「世界の日本語教育」
10,2000年
6月
JFL Lear 臨 ers ' 主 主 efer 愈胞を i a l
踊,For 車問 Choice 品 目 制 固
t h r o t 互 ghThi ま d
圃Perso 宜 主 Narratives
YANAGI 孔 1ACHI
Tomoharu*Key words: referential form choice, oral narrative, discourse function, context, second language acquisition
This study investigates the selection of one referential form, a full noun phrase (NP), pronoun, or zero pronoun, over another in oral narratives by English田speaking learners of Japanese as a foreign language (JFL).
First‑, second‑, and third田personnarrative data were collected through film‑
pro
白
ciencylevles as well as from 15 native Japanese speakers.While the use of zero pronoun in subject position for first‑and second‑
person reference was frequent and close to target町language(TL) norms for all three proficiency groups, in third‑person contexts, the learners supplied more frequent overt reference than their T L counterparts. It is argued that this variation was caused by the di
妊
erentdiscourse func‑ tions the referential forms performed (deictic vs. anaphoric reference) and by the di百
erent narrative types in which the forms were used (context‑embedded vs. context由displacednarrative).The findings have theoretical implications for S L A research in general in that they illustrate the importance of functional conditions in the JFL learners' acquisition of referential皿formuse.
INTRODUCTION
This study will investigate Japanese皿as‑a‑foreign‑language (JFL) learners' selection of one referential form, a full noun phrase (NP), pronoun, or zero pronoun, over another in their oral discourse production.1 In attempting to analyze and explain why JFL learners choose referential forms in the target
*柳町智治:
Assistant Professor, International Student Center, Hokkaido University.1 In this study no distinction is made between unmodified and modified full NPs. Both are treated in the same category offull NPs, in contrast to pronouns.
[ 109 ]
IIO
世界の日本語教育
language (TL) i n the way i n which they d o , the present study s i t u a t e s i t s e l f along with other SLA s t u d i e s i n the f u n c t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n . Functional a p ‑ proaches t o second‑language (L2) s t u d i e s assume t h a t l i n g u i s t i c forms r e f l e c t and d e r i v e from l i n g u i s t i c functions ( e . g . , Pfa 百 1 9 8 7 ;Tomlin 1 9 9 0 ; Klein 1 9 9 0 ) . I f t h i s assumption i s applied t o the present t o p i c , i t i s hypothesized t h a t r e f e r e n t i a l forms w i l l be r e a l i z e d i n L2 n a r r a t i v e s according t o the forms' functions i n discourse and the s p e a k e r s ' communicative needs, r a t h e r than the grammatical p r o p e r t i e s of the forms or s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s between the n a t i v e language (NL) and TL. The d i 狂的時, and o f t e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y , r e s u l t s i n previous s t u d i e s on l e a r n e r s ' a c q u i s i t i o n of r e f e r e n t i a l forms, which w i l l be reviewed below, may indeed have been induced by the nature of the d i 百 e r e n tt a s k s given t o the l e a r n e r s and the communicative function of the p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e e l i c i t e d by the t a s k s . A s t e p
田by
由s t e p ,e i t h e r
四orview of the development of the L2 l e a r n e r s ' r e f e r e n t i a l system, i . e . a s moving from the s t a g e of oversupplying unnecessary o v e r t forms t o t h a t of l e a r n i n g t o drop them, or v i c e v e r s a , i s apt t o f a i l t o capture the complex nature of i t s development. The present study t r i e s t o explain v a r i a b i l i t y i n l e a r n e r s ' s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n t i a l forms by considering the type of r e f e r e n c e l i n g u i s t i c t a s k s c a l l e d f o r a s w e l l a s the type of context where the forms a r e employed.
Background of the Present Study
1Previous Studies on
L2Speakers' Referential Form Choice
In the p a s t decade, many research s t u d i e s , mostly i n the ESL c o n t e x t , have examined how and why L2 l e a r n e r s s e l e c t one r e f e r e n t i a l form over another a t a given moment i n n a r r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , but the r e s u l t s from t h e s e s t u d i e s a r e mixed and f a r from c o n c l u s i v e . These s t u d i e s can roughly be divided i n t o t h r e e major groups depending on t h e i r f i n d i n g s and c l a i m s . The f i r s t group c o n s i s t s of s t u d i e s which found t h a t L2 discourse tends t o contain a l a r g e r percentage of zero pronouns than i t s T L counterpart ( e . g , ・ Huebner 1 9 8 3 ; Fuller and Gundel 1 9 8 7 ; Gundel and Tarone 1 9 8 3 ; Williams 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 8 9 ; Sato 1 9 9 9 ) . In c o n t r a s t , the second s e t of s t u d i e s (Tarone and Yule 1 9 8 7 ; Fakhri 1 9 8 9 ; Tomlin 1 9 9 0 ; Kumpf 1 9 9 2 ; J i n 1 9 9 4 ; Polio 1 9 9 5 ) argues t h a t i t i s more d i f f i c u l t f o r l e a r n e r s t o use more attenuated r e f e r e n t i a l forms than t o use e x p l i c i t ones; they tend t o choose f u l l NPs over l e x i c a l pronouns or choose l e x i c a l pronouns over zero pronouns.2 Some of the s t u d i e s i n t h i s group (Fakhri 1 9 8 9 ; J i n 1 9 9 4 ; Polio 1 9 9 5 ) a l s o argue t h a t the s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n t i a l options by l e a r n e r s changes over time according t o the l e a r n e r s ' p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s , moving from l e s s attenuated t o more attenuated d i s c o u r s e . The f i n d i n g s from the t h i r d s e t of s t u d i e s (Klein 1 9 8 6 ; Klein and Perdue 1 9 9 2 ;
2 Gullberg (1996, 1998) discusses videotaped narratives of three learners of French and three learners of Swedish, and reports that these learners showed frequent linguistic over
ィ
narkingnot only in speech but also in gesture.JFL Learners' Referential‑Form Choice
III
Hartford 1 9 9 5 ; Yanagimachi 1 9 9 6 , 1 9 9 7 ) , however, suggest g r e a t e r complexity i n interlanguage (IL) r e f e r e n c e development. Their data suggest t h a t l e a r r
l 嗣e r s do not develop t h e i r r e f e r e n c e ‑
l i n e a r f a s h i o n , moving from a l e s s attenuated form t o a more attenuated o n e , o r v i c e v e r s a . Rather, l e a r n e r data d i s p l a y d e v i a t i o n from the T L norm i n both d i r e c t i o n s , being too attenuated on one occasion but too o v e r t on a n o t h e r .
