Teaching English through English (TETE)

Teaching English through English (TETE)

著者 Hayase Mitsuaki

journal or

publication title

Philologia

volume 40

page range 111‑126

year 2009‑02‑01

URL http://hdl.handle.net/10076/10596

Teaching English throughEnglish (TETE)

Mitsuaki Hayase

Imtrod uctioII

The present paper discusses several important issues related ^to TETE with the purpose of understanding what TETE is all about and finding what lEnglishteachers

&om JHS through UNIV in Japan are expected ^to do in order ^to put lifTeinto TETE.

ARer reviewlng the actualsituation in Japan, the paper reveals possible ^reasons behind the fact that TETE has not particularly permeated in this country, shows ^a lack of emplrlCal evidence of the efficacy of TETE, examines theories and hypotheses of TETE, and finally Elves Specific suggestions ^to carry ^out TETE. In this paper, TETE is operationally de血ed as "teaching English mostly tbrougb E喝1isb."

I. Actllal situation

How is English taughtⁱⁿjunior^high schools (JHS),senior highschools (SHS),

and universities (UNIV) ^interms of 玉ithe_use

ofEnglish? Do teachers teach their classes mostly in English or in Japanese? It is important toknow the actualsituation ^{as to}the

use ofEnglish in English classes before ^a discussion of TETE begins.As for the actual situation ^at JHSand SHS, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Teclmology (MEXT) ^{has been} conducting ^an annual survey ^on the^use of English by teachers and students since 2005, and the results will be shown in the next section pr10r tothe discussion ^on the actualsituation ^atUNTV.

1.2 Actual situation ^at JⅡS and SⅡS

(1)^{JES: Teachers}

Table I Junior highschoolswhere ^more than half(1e丑side)/most(rightside)^of

English class istaught^{in English} (Useof English by teachers inpercentage)

2004 2005 2006 2007

1st‑year 32ー0 3.9 31.5 3.8 32.2 3.6 30.9

2nd‑year 31.2 3.7 31.1 3.6 30.9 3.4 30.3

3rd‑year 30.0 4.0 29.7 3.9 29.3 4.2 29.2

Based on the MEXT (2005,^{2006, 2007,and} 2008)

(2)SⅢS: teachers

Table 2 "Oral Communication I" and "English I" in senior high schools where ^more than half(le丘side)/most(dght side)^ofEnglish^{class js}taught^{in Eng一ish} (Useof Englishbyteacbersinpercentage

2004 2005 2006 2007

Oral 32.0 48.0 31.5 46.9 32.7 45.3 34.0

Commlmic血ionⅠ 31.3 25.1 33.3 21.5 31.8 21.5 33.9

EnglisbⅠ 20.3 3.7 23.1 9.9 25.7 9.6 24.3

7.7 1.1 8.4 1.1 8.3 1.3 10.0

Reading 14.6 3.7 16.1 6.0 15.6 2.7 13.l

+Upper row: Schools with International and English departments

*Lower row: All the other schools

Based on the M玉XT (2OO5,^{2006, 2007,} and 2008)

(3)^SHS: students

Table3UseofEn lishbystudentsinpercentage

2006 2007

Sometimes heveryJesson Sometimes heverylesson

Discussionanddebate ?8.1 ^{4.3 27.7 5.5}

in"Commmicabonr'

13.9 1.3 12.3 1.2

Presmting

infomlationandide8S 57.8 22.3 62.5 l9.8

in"CorrLmmiC&tiOnr' 51.3 ll.0 54.4 ll.1

Student‑studenttalk in"Commmicationr'

2S.8 68.3 29.2 66.4

43.6 44.0 40.9 49.1

Student‑studenttaJk 45.9 l8.8 48.2 17.7

in"EngJishr

*Upper row: Schools with lnte皿ational and English departments

*Lower row: All the other schools Based ^on the MEXT (2007,2008)

A close analysis of these tables reveals several intrlguing facts. First, both ^atJHS

∽d S班S, ^as tothe ^use orEnglisb by the teachers the overall percentages in the various classes did ^not change much throughout the suⅣeyed fわur years. In other words, there

was not a consplCuOuS increase or decrease in the ^use orEnglish by the teachers ^atJHS and SHS. Second, at JHS about 30% of the teachers conducted ^more than halfoftheir class in English ^even thoughonly ^about three percent conducted ^most of their classes in

English.Altogether,about one‑third of the teachers conducted atleastmore than half of their classes in English. Thoughone‑third^{isnot ahigh rate, it isa} good startlng POlnt ^tO increase the percentage in the future. Third, ^at SHS, there is^a big gap between schools with Intemational and English departments andall the other schools with the percentage of the former higher than that of the latter in all the subjects^{surveyed. It is}

understandable ^as those schoolswith Internationaland English departments are

generally ^more entlmsiastic and determined to _use English ^as much ^as possible.

