot to but this Some a heavy anorak relatively prefer wind and the rain. a a lighter carry to Many wear thick pullover and carry･ wear walkers and heavy Cagoulesto be put on known as a when and if necessary･ cagoule nylon garment into a to be folded are light enough a type small space･ of capeseason 0 'l many height are so at the the holiday There many that of ramblers P 0 a r-s the pedestrian equivalent of trafhc jams･ the best known paths suffer from has been laid･ Whether Way have become so worn that plastic matting the Pennine Survey in Ordnance or free indulges one range rambling, sticks to the regular paths : There 25･000 are 1 can maps arealso i : 50,000 get them essential･ I 0r if you one. wears. woollen. new. ′⊥,1. -.

(23) 33. INFERENCING. 45. books for particular walks and areas･ of map/guide It is impora lot of money･ waste Rucksacks that can piece of equlpment in bags can if you tant to get the way and slip that duffel or shoulder remember from holiday fall can b.e very dangerous･ The that entails moving or place walking help support the load and to place a large framed requires sack･ Light alloy frames is the most a frameless For day keep the the small rucksack walker weight steady. lunch, means spare other aids･ Whatever your clothingand of carrying comfortable kit･ not it is to take a丘rsトaid tbe length and conditions of your ramble, advisable least for the comforting that blisters requlre･ plasters a. growing. number. are. 50. (from. a. in. quoted. H.. by. Thompson). (1977). Fowler. ES. REFERENC. (1979). D.. FO`WLER,. 3 cloze scoring W. S. (1977).. and. Gain. Reading. Englisb･. in. Thinking. ()Ⅹford. in. in. Journal of Research. methods.. Pro丘ciency γol. 2.. English.. Readablity.. U.冗. R.A.. A. English. measured 1･ No･ 1･. Vol･. ReadiI-g･. Pro丘ciency. as. Com-. Reading. Nelson･. prehension.. ∫. (1972). GILLILAND,. Reading. Press.. University DOUGLAS, by. (1979). COUNCIL. BRITISH. THE. for Pleasure". "Walking. University. Lon-. of. don. Priniples.. Part. R. B.. (1966). KAPLAN, LAKOFF, OLLER,. (1942). 0.. JESPERSEN,. M. 16･. (1980). English. word. discussion. thought We. Lar唱uage. The. formation･. Wiesbaden･. of cross-reference. Tests. categories. Live. Scbool･. and. types. within. in. text. the. this. interculturaを. University. of. Longmans･. dav. present. of. owes. paper. to. much. :. M.A.K.. R.. HASAN,. and. (1976) in. English.. owes in this paper much of connectives R. op. cit･, M.A.K. HASAN, and A Communicative G. and SVARTIK, ∫. (1975). LEECH,. By.. at. discussion. HALIDAY,. in. patterns. Harrasowitz. Cohesion Tbe. Historica一. on. 1-20･. Metaphors. (1960). H.. the following HALIDAY,. Cultural Learning.. JOHNSON,. Grammar. Unwin･. and. (1979). MARCHAND,. Tbe. Allen. Language. education. G. and Chicago. ∫.. 6.. Modern. to. Longmans.. the. following. Grammar. :. Englisb･. of. Longman. van. DIJK, The. T.A.. Semantics discussion. owes. much CARROLL, tion. ULIJN,. to. Text. (1977). the. and. ∫.B. and. FREEDLE,. of knowledge.. ∫. (1980). in. Explorations. the. Longmans･. Pragmatics. and. of reading following:. Context:. and. of Discourse･ theory of reading R.0.. this. paper. (1972) Language. Washington. in. comprehension. :. V･H･ Foreign. comprehension Winston and Sons･ Language. reading. and. the. research,. acquisi-. recent.

(24) C.R.. James. 34. trends. and D.M.. WILDMAN,. future and. FFRENCE. Journal of Reading. prospects. M.. Semantic, in van. reading.. Reading. T.A.. (1977). Semantics. and. DIJK,. Rerearch /. Pragmatics. Research,. Vol. 3 No.. 1.. (1978-9). KLING,. Quarterly, Text. of Discourse.. syntactic. and. spatial anticipation. 2.. and. Context;. Long皿anS.. Explorations. in. the.

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