Joseph Conrad・sHeartofDarkness(1902)isoneofthemostcontroversialworksof colonial/postcolonialliterature.Ithasbeenlaudedasamasterpieceandvilifiedasaworkof unrepentantracism.BothEuropeanandAfricanscholarshaveweighedinonbothsidesof thecontroversy.Whilemostcriticsagreethatitsmessageisvirulentlyanti-colonialist,the Nigerianwriter,ChinuaAchebe,chargesthatConradwasanincorrigibleracist.Onething notdisputedisthatthenovelisamulti-layeredquestinwhichtheprotagonistMarlow is seekingmorethanamanonhisjourneytothemysteriousKurtz.Bywayofcontrast,the Africannovelist,CamaraLaye,writingduringthefinalphaseofcolonialruleinhiscountry ofFrenchGuinea,depictsanotherkindofquestinhismasterpieceLeRegardduRoi(The RadianceoftheKing),publishedin 1954.Yethistoneandconclusion differsostrikingly from Conrad・sHeartofDarknessthatwemightcallthisnovelHeartofLight.
The comparison of these two novels reflects much more than the considerable fascination each ofthem hasheldforreaderssincetheirdatesofpublication.They reveal visionary, futuristic worlds of the colonial and postcolonial experience and their representations in literature.Although Conrad writes with a European perspective ofa Europeanpower・sexerciseofcolonialism,oneshouldnotforgetthathegrew upPolishin afamilythatsufferedterriblyunderRussiancolonialrule.Onecouldsaythatherepresents theexperienceofhavingbeenacitizenofbothcolonizedandcolonizingnations(Polandand Britain respectively).Camara is,of course,an African writer,drawing an imaginary 学苑英語コミュニケーション紀要 No.834 45～60（20104）
TheQuestMoti
fi
ntheHeartofDarkness
byJosephConradandi
nLeRegardduRoi
(
TheRadianceoftheKing)byCamaraLaye
Ki
rbyRecord
AbstractThisessaywillcomparethequestmotifasexpressedbythetwoprotagonistsofHeartof DarknessandLeRegardduRoi(TheRadianceoftheKing).BothnovelsaresetinAfricaand themaincharactersareWesternerswithdifferingkindsofprejudicetowardAfri cansandnon-European cultures.Both protagonistsundergo moraland spiritualtransformationsthrough theirexperiencesin Africa,coming to reassesstheirattitudestoward non-Western cultures and thenatureofevilin theworld.In differentways,both charactersevolveinto higher statesofawarenessthrough theirexperiencesin Africa.Thisessay tracesthestagesthey experience in their questfor knowledge and redemption.Although Christian,Islamicand nativeculturalvaluesarealludedtointhesenovels,itshouldbeclearthattheseareblended togetherinuniqueways,especiallybyCamara,sothecorrespondencesareofabroadsymbolic natureandnotspecifictothenumerousnuancesofdiverseChristiansects.
portraitofhisown peoplein hisown voice(though in a languageborrowed from the colonizers).1&2Among African writersofhisera,hewasuniquein hisavoidanceofthe dichotomiesoften foundin thepostcolonialtendency toseparatetheworldintoblack and white,European and non-European,colonialist/colonized,theChristian and non-Christian, theprivileged/theotheretc.3
Tocomplicatematters,neitherHeartofDarknessnorTheRadianceoftheKingcanbe called・typical・oftheirrespectivemilieuorgenre.Theyareuniqueintheirownrights,and expressthemselvesverydifferentlyinrespecttoauthorialvoice,socialsatire,philosophical preoccupations,andthethornymatterof・universal・humanvalues.4ThestoryinHeartof Darknessisdeliveredthrough twonarrators,butthetelling ofmostofthetaleisleftto Marlow.HeisanoviceemployeeofaFrenchtradingcompanythathasdispatchedhim to Africaon ajourney down theriverCongotoreplaceacaptain whohasbeen killed in a skirmish with thenatives.Hisostensiblemission isto facilitatethecompany・sgreed for ivory,which hasbeen deliveredin greatquantitiesby aman calledKurtz.Thequestfor Kurtz,andwhathestandsfor,isthecentralthemeofthenovel,anditisexpressed,first, throughthenatureofMarlow・sjourney,thwartasitiswithdangerbothtohisphysical and mentalsurvival.Underlying thisquestisa moraland spiritualdimension in which Marlow eventually understands thathe is confronting an abyss ofabsolute evilin the dementedfigureofKurtz,whohasbecomecorruptedbyhiscomplicityinthesystemicevil ofthecolonialistenterprise.ButthisrealizationcomestoolateforKurtzandinasensetoo lateforMarlow,who willremain intimately bound to Kurtzthrough theliehetellsto protectthelatter・smemory.
TheRadianceoftheKinghasan altogetherdifferent,yetnolessstrange,beginning. Themaincharacter,Clarence,comestoAfricafordubiousreasonsandhasendeduponthe street totally without resources,due to his reckless gambling debts.He is deluded in assumingthatskincoloralonewillenablehissurvival.LikeMarlow,heassumesanairof racialsuperioritytowardAfricans,butunlikeMarlow,hehasnoauthorityoverthem.They donotharm him,buteitherignorehim withanairofdisdain,ortakepityonhim (toa certaindegree)andshieldhim from seriousharm.IntheopeningsceneClarenceismaking hiswaythroughacrowdofAfricans,whoareawaitingthearrivaloftheKingwithgreat anticipation.ClarencehasnothoughtbuttosolicittheKingforemploymentpurelyonthe groundsthatasawhiteman,hesurelywillbeneededforsomekindofunspecifiedwork. Hehasnochanceofgetting nearenough totheKing even toplead hiscase,butin the efforttodoso,heencountersanoldbeggarandtwomischievousboys,NagoaandNoaga, who offerto assisthim.Thealmostidenticalnamesofthetwo boyssuggestthey are interchangeableparts,thereby suggesting thattoClarenceallAfricansmay beconsidered interchangeable.Though theboysand thebeggararenotwithoutulteriormotives,itis throughtheirassistancethatClarenceembarksonhismulti-leveledquest:first,theoneof
physicalsurvivalinanunfamiliarandthreateningland,andsecond,hisspiritualjourneyto theKing,andthroughhim,therecoveryofhishumanity.