2 F i r s t ‑and Second
岡PersonReference v s . Third
幽PersonReference
Littlewood ( 1 9 8 1 ) proposes t h a t v a r i a b i l i t y i n IL should be examined from t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s : ( a ) the communicative function of a f e a t u r e ; ( b ) the l i n g u i s t i c environment of the f e a t u r e ; and ( c ) s o c i a l and s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s (such a s pressure o r need t o speak according t o s o c i a l norms). Tarone and P a r r i s h ( 1 9 8 8 ) c i t e t h e s e t h r e e c r i t e r i a i n t h e i r study on the t a s k
同r e l a t e d v a r i a t i o n of ESL s p e a k e r s ' use of grammatical a r t i c l e s , and make the point t h a t e a r l i e r works on SLA did not pay much a t t e n t i o n t o Littlewoods f i r s t c r i t e r i o n , the communicative function of the f e a t u r e under i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Among s t u d i e s which i n v e s t i g a t e d L2 l e a r n e r s ' a c t s of r e f e r e n c e , c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the i s s u e o f the communicative function of r e f e r e n t i a l forms i s Kleins ( 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 0 ) d i s t i n c t i o n between f i r s t ‑ and second
由person d e i c t i c r e f e r e n c e and t h i r d
問person anaphoric r e f e r e n c e . Klein argues t h a t while both f i r s t 四 / second‑and third‑person r e f e r e n c e belong t o a uniform s y n t a c t i c c l a s s ( e . g . , they can be s u b j e c t s i f used i n t h a t p o s i t i o n ) , they s e r v e d i 百 eren communicative f u n c t i o n s . According t o Klein ( 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 0 ) and Klein and Perdue ( 1 9 9 2 ) , i t has been shown i n a number of s t u d i e s including t h e i r own t h a t f i r s t
田andsecond‑person pronouns a r e always acquired e a r l i e r than third‑person pronouns i n both 五 r s ト language (L1) and L2 development.
Klein argues t h i s i s because f i r s t ‑ / s e c o n d
田personpronouns and third‑person pronouns have d i 妊 e r e n tf u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s and because, i n c o n t r a s t with the pro‑drop parameter hypothesis ( e . g . , White 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 9 ) , l e a r n e r s acquire the pronouns according t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n .
He e x p l a i n s t h a t f i r s t ‑and second‑person d e i c t i c reference maintains r e f e r ‑ ence t o the present s p e a k e r , l i s t e n e r , or groups containing t h e s e , while third‑personαnaphoric reference maintains reference t o a person or o b j e c t mentioned b e f o r e . He f u r t h e r e x p l a i n s t h a t , on the one hand, d e i c t i c f i r s t 同 /
second
四personr e f e r e n c e i s a fundamental mechanism found i n a l l n a t u r a l
l a n g u a g e s , and t h a t l e a r n e r s can understand the b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of d e i x i s i n
t h e i r T L with l i t t l e d i 伍 c u l t y . Moreover, the meaning of d e i c t i c r e f e r e n c e
can be i n f e r r e d from the immediate c o n t e x t . Third‑person anaphoric r e f e r ‑
e n c e , on the other hand, i n v o l v e s a highly complex mechanism of r e f e r e n t i a l
choice and movement ( 1 9 9 0 : 2 2 9 ) , and preceding information i s a l s o s u b j e c t
t o continuous change with t i m e , which r e s u l t s i n higher memory l o a d .
These f a c t o r s make i t d i 伍 c u l tf o r the speaker t o keep t r a c k of previously
introduced e n t i t i e s and t o keep r e f e r e n c e t o the p a r t i c i p a n t s s t r a i g h t i n
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世界の日本語教育
anaphoric r e f e r e n c e . A summary of Kleins d i s t i n c t i o n of f i r s ト / second‑
person d e i c t i c reference and t h i r d
由personanaphoric reference i s given i n Table 1 :
Table 1 F i r s t 四 / Second 四 PersonR e f e r e n c e v s . Third‑Person R e f e r e n c e F i r s t ‑/ s e c o n d ‑ p e r s o n r e f e r e n c e T h i r d ‑ p e r s o n r e f e r e n c e
・ D e i c t i c r e f e r e n c e ・ A n a p h o r i c r e f e r e n c e
・ R e f e r s t o p r e s e n t s p e a k e r / l i s t e n e r ・ R e f e r s t o e n t i t y p r e v i o u s l y i n t r o d u c e d
・ I m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t u a l s u p p o r t ・ L i t t l e c o n t e x t u a l s u p p o r t
・ Works s i m i l a r l y i n a l l l a n g u a g e s ・ Complex a n d h a s t o b e l e a r n e d
・ Low memory l o a d ・ High memory l o a d
・ A c q u i r e d e a r l y ・ A c q u i r e d l a t e r
(Klein 1986, 1990).
Another study t h a t looks a t a c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i s s u e from the perspective of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t a s k type and e l i c i t e d discourse production i s Robinson ( 1 9 9 5 ) . He c o l l e c t e d o r a l n a r r a t i v e data from 12 intermediate‑level ESL l e a r n e r s i n two d i 妊 erentt a s k c o n d i t i o n s , Here‑anιNow and There‑and
由Then, and compared the data with r e s p e c t t o t a r g e t ‑ l i k e use of a r t i c l e s , propositional and s y n t a c t i c complexity, l e x i c a l l o a d , pausing, and utterance l e n g t h . He argues t h a t the Here‑and‑Now t a s k condition r e q u i r e s present tense and context‑embedded r e f e r e n c e , while the There‑and‑Then t a s k i n ‑ valves displaced r e f e r e n c e , and t h a t displaced reference i s more cognitively demanding and t h e r e f o r e more d i 伍 c u l t f o r L2 speakers than context
回supported r e f e r e n c e . He w r i t e s :
Consequently, t a l k about the Here‑anιNow, which i s context
同supported, may well tempt L2 l e a r n e r s t o s t a y within, or r e v e r t t o , the s t r u c t u r a l l y simple pragmatic mode, requiring the i n t e r
開locutor t o f i l l i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of l i n g u i s t i c a l l y uncoded i n f o r
町mation from the c o n t e x t . However, where context support i s not a v a i l a b l e , a s i n the c a s e of displaced r e f e r e n c e , the language user had t o ensure t h a t a l l the necessary presuppositions a r e coded within the message. ( p . 1 0 4 )
His data confirm t h i s hypothesis. The more complex There‑anιThen con
問d i t i o n e l i c i t e d s h o r t e r and l e s s f l u e n t but more accurate and complex o r a l production than the Here‑anιNow c o n d i t i o n . A summary of Robinsons d i s t i n c t i o n of Here‑anιNow and There‑anιThen conditions i s given i n Table 2 .