Fourth, as to "OralCommunication I" in schools with International and English

departments, about ^one third of the teachers used Englishin half of their classes while about halfof them used English inmost of their classes. Put together, about 80% of the teachers ^use English at least half of their classes, which createsanideal situation ^to increase the percentage of the teachers conducting ^most of the class inEnglish^{in the}

future. Sixth, as to "English I" and "Reading", the percentages ^{are not} favorable at either of schools. Thepercentages in "English I" and =Reading" inal1 the other schools are particularly low; only about ^{one or two} percent of the teachers used English^most of their classes, ^afTarcry &om the proposal guideline issued by the MXET ^on D.ecember 22, 2008 (耳oko^no gakushushidoyoryo kaiteian)which stipulates that "all the English

classes ^at SHS should be conducted inEnglish^{as a} pnnciple." If the NEXT is serious about the stlPulation, ^a drastic change in teaching methods, textbooks, examinations, and possibly teachers'skills in English and teaching methods is needed before the^new

course of study is put into ^use in 2013 with the first‑yearstudents. At present it is

known that compared ^to thecurrent textbooks, a血･ greater emphasis ^on communication skills will be put in the^new textbookswith the change of the ^names of textbooks in which the words like "communication", "expressions in English'',and "Erlglish

conversation" will be丘･equently used. Finally, ^as to the^use of English by students ^at SHS in 2006and 2007, by far the most common actlVlty in both kinds of schools is student‑toIStudent talk in "Communication I" shown in the percentage of about 40 to 70

(inevery lesson)and about 30 ^to 40 (sometimes),but the percentagesare rather low for the other activities. In order for the English classes ^to be conducted in English as a

prlnCiple, students need ^{to use} English ^as much ^as their teachers, and approprlate

measures should be taken.

I.2. The actual situation ^at UNIV

Sans specific statistical data ^on the actualsituation ^at UMV regarding the^use of English in college classrooms, the discussion will be confined ^topersonalexperiences and infわrmation gathered throughconversationswith people. To beginwith,it has been said that the classes ^most &equently taught^{in English} may be science classes ^at graduate school. There canbe ^at least two reasons for this. The &st reason is that among those graduate‑level science classes ^are fわreign students丘om other countries whose Japanese competency necessary for understanding lectures and discusslng

subject^{matters may not be at}the required level while theirEnglishcompetency is. The second ^reason is that it may ^not be so challenglng for Japanese teachers ^to teach their classes in English as the teachers and students ^use formulaeand English termir10logy specific ^to thesubject.At the undergraduate level, there ^are mainly ^two kinds ofEnglish classes: those for non‑English majors and for English ma)ors. Itcan be speculated that classes for English ma)ors ^{are more} &equently taught in English^{than those for}

Ron‑English ma)ors･Among the classes for English maJOrSarealso ^two kinds:

skill‑oriented classesand ^content classes･ Again, it canbe speculated that the former is

more &equently taughtin Englishthan the latter, but it stays ^as speculation. On the whole, however, the丘･equency of the^use ofEnglish ^at UW must be much lower than thatatJHS and SHS.Anin‑depth survey ^on the^use of English ^atUNIV isurgent.

2. Possible reasons forthe 一ack ofEnglish^use

lt has been shown that &om JHS through UNIV Englishclasses ^{are not} taughtⁱⁿ

English as much ^as they ^can be. What are the possible ^reasorlS for this? First,^we look into the twelve possible ^{reasons common to} JHS through UNIVand two possible

reasons particular ^tomS and SHS.

2.1 JⅡS throughUNIV

Oyabu (2007)points ^out five possible ^reasons why the teachers ^ather college do not teach English classes in English, and four of those ^{reasons can} be the same &om JHS through UNIV.