One of the significant motifs underlying both novels is the nature of truth and falsehood,whichimpliesboththedeceptionofothersandthedeceptionofself.InHeartof DarknessMarlow establishesearlyonthatthiswillbeacentralconcernofthenovelwhen he firstinquires aboutthe mysterious Kurtz and is told thathe is a ・prodigy,・ ・an emissaryofprogress,・andsoforth.Hethentellsus:
IwouldnothavegonesofarastofightforKurtzbutIwentforhim nearenoughto lie.Youknow,Ihate,detestandcan・tbearalie,notbecauseIam straighterthanthe restofusbutsimply becauseitappallsme.Thereisa taintofdeath,a flavourof mortalityinlieswhichisexactlywhatIhateanddetestintheworldwhatIwantto forget.(Conrad,172)
Thedeception underlying TheRadianceoftheKingislessovertly insidious,butitis also an equally essentialelement ofthe story,because Clarence・s journey to salvation dependsonhisuncoveringhisownblindnesstorealityandhumanworth.Tocomplicatethe issue of truth and falsehood further, the essentially realistic mode of narrative is occasionallyconfoundedwithKafkaesque,surrealisticscenesthatneitherthereadernorthe characterscan interpretwith certainty.Early on in thenarrativeweareconfrontedwith thefirstofsuchscenesthatcastdoubtontheveracityofboththeboysandthebeggar,as wellasputinquestionClarence・sowngraspofwhatisrealandwhatismerelyimagined. When Clarencehears(or imagineshehears)thescreamsofmen allegedly having their throatscutfortheirloyalty(ordisloyalty)totheKing,theboysencouragetheperception/ delusion butwith contradictory views.Then thebeggarreturnsand blamestheboysfor whatheclaimsisClarence・sdelusion:
・Areyou outofyourmind?・said thebeggar.・What・sallthisaboutvassalshaving theirthroatscut?・
・DoyousupposeIdidn・theartheirscreams?・ ・Thescreams?・saidthebeggar.
Hesuddenlyturnedonthetwoboys.
・Whathaveyoubeentellingthewhiteman?・heaskedsternly. Thetwoboyshungtheirheads.
・Therewasnoneedforthem totellmeanything,・saidClarence.・I・vegotears.・ Butthebeggartooknonoticeofhisinterruption.
・IfIcatchyoutwomakingupstoriesagain,・hesaidtothetwoboys,・I・lltanthehide offyourbacksideswithmystick!・....
・Andyoumeantosayyou・veswalloweditall?・thebeggaraskedClarence. (Camara,3637))
engineeredby theboys.However,additionaldoubtiscaston thematterwhen thebeggar suddenly exhibitsunexplainedanxiety atbeing in thevicinity ofthepalaceafterdark.In numerousscenesthroughoutthenovelClarenceistricked,liedtoanddeluded,andthough he often suspects his companions of deception,he fails to notice the most egregious stratagemwhichrequiresthecollaborationofthewholevillage.
BothprotagonistsMarlow andClarenceencounterAfricathroughlensesobscuredby ignorance,racialprejudiceand sensory confusion.Marlow isthereasan employeeofa Frenchtradingcompany.Thoughheistellingthestoryafterthefact,histaleismurkyto saytheleast,andhismissionisforeshadowedwithsymbolsofmortaldanger,exemplified byimagerysuggestiveoftheancientGreekFatesandsimilarreferences.Heacknowledges thathereceived hisappointmentdueto themurder ofa previousboatcaptain,whom Marlow isbeing hiredtoreplace.Although itisclearthatMarlow himselfharborsracist attitudestoward theAfricans,healsodoesnotsharehisaunt・snaveandcondescending commentsaboutthe・civilizing mission・ofthecolonialists.Rightfrom thestart,Marlow realizesthattherealobjectiveofcolonizationisprofit.Itisalsointerestingtonotethatthe firstpagesofthenoveldraw arevealing analogy between theearly yearsofBritain asa Roman colony and the current situation with European colonialist ventures abroad. Referring to England hesays:・And thisalso...hasbeen oneofthedark placesofthe earth.・(Conrad,138)AlthoughthisdoesnotabsolveMarlow ofracism,itissignificantthat thedarknesshealludestoinAfricaisnotpurely,orevenprimarily,racialinnature,and he(andevenmoreclearly,Conrad)leavesnodoubtthatthisisoneoftheexcusesEuropeans used,even ifattimesunconsciously,torationalizetheirexploitativeconducttoward non-European culturesaround theworld.Presented assitting in theposeoftheBuddha,he proclaims:
They werenocolonists;theiradministration wasmerely asqueeze,andnothing more, Isuspect.They wereconquerorsand forthatyou only wantbruteforcenothing to boastof,when you haveit,sinceyourstrength isjustan accidentarising from the weaknessofothers...Theconquestoftheearth,which mostly meanstaking itaway from those who have a slightly differentcomplexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves,isnotaprettythingwhenyoulookintoittoomuch.Whatredeemsitisthe ideaonly.(Conrad,140141)
OnceMarlow getsto A frica,heseemslostin an incomprehensibleworld.Africa is inhabited by dark,enigmaticmen ofwhom he has neither understanding nor previous experience,and many ofthescenesaresetin thedarknessofnight,oron theblinding whiteness of the fog-shrouded Congo,so that the reader is bombarded by shadowy, ghostlikefigures,andsounds,aboveall,ofthenativesshouting,screaming,andspeakingin alanguagethattoMarlow soundslikeunintelligiblebabble,perhapssub-human.Hemakes frequentreferencestoprimevalstates,pre-civilizedhumans,asinthisobviouslyuninformed
remark:・Theystillbelongedtothebeginningsoftimehadnoinheritedexperiencetoteach them asitwere.・(Conrad,193)Even when Marlow presentsforhisaudiencewhatwould seem to beindicationsofmoralrestraint,heremainsbaffled,asifthebehaviorofthe nativescouldnotpossiblybeinterpretedasitwouldprobablybeifappliedtoEuropeans.He isfilledwithwonderastowhytheself-proclaimedcannibalsontheboat,intheirextreme conditionofhunger,donotturnonthegreatlyoutnumberedwhitecrew members,kill,and eatthem:
Yes;Ilooked atthem asyou would on any human being,with a curiosity oftheir impulses,motives,capacities,weaknesses,when broughtto thetestofan inexorable physicalnecessity.Restraint! What possible restraint? Was it superstition,disgust, patience,fearorsomekindofprimitivehonor?...Restraint!Iwouldjustassoonhave expected restraintfrom a hyena prowling amongstcorpsesofa battlefield.Butthere wasthefactfacingmethefactdazzling,tobeseen,likefoam onthedepthsofthesea, likearippleonanunfathomableenigma,amysterygreater...(Conrad,195)
Although heclaimsto look upon thenativesasany other human being,hisother commentsbeliethis.Marlow issodisabledbyhisprejudicesthathecannotseethatwhen the・savages・actuallybehaveina・civilized・manner,andthathungerorevencannibalism doesnotinevitably leadtomurder,heisbaffled.Asheputsit,heexpectsthenativesto behavelikehyenas,butsomesortof・primitivehonour・ may bepreventing them from doingso.Eventhepossibilityofthisisbeyondhim.Yetbytheendofthenovel,Marlow・s ownhonorwillhavebeengreatlytested,anddespitehisprejudices,heshowsheiscapable ofcompassion andadmiration forAfricans,asweseein thesceneofhisshock andgrief overthedeathofhishelmsman,anativeforwhom hefeelsresponsibilityandcomradeship. Marlow・sattitudestowardthenativesarecomplex,evolvingandoftencontradictory.Above all,despitehisprejudicesandnavecollaborationinthecolonialenterprise,hebeginswith doubtsaboutboth,andendswithafeelingofabhorrenceoverwhathehasseenanddone.
In TheRadianceoftheKing,Clarence・sability to interpretwhatheencountersin AfricaisevenmoreflawedthanMarlow・s,partlybecauseheisaloneandwithoutasupport system,withtheexceptionofthefew Africanswhoagreetoassisthim.Hisonlythought isthatbecauseheiswhite,allheneedstodoistomeettheKing,whowillemployhim in someunknown capacity.Hehasnowork skills,noexperiencein Africa,noknowledgeof locallanguagesetc.In short,hiscertainty thatmeeting theKing alonewillensurehis employmentisevidentlyabsurd,andCamaraisclearlyparodyingwhiteignoranceandracial arrogance.When Clarencemeetstheold beggarand two wisecracking boys,therolesof whitemasterandblackservantarereversed,sincethebeggarholdsboththeknowledgeand thepower.So Clarencebeginshisjourney with onemission in mindto meettheKing whom heissurewillconfirm hissenseofsuperiority.WhenhefailstomeettheKing,he becomesdeterminedtofollow theroadtothesouth,whereheistoldtheKingislikelyto
appearnextnooneknowsexactlywhenorwhere.Inthismode,Clarenceembarksonhis journey south,led by the beggarwho exemplifies the archetypaltricksters of world literature,andwhoaswellseemstobeakindofseer,endowedwithmildpsychicabilityto readmindsandpredictevents.Heisatrickster,aswellasarogue,andaccompaniedbythe clownish boys,allthree ofwhom,nonetheless,treat Clarence with a kind ofscornful affection.
After these preliminaries,the two novels gradually revealthe spiritualand ethical natureoftheirprotagonists・quests.Marlow seemsthemorecomplexcharacter,beginning ashedidwithanambiguousattitudetowardthecolonialenterprisehewashiredtoabet, hisracism restrainedbyagrowingdegreeofqueasinessovertheevilsofslaveryandhuman misery,andbyhisquiteopencriticism ofthehypocrisyoftheEuropeancolonialpretense thattheir trueobjectivewasoneof・civilizing・ and ・saving・ thecolonized peoplefrom themselves.Atthesametime,thestoryistoldthroughMarlow・sverylimitedexperiencein Africa.Given the narrowness ofhis mission,and the circumstances in which he finds himself,Marlow・sjaundicedviewstowardthenativesareunderstandable,which isnotto say,defensible.He is beset on allsides by whites who are portrayed as venaland untrustworthy,andAfricanswhoaredesperateandhostile,whoattack him mostly from thejungleintheblacknessofnightorunderthecoverofathickfog.Forexample,inthe following passage,onecan seetheearly,confusedattemptsby Marlow tocomprehendhis earlyencounterswithAfricaandAfricans:
Theearth seemedunearthly.Weareaccustomedtolook upon theshackledform ofa conquered monsterbutthereyou could look ata thing monstrousand free.Itwas unearthly,andmenwere No,theywerenotinhuman.Well,youknow,thatwasthe worstofitthissuspicion oftheirnotbeing inhuman.Itwouldcomeslowly toone. They howled,andleaped,andspun,andmadehorridfaces;butwhatthrilledyou was justthethoughtoftheirhumanitylikeyoursthethoughtofyourremotekinship withthiswildandpassionateuproar.Ugly!(Conrad,186)
The great Nigerian novelist, Chinua Achebe, comments that the author of such sentiments [notjustthe character Marlow,butConrad himself]was a ・thoroughgoing racist.・5(176)Yetin 1902,when thisnovelwasfirstpublished,such stereotypeswerethe norm,andwhatwasmorecontroversialthenwasnottheracism butthequestioningofit, asMarlow himselfdoesin thispassage,howevertentatively;foronething,henotonly acknowledgeshisimaginedkinshipwiththenativesbutdescribesitas・thrilling.・Although AchebeequatesMarlow・swordsandattitudeswithConrad・s,thisishighlydebatable,since Marlow isclearlynotpresentedasamorallyadmirablefigureinthenovel.Marlow remains flawed,though notwithouta degreeofredemption in hisawarenessofhisown moral failingsandinthehugefailingsofKurtz,whom heonceimaginedasapotentialsavior.All thisnotwithstanding,in lightofAchebe・sbitterattackson Conrad・sracism,onemustat
leastdistinguishtheviewsofthecharacterMarlow from Conrad・s.NotonlydoesMarlow evolve,butitisclearthathisconfusedadmiration forKurtzbecomesin time,acomplex blendofderision,condemnationanddisgustyetstillretainingastrongmeasureofloyalty tohismemory.Conradleavesnodoubtthatthishascondemnedhim toalifelong feeling ofguiltandshame.