Although Robinsons study does not s p e c i f i c a l l y look a t l e a r n e r s ' s e l e c t i o n
of r e f e r e n t i a l forms i n discourse production and does not mention Kleins
works, i t provides s i g n i f i c a n t i n s i g h t s i n t o the present t o p i c . His d i s t i n c t i o n
of the Here
田and‑Nowv s . the There‑and‑Then seems t o bear some resem
問blance t o Kleins d i s t i n c t i o n of d e i c t i c and anaphoric r e f e r e n c e . The Here‑
JFL L e a r n e r s ' R e f e r e n t i a l ‑ F o r m C h o i c e
113Table 2 Here‑and
由Nowv s .
T句h e r e ‑
Here‑and‑Now
IT h e r e ‑ a n d ‑ T h e n
・ C o n t e x t ‑ s u p p o r t e d r e f e r e n c e ・ D i s p l a c e d r e f e r e n c e
・ Needs l e s s l i n g u i s t i c c o d i n g ・ Needs more l i n g u i s t i c c o d i n g
・ C o g n i t i v e l y l e s s demanding ・ C o g n i t i v e l y more demanding
・ L o n g e r a n d more f l u e n t p r o d u c t i o n ・ S h o r t e r a n d l e s s 自 u e n tp r o d u c t i o n
・ L e s s c o m p l e x a n d a c c u r a t e ・ More c o m p l e x a n d a c c u r a t e ( R o b i n s o n
1995).anιNow condition and f i r s t 田 / second 田 persond e i c t i c reference share s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s such a s the e x i s t e n c e of contextual support, and lower demand and c o g n i t i v e load on the s p e a k e r ; s i m i l a r l y , opposite f e a t u r e s a r e shared by There‑and‑Then and third‑person anaphoric r e f e r e n c e . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r
同e s t t o the present study i s t h a t Robinsons model implies t h a t the There‑anι Then, displaced reference condition would produce e x p l i c i t and redundant r e f e r e n t i a l forms, a s opposed t o i m p l i c i t and ambiguous o n e s , more f r e ‑ quently than i t s Here‑and‑Now, context‑embedded c o u n t e r p a r t . This w i l l be t e s t e d and discussed i n the following s e c t i o n s .
Most s t u d i e s on L2 s p e a k e r s ' a c t s of reference have d e a l t only with t h i r d ‑ person n a r r a t i v e s due t o the nature of the data c o l l e c t i o n m a t e r i a l s employed;
g e n e r a l l y , procedures involving p i c t u r e o r f i l m r e t e l l i n g t a s k s were u s e d . Questions a s t o how d i f f e r e n t l y or s i m i l a r l y r e f e r e n t i a l patterning i s r e a l i z e d i n f i r s t ‑and second‑person versus third‑person contexts have been f o r the most p a r t unaddressed. Therefore, a s Polio ( 1 9 9 5 ) admits, the f i n d i n g s from such s t u d i e s cannot n e c e s s a r i l y be generalized t o f i r s t
田andsecond
田person contexts before we a c t u a l l y look a t the l a t t e r . I f the frameworks which Klein ( 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 0 ) and Robinson ( 1 9 9 5 ) propose hold t r u e , f i r s t ‑ / s e c o n d
聞person n a r r a t i v e s and t h i r d
問person n a r r a t i v e s should e l i c i t d i f f e r e n t patterns i n r e f e r e n t i a l form s e l e c t i o n by L2 s p e a k e r s .
The Prese 口 tSt 日 dy
孔 1 o s t of the previous s t u d i e s t h a t i n v e s t i g a t e d L2 s p e a k e r s ' s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n t i a l forms involved speakers of various L 1 backgrounds learning Eng‑
l i s h ; i . e . , an ESL context (Huebner 1 9 8 3 ; Gundel and Tarone 1 9 8 3 ; Fuller
and Gundel 1 9 8 7 ; Tarone and Yule 1 9 8 7 ; Williams 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 8 9 ; Tomlin 1 9 9 0 ;
Kumpf 1 9 9 2 ; Hartford 1 9 9 5 ) . One of the problems with t h i s imbalance i n
the s u b j e c t group pool i s t h a t when these l e a r n e r s produce zero pronouns i n
t h e i r u t t e r a n c e s , we cannot know i f non‑overt forms have been a c t u a l l y
i n t e r n a l i z e d i n the l e a r n e r s ' IL system, i f they a r e j u s t t r a n s f e r r i n g a r e f e r e n ‑
t i a l s t r a t e g y from t h e i r often more d e l e t i o n ‑ i n c l i n e d n a t i v e language (NL)
i n t o t h e i r IL, or i f the use of nor ト overtforms i s a manifestation of the
Topic ゃ rominentnature of e a r l y s t a g e s of ILs a s claimed i n some previous
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世界の日本語教育
s t u d i e s ( e . g . , Fuller and Gundel 1 9 8 7 ; J i n 1 9 9 4 ) . Studies have y e t t o be done with L2 l e a r n e r s of Japanese, which u t i l i z e s zero pronouns f r e q u e n t l y , i n order t o check whether or not we w i l l g e t s i m i l a r r e s u l t s with L2 Japanese d a t a .