(1)Internalization of "native speaker fallacy" and infTerioritycomplex: Some teachers tend ^to think that they should be at)le^use English justlike native speakers if they

were touse English in class.Asthey cannot, they do not use English inclass, just

like underachieving students who do not speak English^{as they are not} good ^at English and have an infTeriorlty COmPlex.

(2)^Absence of role models: Most Japanese teachers of English^{did not have English}

classes taught in E喝1ish by Japanese instructors when they were students; tberefbre, tbey have not bad role models.

(3)Traditionalstyle of instruction requiring ^a lot of talking ^on the part of the teacher:

Traditionally, teachers have talked ^a lot in class, and there may be teachers who think that they cannot give the ^{same amount} of information in English. Theyare not fTami1iarwith teaching methods where students talk much ^more thanthe teacher. In other words, they lack training ^ln teaching English throughEnglish.

(4)^Lack or theoretical knowledge about SLA (second^language acquisition):^{Due to a}

lack of theoretical knowledge in SLA, some teachers may feel reluctant ^to teach English class in English.

Besides these ^reasons, Mizohata (2006),^a teacher at a senior highschool,and Sato

(200S),^a teacher atcollege, add the fわllowing.

(5)IneWICiency: it is inefficienttoteach in English as it is time‑consuming and students get00血sed.

(6)Preconceived idea about how English should be taught and learned by the students･

(7)^Lack of experience for the teacher and students ^touse English among Japanese･

(8)^Lack ofteachers'English proficiency

The fo)lowlng possible ^{reasons can} be added ^tothis list･

(9)Lack of teachers, confldenとc:^{teachers have competence butnot} confldence.

(10) ^Lack of time: ^too much time is necessary in preparation and inconducting class itself if done in English.

(11) ^Beliefthat the instruction in Japanese is better thanthat in English: In the class taught inEnglish,^{students may not understand class content lOO%} like in the class

taught^mainly in Japanese.

There may be other possible ^reasons, but it should be considered that these ^are the main ones.Also, ^{as to}the absence ofroles models in(2),^some may argue that there ^are native‑speaker teachers who ^can be role models, and they ^are certainly good role models of ^a kind,and Japanese teachers ^can learn a great deal &om them. Japanese teachers who teach EnglishⁱⁿEnglish^are another kind of role models ^as they share learnlng experiences of theEnglish^language with studentsand ^can be more realistic role models.

2.2 JSⅡ and S耳S

(1)Entrance?xaminations:^{If English classes are taught in English,there} might ^be

apprehension that the necessaryknowledge and skills for ^entrance examinations

may ^not be obtained by students. This apprehension ^{seems to}be greater in SHS than inJHS.

(2)^Lack of uniformity: Inmost JSH and SHS, several teachers teach difrTerent classes of the ^same grade, and sometimes it is difficulttoarrive ^{ata consensus to} teach their classes in English.Also, in the ^same situation, if^some of them teach their classes in English and the others in Japanese, there is^a possibility that those teachers teaching in English cannot ^cover all the lessons planned ^to be finished by all the teachers including the ^ones teaching in Japanese, as it may take ^more time ^to teach the^same thing in English. This may leadsto reluctance ^to teach English in English.

3. Empirical evidence

ls there any empirical evidence that TETE ismore efficient than teaching English throughthe ^{mother tongue? According to Eldridge} (1996),"...there isno empirical evidence ^to support the notion that restricting mother tongue ^use would necessarily improve leaning efficiency. ^‑." (p. 303).Also, I remember the following dialogue between myself and Prof. Tomohiko Shirahata atShizuoka Universlty, ^a researcher in SLA (personalcommunication).

Hayase.I Which ismore efficient, teaching English throughEnglish^{or teaching} EnglishthroughJapanese?

Prof. Shirahata.･ I don'tknow. We need ^to experiment.

What Prof. Shirahata meant is that he^was not aware ofempiricalresearch ^atthat time ^to

answer yes ^{or no.} Final一y, Kanatanj (2004)writes that he has not heard of evidence

showing that themore English^{teachers use, the more} students'English^improve (p.9).

If there is^no depeJldable empirical evidence about the e用cacy of TETE, ^we need todepend on theories and hypotheses of SLA.

4. Theories and hypotheses and (heir叩PJication jn the chssroom

Very few people should disagree with the proposition that input plays the central role in SLA. The greatest part of language acqulSlt10n ^Occurs through the understanding of messages (Shirai,^2008, p. 115).^Sato (2009),aRer reviewingthirteen papers written by researchers, writes, "There isno lack of theories ^or hypotheses which regards input

as a precondition for leaming" (p.371).^{Finally, "as long} (sic)there is input, acquisition will occur"咋ike& Young‑Scholten, 2009, p. 1).