In thepassagequotedearlierandelsewhere,Marlow acknowledgesthattheenterprise heisengagedinisbasedongreedandracism.Hispreliminaryattempttojustifytheevil as・theidea,・thatis,someidealbehindthecrassmotivesofconquestandplunder,islater rejected asa delusion thatleadsto thesameevilresult.ThisoccursbeforeMarlow has actually experienced thereality oftheresultsoftheconquest,and although hemakesa feebleattemptto distancethe・colonist・from the・conquerors,・onefeelsthathesenses withhorrorthattheyareactuallythesamething.Thereisanearlyhint,however,ofthe dark side ofthis idea when Marlow comments on the report he had written for the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs.What clouds Marlow・s judgment is Kurtz・s astonishing eloquence,though he realizes in retrospect the truly ominouscontradictionsinKurtz・smanifesto:
Hebegan with theargumentthatwewhites,from thepointofdevelopmentwehad arrived at,・mustnecessarily appearto them [savages]in thenatureofsupernatural beingsweapproachthem withthemightasofadeity,・andsoon,andsoon,・bythe simpleexerciseofourwillwecan exertapowerforgood practically unbounded・...It wasverysimple,andattheveryendtothatmovingappealtoeveryaltruisticsentiment itblazed atyou,luminousand terrifying,likea flash oflightning in a serenesky: ・Exterminateallthebrutes!・(Conrad,208)
Onemustacknowledgereadilytheappallinggapinmoraljudgmentandpoliticalnaivete Marlow revealshere,whenhedidnotinstantlyrealizethatthewriterofsuchatractmight becapableofmonstrousacts.Atthetimeofhisreadingofthereport,Marlow wasstilla noviceinhisexperienceofAfrica,andhisentireexposuretoAfricanshasbeenamatterof months,ratherthanyears.HisknowledgeofKurtzisbasedalmostentirelyonthelegend surrounding hiseloquenceand othergiftsbutitdoesnottakeMarlow much longerto understandtheabyssofKurtz・smadness.Marlow・squestistofindthecreativeforcebehind ・theidea,・perhapsin a desperatehopeto exoneratehiscomplicity in theevilhesensed from thebeginning could notbeseparated from theEuropean colonialistexploitation of Africa.
Marlow・squestforenlightenmentleadstoarealizationthatthedarknesshealludesto in Africa is even darker in the hearts and souls of their European colonialmasters, especiallyinKurtz,butalsoinhisownsoul.AtfirstKurtzisafigureofmysteryandawe. HebecomesanobsessiontoMarlow,andwehearthathismostpowerfulgiftresidesinhis eloquence,in his use of language.This is especially alluring since Marlow himself is
surrounded by nativepeopleswhospeak languageshefindsincomprehensible,and by the factthatthosefew whitemenwhospeakalanguageheunderstands,areshallow,venaland scarcelyworthspeakingto.AchebeassailsConradforpresentingAfricansasvirtuallyvoid ofintelligentspeech,butasNigerian scholar,Olusegun Adekoya(195)pointsout,Marlow hasnoknowledgeofAfrican languagesand Africanscould scarcely beexpected tospeak English.Furthermore,itislikely thatMarlow,undersiegeandfighting forhislifeon a riverboatsurroundedbyjungleandhostilenatives,issufferingfrom amajorcaseofculture shock.Itisfeasiblethathemightbeattracted to a man whoseeloquencehad become legendary.When it appears that he would never find Kurtz alive,he seems mostly distraughtbythethoughtthathewouldnevertalktohim,orhearhim talk:
For the moment that was the dominant thought.There was a sense of extreme disappointment,as though I had found out I had been striving after something altogetherwithoutasubstance.Icouldn・thavebeenmoredisgustedifIhadtraveledall thisway forthesolepurposeoftalking with Mr.Kurtz.Talking with...Iflung one shoe overboard,and became aware thatthatwas exactly whatIhad been looking forwardtoatalkwithKurtz....Ididn・tsaytomyself,・Now Iwillneverseehim,・or ・now Iwillnevershakehim by thehand,・but,・Now Iwillneverhearhim.・Theman presentedhimselfasavoice....Thepointwasinhisbeingagiftedcreature,andofall hisgiftstheonethatstood outpre-eminently,thatcarried with ita senseofreal presence,washisabilitytotalk,hiswordsthegiftofexpression,thebewildering,the illuminating,themostexaltedandmostcontemptible,thepulsatingstream oflight,or thedeceitfulflow from theheartofanimpenetrabledarkness.(Conrad,203204)
SothenatureofMarlow・squestisinextricablycaughtupwithlanguageandtruth,and theirmanifestation formsthecontextofan early passagein which the(unseen)narrator openlypresentsMarlow astheatypicalnarratortowhom ・themeaningofanepisodewas notinsidelikeakernelbutoutside,enveloping thetalewhich broughtitoutonly aglow bringsouta haze,in thelikenessofoneofthosemisty halosthatsometimesaremade visibleby thespectralillumination ofmoonshine.・(Conrad,138)TheimageofMarlow as thewould-be-enlightenedstorytellerintheposeoftheBuddhahasalreadybeenalludedto, butitisinstructivethatthissceneappearsvery early in thenarrative,andtheeventshe isreporting took placemany yearspriorto thetelling ofthestory.Thequestand the moraltestofitsnarratorwasacolossalfailurebutthroughhisrealizationofthisfailure andthroughwhatithastaughthim aboutthetrueevilofcolonialracism andthegeneral darknessofhumannature,hemeritssomedegreeofexoneration.