Another advantage of using L2 Japanese data t o explore t h i s t o p i c l i e s i n a p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of r e f e r e n c e i n J a p a n e s e . E l l i p s i s i s abundant i n Japanese ( e . g . , Clancy 1 9 8 0 ; Makino and Tsutsui 1 9 8 6 ; Maynard 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 8 ; Shibatani 1 9 9 0 ) , and i t s f i r s t
四throughthird‑person pronouns a r e often not l e g i t i m a t e r e f e r e n t i a l options and a r e not employed a s frequently a s i n English, which l e a v e s l e a r n e r s with two extreme r e f e r e n t i a l o p t i o n s , f u l l NPs or zero pronouns. I t thus provides an i n t e r e s t i n g research question: how do English
田speakingl e a r n e r s of Japanese, f a c i n g the t a s k of learning a language which does not have t h e i r most common r e f e r e n t i a l ‑ f o r m o p t i o n , the l e x i c a l pronoun, manage r e f e r e n c e i n the new language? Will they r e l y on e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n t i a l forms, f u l l NPs? Or w i l l they r e s o r t t o the other r e f e r e n t i a l o p t i o n , zero pronouns? Or w i l l they s t i l l s t i c k t o pronominal forms, even though the forms a r e r a r e l y used among T L speakers and have t o be used very c a u t i o u s l y ? W e can i n v e s t i g a t e these research questions only when we have JFL or JSL (Japanese a s a second language) l e a r n e r s a s s u b j e c t s . Cross‑
l i n g u i s t i c i n q u i r i e s which d e a l with two languages a s d i f f e r e n t a s English and Japanese a r e thus p a r t i c u l a r l y necessary and meaningful.
The present study should be a b l e t o provide valuable i n s i g h t s i n t o the i s s u e of how s i m i l a r l y or d i f f e r e n t l y JFL l e a r n e r s s e l e c t r e f e r e n t i a l forms i n f i r s t ‑ through third‑person n a r r a t i v e s . Previous s t u d i e s (Huebner 1 9 8 3 ; Klein 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 0 ; Klein and Perdue 1 9 9 2 ) have suggested t h a t L2 l e a r n e r s seem t o develop t h e i r system of f i r s t ‑and second‑person r e f e r e n c e e a r l i e r than t h i r d person
四r e f e r e n c e . Robinsons ( 1 9 9 5 ) study on the r e l a t i o n s h i p of narra
聞t i v e types (Here‑anιNow v s . There
田and‑Then)and l e a r n e r production a l s o suggests t h a t f i r s t
同andsecond
田personr e f e r e n c e should be e a s i e r than t h i r d
閏person r e f e r e n c e because i n the former the t a s k i s context
田embedded , while
i t i s displaced i n the l a t t e r . The f i r s t
四throught h i r d
田persondata of the present study come from the same s u b j e c t groups, and t h i s makes the comparison of r e f e r e n t i a l patterning among t h e s e d i 百 e r e n tcontexts p o s s i b l e . I t i s hoped t h a t looking a t JFL l e a r n e r s ' r e f e r e n t i a l ‑ f o r m choice from t h i s perspective w i l l g i v e us a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e of why L2 speakers choose one r e f e r e n t i a l form over another i n the way they d o .
The following questions a r e asked i n the present study:
Question 1 : How can the r e f e r e n t i a l
田forms e l e c t i o n of English‑speaking
JFL l e a r n e r s be c h a r a c t e r i z e d ? More s p e c i f i c a l l y , how w i l l l e a r n e r s use
the two extreme r e f e r e n t i a l options i n Japanese, f u l l NPs and zero
pronouns, when they c r e a t e n a r r a t i v e s t o r i e s , and how w i l l t h e i r r e f e r e n ‑
t i a l ‑ f o r m s e l e c t i o n compare t o t h a t of n a t i v e speakers of Japanese? And
more importantly:
JFL Learners' Referential‑Form Choice
Question 2 : How w i l l d i 妊 erencesi n the type and context of n a r r a t i v e s ( f i r s t ‑v s . second‑v s . t h i r d
嗣person)a 妊 e c tthe s p e a k e r s ' s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r ‑ e n t i a l forms? I f there i s any d i f f e r e n c e found among t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , what does t h i s imply f o r the study of L2 r e f e r e n c e i n g e n e r a l ?
五 直 ethodology 1 Research P a r t i c i p a n t s
The L2 Japanese ( h e r e a f t e r , L2 Jpn) data of the present study were c o l l e c t e d a t two summer i n t e n s i v e Japanese language i n s t i t u t e s i n Japan and a t a u n i v e r s i t y i n the U.S. The research p a t r i c i p a n t s , undergraduate or graduate students a t u n i v e r s i t i e s i n the U.S. o r Canada, were a l l n a t i v e speakers of English, a t o t a l of 36 l e a r n e r s a t t h e s e three s i t e s .
3As f o r the assessment of the l e a r n e r s ' p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s , in‑house o r a l placement t e s t s c o r e s a t the two summer i n t e n s i v e programs and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t u s a t the U.S. u n i v e r s i t y were used a s a proxy f o r p r o f i c i e n c y , with a f i v e
回t o
由seven
....conversation t o c o l l e c t demographic information a t the beginning of each interview being employed a s a common y a r d s t i c k t o compare l e a r n e r s from the t h r e e d i 妊 e r e n tprograms.4 When the data from the l e a r n e r s from the t h r e e s i t e s were combined, l e a r n e r s who f e l l on the borderline of any two groups were excluded s o t h a t the p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the present study would represent d i s t i n c t i v e groups of t h r e e p r o f i c i e n c y ‑ l e v e l s : n o v i c e , i n t e r m e d i a t e , and advanced groups.
During the interviews with the l e a r n e r s , English b a s e l i n e data (NL d a t a ) were a l s o c o l l e c t e d from a l l of the 36 l e a r n e r s f o r l a t e r comparison between Japanese and English n a r r a t i v e s , a s w e l l a s f o r checking the l e a r n e r s ' intended meaning i n t h e i r sometimes unclear Japanese n a r r a t i v e s . Twelve s e t s of samples of English n a r r a t i v e s were s e l e c t e d from the data b a s e . In addition t o the L2 Jpn d a t a , Japanese b a s e l i n e data (TL d a t a ) were a l s o c o l l e c t e d . Fifteen undergraduate and graduate students of a u n i v e r s i t y i n Hakodate, Japan were r e c r u i t e d .