How does Input WOrk in the classroom? First ofall, English used by the teacher is

a major^{source oflanguage} input for his/her students (Mee‑Ling ,1996, p. 186)･Hughes (1978, p. 6) _{a)so contends} that "…the classroom situation is a genuine social environment which allows 'the meaningful situational ^use of the language." In other words, teachers need ^to make efforts ^to maximize their students'exposure ^to English.

Secondly,anEnglish･environment, ^ln Which the ^use of Englishis abundant, helps the students ^to be convinced that it is^an English class and that the conviction surely motivates them ^to study the language. Thirdly, through TETE, teachers become more

confldent in TETE,and atthe ^same time, they realize the unsatisfactory ^{areas as to} their English,and they work ^{more to} improvethemselves. In other words, unlessthey express themselves in English, they can't find what they can't express in English･ If they know what they ^can't express in English, then they ^can improve themselves by 丘nding approprlate ^StnlCtureS and expressions in books, dictionaries, etc･^･For example,

on one occasion, Iwas trying ^tO explain what "meal" of "oatmeal" ^means･ The only word which ^came up ^ln my mind ^at that time ^was upushedn･ Iam sure the listeners understood what Imeant as I made gestures showing oatmeal ^as realia. But Iwas not satis6ed with my word, ^so later I consulted ^a monolingual dictionary and found ^out that the better word is "crushed." When I explain about the word "meal" in the future I will surely ^use this word learnlng &om my experience of using English.^{Students can} also improve themselves in the same way. Last but not least, teachers cansave themselves from a double standard in which they encourage their students ^{to use} Englishadding

that it is all right ^to commit mistakes while they ^are conducting their classes in Japanese. Teachersalso do make mistakes for various ^reasons in spite Ofthemselves, but it shows ^to the stu.dents that it ISall right^to makemistakes in uslng the target language. One caveat is what Sato (2009)aptly says ^as follows: ^"we maintain the attitude that^{we are} trying ^tobecome more accurate and nuent" (p.372).

5. SpecirIC Suggestions

Now that the importance and implications of TETE isfuIly awared, several

specific suggestions ^to promote TETE,with the understanding that the primary

objective^{ofTETE isto improve} the students'Ianguage, and ^topresent them with ^:

(1)carefully controlled listening practice and

(2)opportunities f♭r productive practice.

(Adapted^{from Lewis & Hill}(2002),p.12)

5.1 Decideto do it in English^{from day one}

When teachers teach English throughEnglish,the Brst thing they should do isto decide to teach English throughEnglish.^This is crucial. It is important ^to make ^a firm resolution ^to do it. In order ^totell themselves ^to put into this resolution into practice,^1t is alsovital for them ^to be convinced that it is necessary ^to teach English through English.Allof them should have their ^{own reasons} why they teach English through

English. For me, not uslng English in class ^means depriving the students of opportunities ^to expose themselves ^toEnglishand using ^{ltaS a means} Ofcommunicatiop･

For many students, classrooms ^are the only situations where they ^can improve their skills in English. Teachers should ^not rob the students of the opportumty ^to improve themselves. They need ^to be firmly conscious of the importance of TETE by having their^{own reasons} f♭r it.

5.2 Break the psychologicalbarrier

One ma)or problem for many English teachers isnot their English skills. They have enoughskills^{to conduct} their classes in English, but theyare afraid of something.

They have hesitation･ They have anxiety. They have worries. They worry whether things go smoothly. They are reluctant ^{to use} English. They are afraid of making mistakes,

even though they say ^to their studeTltS^{tO use} Englishwithout being a丘aid ofcommlttlnB

errors as discussed _atthe end of section 4. In other words, they have communicative

competence, but they may ^not have enoughcommunicative confidence. So, what they need ^more isnot English skills, but ^more encouragement ^to boost their confidence ^to

use English.See the listofencouragJng expressions about using English in appendix A.

5.3 t7se code‑switchillg

A dictionary definition of code‑switching goes ^as follows.･^"a change by a speaker

(or wdter)斤om ^{one language or language variety to} another" (知chards,^{I. C. et}a], ed.,2002, p.81).^{TETE does not} advocate thatEnglishshould be usedall the time &om the beginnlng ^tO the end of each class, It allows judicious^use of the mother tongue.