When Marlow finally reachesKurtzhehasalready sensedthedevastating reversalof hishopes.Notincidentally,thefirstpersonhemeetsisaRussian,oneofKurtz・sdevotees whohasremained blindly loyaltohim,despitetheappalling truth ofKurtz・smonstrous subjugation,torture,terrorizingandmurderofthelocals.Oneofthefirstblurredimages
Marlow getsfrom afarofKurtz・scampturnouttobeheadsstuckonspearssurrounding hisabode.Itisnow quiteclearthatKurtzhasgonemad,and thathisinitial・civilizing mission・hasmadeamockeryoftheso-calledliberalmythologythatthecolonizingmission wasforthegoodofthecolonized.Evenwiththebestofintentions,Marlow makesitclear thattheevilofcolonialdominationcorruptseverythingarounditandisthesourceofthe trueheartofdarkness.Beforeheeven arrivesatKurtz・shouse,Marlow hasreached the horrifyingrealizationofKurtz・sdepravityandofitscolonialroots:・Hehadtakenahigh seatamongthedevilsofthelandImeanliterally...AllEuropecontributedtothemaking ofKurtz.・(Conrad,207)Marlow isalsoawareofhiscomplicityinKurtz・smalevolencewhen hedoeswhathesayshehatesmost:liesforhim,outofcompassionforhisfiancee,perhaps, butmorestrikingly,outofhisowncowardice.WhenhetellsthefianceetheliethatKurtz・s lastwordswerehername,hemomentarilyfearstheheavenswouldfallforsuchalie,but quicklycorrectshimself:
Theheavensdonotfallforsuch atrifle.Would they havefallen,Iwonder,ifIhad renderedKurtzthatjusticewhichwashisdue?Hadn・thesaidhewantedonlyjustice? ButIcouldn・t...Itwouldhavebeentoodarktoodarkaltogether....(Conrad,252) Hekeepsthetruth ofKurtz・sdepravity to himself,and in doing so,helpspreservethe colonialistmythology.PeterNazarethelaborates:
Marlow lackedthecouragetoopen theeyesofKurtz・sfianceetowhathewasreally doinginAfricaandhow hereallydied:heletherretainherromanticvisionaboutthe greatcivilizingmission.Butthestoryhasadifferentconclusion.(219220)
Kurtzhimselfacknowledgesthetruthattheveryendofhislife:
AnythingapproachingthechangethatcameoverhisfeaturesIhaveneverseenbefore, andhopenevertoseeagain....Isaw onthativoryfacetheexpressionofsomberpride, ofruthlesspower,ofcraven terror,ofan intenseandhopelessdespair.Didhelivehis life again in every detailofdesire,temptation,and surrender during thatsupreme momentofcompleteknowledge?Hecriedin awhisperatsomeimage,atsomevision hecriedouttwice,acrythatwasnomorethanabreath ・Thehorror!Thehorror!・ (Conrad,239)
One of the most intriguing and complicating aspects of Heart of Darkness is its convolutedsequencingofevents.Marlow・sbeginningspeechcomeslongaftertheendofthe actualevents.Heispresented to thereaderasonemuch wiserthan hewasduring his sojourninAfricaandjustafter,whenhetellstheliethatbothhauntsandtransformshim. PerhapsitisonlythroughhisshameintellinghisliethatMarlow comestoacknowledge thereality ofcolonialeviland hisown complicity in it.AsMarlow hasalready said,he hated a lie because itis tainted with mortality,and nothing could be truer than his
falsehood about Kurtz,whose deathbed words (the horror! the horror!)are his own acknowledgementoftheevilheperpetratedin thenameofcolonial・altruism.・Achebeis rightthatthecharacterMarlow wasaracistwhocannotbetotallyredeemed,buthefails toacknowledgethatConradshowstheworldthatnotonly Kurtz,butalsoMarlow must sufferterribly fortheirmoralfailures.Thismay bewhy Conradplacesseveralofhisthe mostseverecriticismsofcolonialism nearthebeginningofthenovel,sothatthereadercan evaluatewith thisin mind whathappenslater.Aboveall,Conrad doesnotsanitizethe spiritualcorruption thatinevitably followsexploitation andracismandhemakesitclear thatthiscorruptioncontaminatedtotheircoresthesocialfabricofcolonialistsocieties.It isvitaltorememberthatConradwaswritinghalfacenturypriortothetimewhenleading Europeanintellectualshadcometosimilarconclusionsabouttheeffectsofcolonialism,such as the following comment by Jean-Paul Sartre on the Algerian armed struggle for independencefrom France:
We,thepeopleofmainland France,haveonly onelesson to draw from thesefacts: colonialism isintheprocessofdestroyingitself.Butitstillfoulstheatmosphere...Not onlyinAlgeriabutwhereveritexists...Theonlythingwecanandoughttoattempt... istofightalongsidethem todeliverboth theAlgerian and theFrench from colonial tyranny.(54)
TheRadianceoftheKing,on theother hand,depictsa very differentAfrica from Conrad・snotonlyintheplaceandtimeofthewriting,butinitssetting.Camara・sAfrica isnotaplaceofdarknessbutacomplexworldofordinarypeoplewithgoodpointsandbad, strivingtoliveeverydaylife,butstilllongingtotranscenditsbanality.Thistranscendent worldisrepresentedbytheresplendentpresenceoftheKing,whom everyoneinAziananot merelyreveresbutwhoseveryexistencegivesmeaningandhopetotheirlives.Asindicated earlier,ClarencebeganhisquestoutofphysicalnecessitybecausehesensedintheKingthe meansofphysicalsurvival.Hecontinueshisjourney with thehelpofthebeggarandthe boys,wholeadhim,asifhewereblind,through thelabyrinthsoftheAfrican jungleto Azianainthesouth,wheretheKingisthoughtmostlikelytoappearnext.Duringhistrek south,Clarenceisoverwhelmedwith thethick perfumeoftheforest,which putshim into a kind oflanguorousand forgetfultrance.Thisemphasison scentparticularly human scentisamotifthatappearsfrom thevery firstscenewhen Clarencefirstattemptsto meettheKing.Heisovercomethenbytheodorofthemeninthecrowdandstartstofall intoastupor.When hefinally arrivesin Aziana,theflowersthatareplacedin hisroom eachnighthavethesameeffectsofthatodorhehadencounteredinthejungle,yetinthis caseitspurposeisclearlytwofold:theyenhancehissexualpotencyandtheyinduceamnesia regardinghisamorousactivities,sothatallhefeelsisavaguesenseofbewilderedunease (thatwith greater awareness later leads to self-loathing).In fact,Clarence increasingly
becomesconsciously disgusted with hisown odor,which no amountofbathing seemsto alleviate.