5The T L group was interviewed with the same proce
回3 Although the data for this study were collected in Japan, and some of the learners had studied Japanese in Japan for some time at the time of the data collection (JSL context), we still call them JFL learners because: (a) all first started taking Japanese lessons in their E
時
lish‑speaki時
homecountries; and (b) the majority spent most of their Japanese language study time in their home universities in the U.S., and thus in a foreign‑language‑learning environment.4 The proficiency levels of the learners in the Novice, Intermediate, and Advanced groups of the present study roughly correspond to the respective levels in ACTFLs Proficiency Guidelines, since the ACTFL rating scale was partially employed for place‑ ment purposes in two of the three institutions where the learner data were collected.
5 Like most university students in Japan, the volunteers had had minimal or no contact with non‑native speakers of Japanese in Japan prior to the interview, and the majority of them, nine out of 15, had never been abroad.
II6
世界の日本語教育
Table 3 Pro五leof Participants
Eng Ll (NL) Jpn L2 (Nov) J(pInn L2 tM)
1r:d~
)2 J(; Ll L)N 12 16 12 8 15
Female/Male 4/8
Average age 23.3 21.8 23.8 26.5 21.1 Average years of
forma J a1c~ study 1.7 2.1 2.7 in US or nada
Avg. years in Japan 0.0 0.2 2.2 Total JJ;rs of 1.7 2.3 4.9 Japan st
Avg. years abroad 0.1
dures as the ones used for the L2 Jpn group, except that the T L group did the four retelling tasks only in Japanese.
A
summary of the research participants is given in Table3
above.2 Data Collection and Analysis
Four narrative tasks were given to each participant, as summarized in Table
4 .
The五
rsttask was a role play here called the Suspect story. In this role play the participants had to prove their alibi given that there had been a murder in the neighborhood and they were under suspicion of the crime.The researcher asked the participants to tell what they had done the day before to a police officer, who was played by the Japanese assistant. This task was designed to elicit the speakers' use of first
.
second task, the 'Picnic story, the researcher showed the participants a ten‑frame line‑drawing cartoon in which a girl went on a picnic with a sandwich, which she lost on the way to the park. The participants were then asked to retell the story of the cartoon as if it had happened to them when they
Table
4
Four TasksTask name Target Speaker task Listener Task
特
1 Suspect1st‑person To retell what they A Japanese person
reference did the day before [information gap] Task
幹
2 Picnic1st閏person To retell story from A Japanese person
reference a cartoon stn p [information gap] Task #3 Diet
2rnedf‑epreernscoen To ra shetoerltl v sitdoeroy c from lip The researcher Task
桝
Baby3rdperson To retell story from A Japanese person
reference a shot video clip [information gap]
JFL Learners' Referential‑Form Choice 117
were a c h i l d . This t a s k was a l s o designed t o e l i c i t the s p e a k e r s ' use of f i r s t ‑ p e r s o n r e f e r e n c e . The t h i r d t a s k was the Diet s t o r y . The r e s e a r c h e r showed each speaker a two‑minute s i l e n t video c l i p i n which the r e s e a r c h e r , the protagonist of the s t o r y , had gained weight and gone on a crash e x e r c i s e program a month p r e v i o u s l y . After watching the video c l i p , the p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked t o remind the r e s e a r c h e r of what had happened the month before and t o persuade the r e s e a r c h e r t o j o i n a s p o r t s c l u b . This t a s k was designed t o e l i c i t the s p e a k e r s ' use of second
同personr e f e r e n c e . In the l a s t t a s k , the Baby s t o r y , the p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked t o watch a two‑minute s i l e n t animation,
6and t o r e t e l l the s t o r y t o the Japanese a s s i s t a n t i n a s much d e t a i l a s p o s s i b l e . This t a s k was used t o e l i c i t the use of third‑person r e f e r e n c e .
As suggested i n the previous l i t e r a t u r e regarding the technique of e l i c i t i n g o r a l production data based on task‑based procedures (Brown and Yule 1 9 8 3 ; Tarone and Parrish 1 9 8 8 ; Tarone and Yule 1 9 8 9 ; Yule and Tarone 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 7 ; Yule 1 9 9 7 ) , a n a t i v e Japanese‑speaking a s s i s t a n t was present a t the f i r s t , second, and fourth t a s k s s o t h a t an information gap would be c r e a t e d between the s t o r y t e l l e r , who was the research p a r t i c i p a n t , and the l i s t e n e r , who was the Japanese a s s i s t a n t . A l l transcribed n a r r a t i v e s were f i r s t divided i n t o c l a u s e s ; a l l main and subordinate c l a u s e s were counted a s s u c h ,
7except f o r d i r e c t quotation verbs such a s i u ' t o say and omou t o think , following the procedures adopted i n such s t u d i e s a s Hinds ( 1 9 8 3 ) , Clancy ( 1 9 8 0 ) , Clancy and Downing ( 1 9 8 7 ) , and Kumpf ( 1 9 9 2 ) . S l i p s , f a l s e s t a r t s , abandoned u t t e r a n c e s , and meta‑cognitive remarks were not counted toward the s t a t i s ‑ t i c s .
Results
Table 5 shows the frequencies and proportions of f u l l NP, pronoun, and zero pronoun use i n the s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n f o r the three l e a r n e r and T L and N L groups i n the four t a s k s combined. Every l e a r n e r group used pronouns only 5 t o 9% of the time; t h i s was very c l o s e t o the T L l e v e l of 4%. This low frequency of pronominal use by the l e a r n e r groups makes a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t