There ^are occasions where ^use of Japanese ismore efficient than that of English such ^as grammarand vocabulary explanations ^or instructions for the procedure of task activities,

even thoughthereare scholars who argue that English should also be used in these occasions ^as they present genuine opportunities for teacher‑student communication in the classroom ￠Iarbord,^{1992; Moody,} 2003).^{As mentioned earlier,也e MEXT's new}

guidelines ^to be implemented in 2013also states clearly thatall the English classes ^at SHS should be taught^{in English as a} principle (Koko ^no gakushushidoyoryo kaiteian,

2009).^We should, however, switch back toEnglish as soon as the necessary ^use of the Japanese language isover. See the checklist of code‑switching ^ln appendix B.

5.4 Improve ourselves

All teachers need ^to be challenged ^toconstantly improve themselves (Dash,2002, p. 15).^Fukushima (2006,p. 193)agreeswith Dash and says that it is^a basic need for English teachers ^to make continuous efforts^to improve their^own Englishskills. It is also necessary ^to improve their teachings skills^as well･ The so‑called comprehensible Input represented in ui +1v is certainly necessary for teachers ^tohone their English skills, especially ^to develop nuency and automatlClty, but Hi +1乃surely does not contain ^too many unknown lingulStic items1‑grammar, vocabulary, ^or pronunciation for that matter‑‑as the formula showsI For English language acquisition for acqulrer teachers ^to

occur, however, itcan be argued that they also need ‖i +1+cL''which is English fTar

beyond Englishof their levels. It is difficult^to define how much beyondthis "i +1+α"

should be, but one example of this for SHS students may be English studied for college entrance examinations･ This example may demonstrate the importance of ui +1+α''and it may also glVe ^SOme hint for teachers as to what kind ofEnglish they shouldaim ^at･Or many of them candefine their^own ̀̀i+1+αM based ^on theircurrent skills and their goals in English̲ "i +1+a" should make ^a world ofdiffTerence･

Teachers also need ^to improve theirEnglishin such ^a way that they ^can modify their English ^to help their students ^to understand them. EffTective skills in modifying

English are paraphrasing and making appropnate example ^sentences and phrases ^on the spot. Use of bodily movements like gestures and facial expressions, ^use of drawings, illustrations, and diagrams, and ^use of realia, pictures,and videos ^are natural tools ^to assist modifying^{English. These} auxiliaries and the ^use of modified English constitute animportant part of teaching skills.

Conclusion

Teachers teach English f♭r the sake of their students. They ^want their students ^to improve theirEnglish.^TETE should play ^a ma)or role in achieving this goal. Now that various important aspects of TETE have been understood, teachers need ^to work ^on

more specific methods and techniques ^to be used ^at JHS, SHS, and UMV while increaslng TETE and their English and teaching skills. Primary schools need ^to be includedinthe discussion as English activities with ^a long history _at pnmary schools will be compulsory beginnlng in 201 1. Though the main aim ofEnglishactivities is^not teach English skills, English is used by the teacher and students. Itwill be necessary ^to discuss TETE at pnmary, secondary and tertlary Stages,and ^a close cooperation throughout the three stages will be crucial in order ^to make TETE bear expected results.

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AppeTIdix A:List o†encouraglng eェPreSSioⅠlS abollt using English

Theseare expressions I have collected ^over many years.

‑1Don't be a舟aid of making mistakes; be a丘aid of losing chances ^to improve yourself when you don't ^even try^touse English

1‑Give yourself permission ^tomakemistakes and learn &om them‑a tlP^On Studying ^a foreign language, &om aWeb site oftheUniverslty OfTexas

‑‑Dare ^to embarrass yourself.

‑Let ^us failcreatively.

‑‑Run lingulStlC risks in conversation!

I‑Profit&om mistakes!

‑‑"Second language learnlng adually necessitates the making or mistakes."

‑‑"Learmng isfundamentally a process that involves the making of mistakes."

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‑‑"Ihaveknown failures. Those I haverun &om taught^me nothing." Jane Fonda (2005).

Jane FoJ血I坤Llfe So Far. New York: Random House, p. 573.

I‑"Ihave won 3,000 races, but I have also learned ^a lot &om the horses that did notwin.