ClarenceisprovidedwithAkissi,abeautiful,sensuouswoman,whom heregardsashis common-law wife.Yeteveninhisdruggedstate,hebecomesmoreandmoresuspiciousthat thewomenwhocomeandgofrom hishouseeverymorningaredifferentwomen,asindeed theyare.Thisamusingbitoffarceparodiesthestereotypethatwhitepeoplecan・ttellblack peopleapart.Ithasbeen long apparenttothereaderthatClarencehasbeen sold tothe Naba,thevillageheadsman,forthepurposeofservicinghisharem.Thisisanotherreversal ofthewhitestereotypesregardingblackpeopleinthiscasethepresumedsexualpotencyof blackmales,oftencontemptuouslythoughtofasanexampleof・primitive・bestiality.Much oftheparody in thefinalhalfofthenovelrevolvesaround Clarence・sincrediblemyopia regardingsuchaglaringlyobviousdeception.Thisgeneratesatleasttwolevelsofhumor: the physical level of burlesque slapstick, and the intellectual level of multi-faceted philosophicaland socialsatire.Asallthisishappening,even in hisignorance,Clarence・s self-imageasawhitemanofsuperiorracehascompletelyeroded.Hehasreachedastatein which hisvery naivetepromptshim to forgetthatheisstillan outsider,racially and culturally,tothepeopleofAziana:
・IfIfiledmy teeth likethepeopleofAziana,noonecouldseeany differencebetween meand them.・Therewas,ofcourse,thedifferencein pigmentation oftheskin.But whatdifferencedid thatmake?・It・sthesoulthatmatters,・hekepttelling himself. ・AndinthatrespectIam exactlyastheyare.・Andwasitnotbetterthatway?Was itnotfarbetterthanbeingClarence?(Camara,165)
What is most significant in the shifting interplay among the various levels of representationinthenovelisClarence・squesttodiscoverhishumanitythroughhisjourney totheKing.Intricately interwoven in thetelling oftheplotarethemany religiousand ethicalissuesthatthenoveladdresses,directlyandindirectly.Althoughtheseelementsare also the objects of parody and socialcritique,they also pose very serious questions concerningthephilosophicalandpoliticalassumptionsofhumansocieties,particularlythose thattendtodistinguishWestern,liberaldemocraticsocietiesandnon-Western,・traditional,・ tribalsocietiesfoundinAfricaandotherlessdevelopedpartsoftheworld.Camaradoesnot offersolutionsbutletstheseissuesemergethrough hischaracterswith thesame(usually gentle)irony.
ThecitizensofAzianaarenotportrayedasmoremorally uprightthan Clarence,but certainly they aremoreastute,worldlierandmoresophisticatedin theirunderstanding of thesocial・reality・in which they areliving.Thisisonly natural,asClarenceisclearly playing theroleofthefool,thepawn andindeed,theslave.However,thepeoplearenot crueltoClarence.Asidefrom thefactthatheisbeingexploitedwithouthisknowledge,he
istreatedwithakindofcondescendingindulgence,evenaffectionthewayaclassclownor villagefoolisindulgedaslongashetoleratesbeingthebuttofeveryjoke.Indeed,attimes, Clarencehasconsiderableinfluenceinthevillagebecauseoftheimportanceofhisfunction, and because,oddly,heseemsto beregarded asboth slaveand guest.Onesuch telling incidentis the scene depicting the Master ofCeremonies being whipped for leaking to Clarencecluesregardingthetruthofhissituation.Clarencecannotendurethecrueltyand insiststhatitbehaltedimmediately.Althoughthispleasesnoone,hiswishesarerespected andthebeatingstops.
・Thatmanissuffering,・saidClarence.
・Well,youcouldn・tverywellsayhewasdancingforjoy,・saidNaoga.