6 The video clip shows the五rsttwo minutes of an animation film titled Every Child.
The story starts with a middle‑aged man working in an office. He finds a baby sitting on the doorstep, and brings it into his o
伍
ce. He finds himself too busy to take care of it, and puts it on the doorstep of a neighbors house, where an old couple are living with their dog. The couple find the baby and start taking care of it. Their dog becomes jealous and decides to leave the house. The old couple白
nallyfind him lying outside the house, pick him up, and become a happy family again.7 Sato (1999), which also deals with data from English‑speaking learners of Japanese, excludes subject of subordinate clauses from its quantitative analyses. Sato argues that one of the reasons for his low‑proficiency level learners' greater use of null subjects than that of the counterparts in Y anagimachi (1997), on whose data the present paper is based, is due to the di
百
erencein the handling of the data in the two studies.u8
世界の日本語教育
Table 5 Frequencies o f Forms Used i n S u b j e c t P o s i t i o n i n t h e Four Tasks Com
田bined
NL Nov IntM Adv TL
(N ニ 1 2 ) (N=16) (N=12) (N= 8 ) (N=15)
%(N) %(N) %(N) %(N) %(N) F u l l NP 9 ( 9 4 ) 2 6 ( 1 9 9 ) 1 6 ( 1 4 8 ) 1 4 ( 1 1 1 ) 1 1 ( 1 5 4 ) Pronoun 6 3 ( 6 6 3 ) 7 ( 5 6 ) 9 ( 7 6 ) 5 ( 4 3 ) 4 ( 4 8 )
φ
2 8 ( 3 0 0 ) 6 7 ( 5 0 8 ) 7 5 ( 6 7 1 ) 8 1 ( 6 4 1 ) 8 5 ( 1 1 6 3 ) T o t a l 1 0 0 ( 1 0 5 7 ) 1 0 0 ( 7 6 3 ) 1 0 0 ( 8 9 5 ) 1 0 0 ( 7 9 5 ) 1 0 0 ( 1 3 6 5 )
(NL=English native speaker (English Ll); Nov=Novice (Japanese L2); IntM=Int巴rmediate (Jpn L2); Adv=
Advanced (Jpn L2); TL=Target language speakers (Jpn Ll)).
with the English data (NL) where pronouns were used 63% of the time. As f o r the frequencies of zero pronouns, the l e a r n e r groups used them 67 t o 8 1 % of the t i m e , again much c l o s e r t o the T L groups 85 % than t o the English groups 28 % .
8Though the frequency of f u l l NPs used by the three l e a r n e r groups seems t o gradually approximate t h a t of the T L group over time, even the Novice group employed them only 26% of the t i m e , much l e s s frequently than they used zero pronouns.
Table 6 shows the proportions of zero pronouns i n the subject p o s i t i o n f o r each of the four t a s k s . The r e s u l t s f o r the Japanese n a r r a t i v e s a r e r e p r e ‑ sented graphically i n Figure 1 . For the f i r s t three t a s k s , which e l i c i t e d f i r s t ‑ and second
四personr e f e r e n c e , the l e a r n e r s used zero pronouns 74 t o 95% of the t i m e . These high frequencies of zero pronouns make a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t with the English (NL) d a t a , where the omission of subject pronouns occurred only 12‑25% of the time. This high frequency of zero pronouns i n l e a r n e r s ' Japanese n a r r a t i v e s seems t o provide evidence, a t l e a s t i n f i r s t ‑and second
目person r e f e r e n c e , a g a i n s t those previous s t u d i e s which found t h a t i t was d i 伍 c u l tf o r L2 l e a r n e r s t o l e a r n t o use zero pronouns. The present data show t h a t even l e a r n e r s with a non‑deletion‑inclined L1 l i k e English were able t o employ non
四overtforms from the e a r l i e r s t a g e s of t h e i r IL develop
闇ment. Such non‑overt reference by the l e a r n e r s appeared even i n environ‑
ments where i t i s not allowed i n English, a s i n the following example:
( 1) { i } (=初a t a s h i )hirugoh α n o t a b e t a a t o d e , uhh, n i j i k a n , n i j i k a n h a n , uhh,@ ( =watashi) moo i c h i d o kurasu g a , aru k a r a , uhh,@ ( = w α t a s h i ) s o n o aid α n i , kurasu n i im α s h i t α .
After p (=I) a t e lunch, uhh, f o r two hours, two and half hours, uhh,
8
A c c o r d i n g t o W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 8 9 ) , i n E n g l i s h t h e o m i s s i o n o f s u b j e c t p r o n o u n s i s a l l o w e d o n l y i n t h e s e c o n d c l a u s e o f c o o r d i n a t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h e r e t h e s u b j e c t NPs a r e c o ‑ r e f e r e n t i a l a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t w o c l a u s e s i s p a r a l l e l , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e :
( 7 ) He r a n i n t o t h e h o u s e a n d ¢ b o l t e d t h e d o o r .
JFL Learners' Referential四FormChoice rr9 Table 6 Proportions of Zero Pronouns (%) in Subject Position for the Suspect,
Picnic, Diet, and Baby Tasks
NL Nov IntM Adv TL
( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % )
Suspect 25 91 87 95 96 (1st‑person)Picnic 12 76 74 93 93 ( 1 st‑person)
Diet 14 84 92 94 94 (2nd‑person)
Baby 38 33 54 61 68 (3rd‑person
e v e
nunununununU
ハ ununununuaL
0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
岨 −
E
一 一 一
一 −-圃盛』’盟~-回目圃 崎 町 4園田園−匂・;−−−:,岡嶋岡剛岡国岡田
~一宮.:::::.:...--~ . . . . ‑
, , , , ,
,
ー .一 一 − 一 司 問 、 園 、 . , − ‑
一 一 一
Suspect( 1 st幽p)嗣 回Picnic(1 st‑p)
回 一 回Diet(2ndp)
一一・幽ー
Baby(3rd‑p)Nov l n t M Adv γ し
Figure 1 Proportions of Zero Pronouns(%) in Subject Position for the Four Retelling Tasks
since
¢
(=I) had another class, uhh, φ( コ コ
I)was in class during that time.' (Intermediate嗣07 目 的
I f
we look at the results from the third同personnarratives in Table6
and Figure1 ,
however, we find that the learners shifted their referential choice to a less attenuated pattern and omitted subject pronouns as little as33%
of the time. The percentage point gap between the learners and the T L speakers, who omitted subject pronouns68%
of the time, was never approached in the first四 /
second四
personnarratives. There also seemed to be a developmental trend across the groups. The learners' use of zero pronouns appeared to gradually approximate the T L level over time. The learners, especially the lower‑proficiency learners, had a more di伍
culttime operating in the T L referential system in the third‑person context than in the first‑and second巴 person contexts.I20
世界の日本語教育
Discussio 日