・Noaga,Ishouldneverthoughtitofyou,・saidClarence.・Itellyou thatthisman is suffering,andthatyououghttohavepityonhim.Andyoulaugh,youhavethenerve tolaugh.・(Camara,182)
Noagamerely respondsthattheMasterofCeremonieshadbeen smiling broadly when he dealthim (Noaga)ablow thatresultedinalargeweltonhishead.Then,apagelater,when Clarence・srequestisgranted,thereisthiscommentonjustice:
・Thenaba,atyourrequest,hasdecidedtointerruptthedisplay,・SambaBaloum told Clarence.Butbelieveme,thepeopleofAzianawon・tlikeit.You・veoffendedtheirsense ofjustice.・
・Ha!・Clarencescornfullyreplied.(Camara,186)
Thissceneechoesonealludedtoearlierwhen Clarenceisappalledby thescreamsofpain, whichhewasencouragedby theboystobelievearethoseoftheKing・svassalshaving theirthroatscut.On theonehand,Clarenceisportrayed in both scenesasbeing more compassionatethanthenativesbutontheotherhand,thereaderispressedtoconsiderthe natureofjusticeitself.Thepassage,asso many others,probeshuman socialvalueson severallevelsatonce.Whatseemsobvioustothemanyreaderswhohavebeeneducatedin so-called democratic,humanistic cultures,is that torture is not an acceptable form of punishmentforthecrimecommitted(nottomentiontherealorimaginedcuttingofthroats from theearlierscenereferredto).Toputanevensharperpointonthecontrast,however, Camaraportraysthebeatingsceneasoneofgreatamusementtotheonlookers,sothatthe issueisnotmerelyoneoftherightnessofpunishment(justice),buttheappropriatenessof thevillagers・sadisticdelightintheevent.Theothersideoftheissue,though,isonethat isstilldebatedinbothmodernWesternandnon-Westernsocietiestoday:how shouldsociety punish itsoffenders?Istortureeverjustified?Whataboutcapitalpunishment?Camara・s presentation ofthisand otherissuesiscomplex becausethereadermustgrasp thatthe novel・sparodyextendsalsotoAziana・ssocialpracticesinitsblitheexerciseofcruelty,and
morespecifically,Iwouldsay,toIslamicjusticemorebroadly.Therearemanysignsthat CamaraincludesIslam asoneofhissatirictargets,forexample,inthefigureoftheNaba, whoisneverheardspeakingbutisonlyseenwagginghisbeard.(Beardsareconsideredin manyIslamicculturestobeavirtualrequisiteforrighteousmen.)
Now thetimehascometodraw afinerlinearoundtheethicalandspiritualaspectsof these two works and bring to a conclusion the obvious differencesbut deeper level similaritiesboth worksexhibit.AsTheRadianceoftheKing reachesitsdenouement, ClarencefinallybecomesawareofthetruthofhisrealworkinAzianaandisoverwhelmed withguiltandshameforwhatheregardsashisbestialbehavior.Hisself-worthisreduced tonothing,buthisgreatestpainisthathecouldneverbeworthyeventoenterthepresence oftheKing:
Theking...whatwouldthekingsaywhenhecame?...Woulditbemerelyoutofpity thathewouldcasthiseyeuponClarence?Butcouldonecasthiseyeuponabeast,even ifmerelyoutofpity?Thekingwouldturnawayfrom thisuncleanbeast,hewouldturn away in horroranddisgust...Oneday theking wouldcome;butitwouldbeasifhe hadnotcomeatall.(Camara,213)
ThoughCamaranevermentionsreligionexplicitly,hisnovelsubtlyfusesChristianand Islamiccustomsandbeliefs.Thevillagers,whoseem toregardsexualityandprocreationas nothing morethan perfectly natural,do notsharethedisgustClarencefeelsforhimself when helearnsthetruth.Theobviousexception isthecontemptuouscommentsofthe Master of Ceremonies,who is clearly motivated by jealously,if not racism,toward Clarence・sprodigiousperformanceastheNaba・sprocreativeproxy.Therearetheusual vulgar jokes,expressions ofenvy,teasing and so forth,thatone mightexpectin this situationbutnooneseemstodislikeClarenceorthinklessofhim becauseofit.Andafter all,theflowersplacedinhisroom haddruggedhim andrenderedhim unabletoresist,or evenremember,whathehaddone.Despitetheseextenuatingcircumstances,Clarence・ssel f-contemptseemsmoreofa Christian referencethan an Islamicone.In contrastto many sectsofChristianity,Islam neitherdeniesnorcondemnssexualityitself;rather,itseeksto controlitrigidlywithinthestricturesofreligiousandcivillaw.6
Bethiswhatitmay,Clarenceiscrushedbythethoughtthathewouldneverbeworthy oftheKing.Yetinthemidstofthisdespairtheimpossiblehappens:
Butatthatvery momenttheking turned hishead,turned itimperceptively,and his glancefellupon Clarence.Thatlook...wasneithercoldnorhostile.Thatlook...didit not seem to callto him? ... He went forward and he had no garment upon his nakedness.Butthethoughtdidnotenterhisheadthatheoughtfirstofalltoputhis bobou on;theking waslooking athim,andnothing,nothing hadany moremeaning besidethatlook.(Camara,277278)
Oneofthegreatmysteriesthroughoutthenovelisthefullsymbolicsignificanceofthe King,notonlyforClarencebutalsofortherestofthesociety.Theimageandroleofthe Kingisastrangeblendofhumankingliness,andtheidealizationofGod,asspiritbeyond thebody.InthisnovelthefigureoftheKingisoddlymergedwiththeidealizedimageof theChristfigureand a conceptofloveastranscending thephysical.Thisevokesboth Christian and Islamic mysticism,particularly that of Gnostic Christianity and Islamic Sufism.7ItallcomesdowntotheconceptofGodasloveandforgivenessnotconfinedbythe limitationsofthephysical,therational,andthestricturesoftraditionalreligiousdogma. ThefinalgloriousendingofTheRadianceoftheKingsymbolizesredemptionandapotheosis forClarence・squest,whichhefindsintheembraceoftheKing:
・Yes,nooneisasbaseasI,asnakedasI,・hethought.・Andyou,lord,youarewilling torestyoureyesupon me!・Orwasitbecauseofhisvery nakedness?...・Becauseof yourverynakedness!・thelookseemedtosay.・Thatterrifyingvoidthatiswithinyou and which opens to receive me;your hunger which calls to my hunger;your very basenesswhichdidnotexistuntilIgaveitleave;andthegreatshameyoufeel...・....It wasthislovethatenvelopedhim.
・Didyounotknow thatIwaswaitingforyou?・askedtheking.
And Clarenceplaced hislipsupon thefaintand yettremendousbeating ofthat heart.Then theking slowly closed hisarmsaround him,and enveloped him forever. (Camara,278279)
Thefinallyricalpassageofthenoveltranscendstheindividualand socialdimensions thathavemotivatedittothispoint.Leftbehindarethesecularpreoccupationsofracism, culturaland socialvalues,and especially,conventionalresponses to traditionalreligious questions.Clarence・squesthasnotmerelyendedbuthislifeitselfhasseeminglydissolved intotheloveoftheKing.Butthereismore.TheKing absorbsintohimselfthebaseness thatClarencecouldnotshed.AsChristisbelievedtohavediedonthecrossforthesinsof humanity,theKingtakesonthemostunsavoryattributesofthebeloved,soClarenceand hemightbemysticallyunited.