I f the difference in discourse structure between non‑deletion
田inclinedEng
四l i s h and d e l e t i o n
由r i c hJapanese had been a major f a c t o r , the l e a r n e r s i n the present study would have produced fewer zero pronouns. This simply did not occur i n t h e i r f i r s ト andsecond
同personn a r r a t i v e s a s shown i n Table 6 . Rather, even the lowest proficiency
田l e v e ll e a r n e r s u t i l i z e d non‑overt forms frequently i n t h e i r s t o r i e s . In Japanese, l e a r n e r s do not have a strong pronominal option and have t o choose between the two extreme options of f u l l NPs and zero pronouns, which may be responsible f o r increased use of zero pronouns i n the present d a t a . I t i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , s t i l l worth noting t h a t whenever the JFL l e a r n e r s had t o make a c h o i c e , they chose zero pronouns over f u l l NPs i n these n a r r a t i v e s most of the time. The T L
皿l i k eperform‑
ance by the l e a r n e r s may be surpr isi ng i f we consider the f a c t t h a t the l e a r n e r s would have had few opportunities t o t a l k i n extended discourse i n Japanese i n s i d e and outside of the classroom i n the manner required i n the present t a s k s . Despite the l a c k of p r a c t i c e and experience i n t h i s r e s p e c t , the l e a r n e r s s t i l l performed w e l l . I t seems s a f e t o say t h a t using zero pronouns i n the subject p o s i t i o n was not p a r t i c u l a r l y d i 伍 c u l tf o r JFL l e a r n e r s i n f i r s t ‑and second‑person n a r r a t i v e s i n the present s t u d y . 9
As shown i n Table 6 and Figure 1 , however, the l e a r n e r s , e s p e c i a l l y the lower
回p r o f i c i e n c yl e a r n e r s , c l e a r l y had a more d i 伍 c u l ttime operating in the T L r e f e r e n t i a l system i n the t h i r d
四person context than i n the f i r s t
四and second
問personc o n t e x t s . Why did t h i s happen? I t may have been caused p a r t l y by the type of a c t of reference the r e t e l l i n g t a s k s c a l l e d f o r . In the f i r s t
由andsecond‑person Suspect, P i c n i c , and Diet n a r r a t i v e s , most c a s e s of reference were made t o the main protagonist of the s t o r i e s , the speaker i n the Suspect and Picnic s t o r i e s , or the l i s t e n e r i n the Diet s t o r y , both of whom were present a t the i n t e r v i e w . This immediacy i n the n a r r a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s and contexts made i t quite obvious t o the i n t e r l o c u t o r s who the s t o r y was about, even before the speakers a c t u a l l y s t a r t e d t h e i r n a r r a t i v e s . Even when new third‑person r e f e r e n t s were introduced in these s t o r i e s , the already established f i r s t ‑and second‑person t o p i c s continued t o r e c e i v e the s t a t u s of d e f a u l t r e f e r e n t with i n e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e . The following example i l l u s t r a t e s the p o i n t :
( 2) [ F i r s t
問personn a r r a t i v e , Novice‑level l e a r n e r ]
9
H o w e v e r , t w o l e a r n e r s i n e a c h o f t h e N o v i c e a n d I n t e r m e d i a t e g r o u p s u s e d f i r s t
畑a n d
s e c o n d ‑ p e r s o n p r o n o u n s much more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h e r e s t o f t h e g r o u p m e m b e r s .
Ya n a g i m a c h i
(1999)p r o v i d e s a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l d i 百 e r e n c e si n
JFLl e a r n e r sr e f e r e n t i a l ‑ f o r m s e l e c t i o n .
JFL Learners' Referential‑Form Choice I2I
' ... e e , uhh, @ (=切 α t a s h i ) α r u i t e ,g α kkoo n i kimashitα . Uh 肌 a s a , uhm,@ ( =watαs h i ) nihongo no kurαs u ga a r i m a s h i t a , Tαnα h α
田s e n s e eno nihongo no kur α s u , t a k u sαn h i t o , ga a , g a , a r i m a s h i t a . Uhm , α t o d e , uhm,@ ( = w α t a s h i ) Y α
,m a d a ‑ s e n s e e n o , uhh, no hanashi o , k i k i m a s h i t a , uhh, s o r e d e , uhm, @ ( = w α t a s h i ) kimono no kurasu n i i k i m a s h i t α .
. . e r , uhh , φ ( = I ) came t o school on f o o t . Uhm, i n the morning, uhm , φ ( = I ) had a Japanese c l a s s , i n Professor Tanakas Japanese c l a s s , t h e r e were a l o t of p e o p l e . Uhm a f t e r t h a t , uhm , φ ( =I) l i s t e n e d t o , uhh, Professor Yamadas t a l k , uhh, t h e n , uhm, ¢ (=I) went t o a kimono l e s s o n . '
(N o v i c e ‑ 0 9 ‑ S ) Despite the appearance of other s t o r y p a r t i c i p a n t s such a s Tanaka
山s e n s e e
Professor Tanaka , takusan h i t o ' a l o t of people , and Yamada − 叩 nsee Pro‑
f e s s o r Yamada i n the e x c e r p t , the speaker never removes h e r s e l f from the t o p i c r o l e , a s manifested i n the f a c t t h a t r e f e r e n c e t o the s u b j e c t of the l a s t s e n t e n c e , the speaker h e r s e l f , i s made by a zero pronoun. As exemplified i n t h i s e x c e r p t , the l e a r n e r n a r r a t o r and l i s t e n e r had a t a c i t understanding from t h e onset of the n a r r a t i v e who the s t o r i e s were a b o u t . Because of t h i s highly anchored nature of the main protagonist of the s t o r i e s , discourse t o p i c s i n t h e s e s t o r i e s were e a s i l y recoverable from the immediate c o n t e x t , and most of t h e time did not r e s u l t i n frequent s u b j e c t switches and consequent o v e r t l i n g u i s t i c coding. The nature and context of f i r s t ‑and second‑person n a r r a ‑ t i v e s thus provided a thematically dominant and s t a b l e t o p i c , which made i t easy f o r l e a r n e r s t o f i x d i s c o u r s e t o p i c and c r e a t e n a r r a t i v e s from one p a r t i c u ‑ l a r s t o r y p a r t i c i p a n ts viewpoint. As a r e s u l t , t h e s e f i r s t
由andsecond
町person s t o r i e s did not incur o v e r t s u b j e c t r e f e r e n c e a s frequently a s the t h i r d
四person n a r r a t i v e s d i d .