Thereismuch moretobesaidaboutboth oftheseworksbutthequeststructureof thesenovelsprovidesmanyhiddenresemblanceswithinvastlydifferentexteriors.Iftheyare oppositesidesofthesamecoin,itisbecausethey shareseveralfundamentalaspectsof postcolonialexperience.Publishedin1902,Conrad・sHeartofDarknesswaswrittenfarahead ofitstime,exposingmuchagainstthegrainofitstimetheinherentevilofcolonialism, forboththecolonizedpeopleandthecolonizers.Morethanfiftyyearslater,nearthetime whenmanyAfricanandothercolonizedpeopleshadfreedthemselvesfrom colonialruleor wereabouttodoso,TheRadianceoftheKingwasenvisioningthepossibilityoflifebeyond colonialrulethatcouldfundamentallytransform thebinarymentalityofpostcolonialangst: theworldneednotforeverbedividedintotheex-colonizersandtheex-colonized.Indifferent
ways,both of these novels transcend the dichotomized worlds of the colonialsystem: Marlow in hisBuddhapersonaasthespiritually tortured,butreformed,racist-colonialist, andClarence,asthenaveracistemancipatedfrom hisculturalbiasesanddeeplyingrained self-hatred,whoseredemption waspossibleonly through theloveoftheKing.Thiscould almostbetakendirectlyfrom theNew Testamentwhereitiswrittenthatapersoncanfind salvation through theloveand intercession ofChrist(seeRomans6:23foroneofmany examples).Marlow・sdarknessremained,although hedid find a measureoflightin his troubledsoul.Clarence・sdarknesswastransformedintoalovethatliesbeyonddarkness,in aworldthatcametolifeinCamaraLaye・sdazzlingimagination,unfetteredbythehatred andbitternessofhumanity・sinhumanitytoman.
Notes
1.French Guinean names are written with family names firstand given names last.Therefore, ・Camara,・andnot・Laye,・willbeusedhere.
2.Someclarificationheremaybehelpful.ThesettingofTheRadianceoftheKingdoesnotoccurin anactualAfricancountry,nordoesitpretendtoreflectarealisticorhistoricallyaccuratepicture ofAfricainthemid-twentiethcentury.ThisidealizedAfricasuitstheuniqueblendofrealisticand surrealisticelementsin thenovel・sstyleandexposition ofplot,sometimes(controversially)linked tothe・magicalrealism・ofnovelslikeGarcaMarquez・sCienAnosdeSoledad.
3.Thereisnottimetoelaboratethepointwithdetails,butmovementslike・Negritude,・originated inthe1930sbyfrancophonewritersandintellectualsofAfricandescent(ledbythe・threefathers,・ thefutureSenegalesePresidentLeopold SedarSenghor,Martinican poetAimeCesaire,and the Guianan Leon Damas),weredesignedtoassertpridein theliterary andculturalachievementsof thoseofAfricandescent.AlthoughthemovementgalvanizedcolonizedpeopleinAfricaandinthe so-called・BlackDiaspora,・criticsclaimeditalsoperpetuatedthecolonialists・agendaby allowing thediscoursetobeconductedonEuropeancolonialterms.
4.Of course,the concept of ・universalvalues・ has been a controversialattack point for those opposing whatthey feelareEuropean colonialistimposition oftheirown values,and therefore, theyjustifyas・universal,・thosevaluestheyclaim allofhumanitynaturallyaspireto,including democraticgovernment,individualfreedom,laissez-fairecapitalism,and ofcourse,Christianity. Whilerecognizingthat・universalvalues・havebeenusedintheexerciseofexploitation,itdoesnot follow thattheremay notbesuch values.Atany rate,Camara(andtoalesserextentConrad) aspires to transcend those dichotomies that set the parameters of postcolonialdiscourse by addressingthepossibilityof・universal・humanvalues.
5.TheargumentforConrad・sracism presentedbyAchebeispersuasiveinhiscleveruseofquotations from thenovelandinhisrhetoricalbrilliancebutitisconvincinglycounteredinessaysbyPeter Nazareth,OlusegunAdekoyaandmanyothers.Whiletherearevalidpointsmadeoneachside,this writerobjectsprimarilytoAchebe・spremisethatMarlow,thecharacter,andConrad,hiscreator, are indistinguishable.Not only is Marlow portrayed as a man who underwent a profound transformation during hisexperiencein Africaandis,atthevery least,opposedtothecolonial enterprisebased largely on racistattitudes,butalso becauseConrad clearly standsapartfrom
Marlow,whoclearlyismadetosufferdearlyforhisactions.
6.Notethecontrasting viewsoftheafterlifebetween Christianity andIslam.Christianity typically envisions ・heaven・ as a place where disembodied human souls,angels and other spirits spend eternity worshipping theSupremeDeity.In contrast,Islam envisions・Mohammed・sparadise,・ wheremaleshavetheoretically unlimitedaccesstodesirablefemales.・Asfortherighteous,they shallsurely triumph.Theirs shallbe gardens and vineyards,and high-bosomed virgins for companions:a truly overflowing cup.・ (Koran 78:31)Christianity・sheaven isconsiderably more ascetic.
7.Thefinalresolution tothisnovelishighly suggestiveofIslamicSufism,which placesitshighest value on ecstatic union with the D ivine.It eschews formalism and dogma,and like Gnostic Christianity, it shares a belief that the only valid spiritual experience is one of direct communicationwithanindividualandtheGodhead.Itisveryfittingthatthefinalenigmaticand gloriouspassageofthenovelmergesthetraditionsofmysticChristianityandmysticIslam.
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