In the t h i r d
同person Baby n a r r a t i v e s , on the other hand, t h e r e was no such designated discourse t o p i c , and i t was the speakers r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o decide which human or animal c h a r a c t e r s got the r o l e of the main protagonist v i s 目的 r i sthe other c h a r a c t e r s . This point i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n example ( 3 ) by a Novice‑group l e a r n e r and example ( 4 ) by an Intermediate‑group l e a r n e r below, describing a scene i n which an old couples dog became j e a l o u s and t r i e d t o do many things i n order t o g e t t h e i r a t t e n t i o n back when a baby was brought i n t o t h e i r house:
( 3) [Third
同personn a r r a t i v e , Novice‑level l e a r n e r ]
. . a n o o , o bα α s αn , ga , α n o o , inu , α n o o , akαc hαn g α , d a i s u k i , k e d o , s o s h i t e , anoo , α n o o , inu g α , a n o o , u c h i , u c h i , e , α n o , anoo , α n o o , inu g a , sayonα r α d e s h i tα ( l α u g h ) , k e d o , k e d o , s o s h i t e , anoo , α n o o , o , o bα αs a n , g a , anoo , α n o o , i n u ga [ o ] , α n o o , m m , α n o o , mimαs e n , mimαs e n d e s h i t a , s o s h i t e 。 , n o o ,inu ga , α n o o , kaerimasu.
... uhm, the grandma, uhm, l o v e s , the dog, uhm, the baby, b u t ,
and, uhm, uhm, the dog, uhm, uh, uhm, the dog s a i d good‑by
I22
世界の日本語教育
( l a u g h ) , b u t , b u t , and, uhm, uhm, the grandma, uhm, uhm, not s e e , did not s e e the dog, and, uhm, the dog, uhm, goes back t o [ l e a v e s ] the house.
(Novice 心 8‑B) ( 4) [Third
問personn a r r a t i v e , Intermediate‑level l e a r n e r ]
. . u c h i n o , inu w α , uhhm , α kachan o miru t o , uhm,
@ (=inu) hαωα s h i [ k a n a s h i ] s o o , n i , narimasu. Uhh, o b α α s a n t o o , o j i i s a n w α , m, t s k α kach α n t o , uhh, t s k a s o n d e , a n o o , inu wa, s o o j i suru , α n o o , uhhm, m, s o o j i nado s h i t e i m a s u . Uhm 。 , ρ
'i s α nt o , o b α α s α nw α , m, inu o , mimasen, a n o o , inu w α u c h i o , dem α
SU •..”
. . . when the dog i n the house, uhhm, s e e s the baby, uhm , φ ( =dog) f e e l s l o n e l y . Uhh, the grandma and grandpa, m, t s k , p l a y , uhh, t s k , with the baby, and uhm, the dog, vacuums, uhhm, m, i s vacuuming and s o o n . Uhm, the grandpa, and grandma, m, do not s e e the dog, uhm, the dog l e a v e s , the house . . .
(IntM
田0 9
同B) These a r e t y p i c a l l e a r n e r n a r r a t i v e s i n t h a t they l a c k viewpoint f i x a t i o n . The thematic s u b j e c t s i n t h e s e excerpts go back and f o r t h i n c e s s a n t l y between o b α α s a n and o j i i s a n grandmother and grandfather and inu 'dog , which i n turn n e c e s s i t a t e s the use of the o v e r t r e f e r e n t i a l forms each t i m e .
On the c o n t r a r y , many T L speakers described the same scene from the same cartoon s t o r y using s o ‑ c a l l e d a u x i l i a r y verbs of giving and r e c e i v i n g i n Japanese t o f i x t h e i r viewpoint. See example ( 5 ) below:
( 5 ) @ ( =inu) s a m i s h i i omoi o s h i t e ,
@ (=inu) s o o ・ ρ t o k α , α t o s h o k k i ar α i t o k αhα } ' imeru n d e s u k e d o ,
@ (=huuhu ) α marinimo
@ (=inu) k α matte kurenai mon d a k a r a ,
@ (=inu) k a t t e n i i e d e o , s h 的 s h i m a t t e.. . ' p ( =dog) f e l t l o n e l y , and φ ( =dog) s t a r t e d vacuumi 時 andwashing the d i s h e s and s o o n , b u t ,
¢ (=co 叩 l e )did not pay a t t e n t i o n t o
¢ (= dog) a t a l l , s o φ ( =dog) l e f t the house of h i s own w i l l , and ...
(TL‑12‑B) In ( 5 ) , the whole excerpt i s t o l d from the dogs p e r s p e c t i v e , even during the underlined s e n t e n c e , which d e s c r i b e s the scene i n which the couple did not pay a t t e n t i o n t o the dog. In t h i s s e n t e n c e , the couple i s the a g e n t , but because of the use of the a u x i l i a r y verb ‑ t e kureru t o do f o r the b e n e f i t of x , ' which r e q u i r e s the viewpoint of the r e c e i v e r of the a c t i o n , the scene i s being described from the viewpoint of the dog, the t o p i c of the whole e x c e r p t . Therefore, no t o p i c s h i f t o c c u r s , and the dog continues t o be r e f e r r e d t o by a zero pronoun i n the l a s t c l a u s e .
In another scene from the video i n which a baby i s introduced and picked
up by a businessman, zero pronouns were continuously used f o r the subse
同quent r e f e r e n c e t o the businessman 60% of the time i n the T L n a r r a t i v e s , a s
opposed t o 25%, 27%, and 25% i n the Advanced , 聞 I n t e r m e d i a t e ‑ ,and Novice‑
JFL Learners' ReferentialForm Choice 123
group n a r r a t i v e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t can be s a i d t h a t the T L n a r r a t i v e s were more c o n s i s t e n t and s t a b l e i n t h a t the discourse t o p i c of t h e i r n a r r a t i v e s was deeply anchored and not vulnerable t o the occurrence of other competing r e f e r e n t s . F i r s t
田andsecond‑person r e f e r e n t i a l forms have only one p o s s i b l e r e f e r e n t , the s p e a k e r , the l i s t e n e r , or t h e i r group, a s opposed t o t h i r d
四person reference where the speaker has t o i d e n t i f y the intended r e f e r e n t among competing r e f e r e n t s . To make the t a s k more complex, i n the third‑person Baby s t o r i e s , t h i s assignment of main and subordinate r o l e s changed a s the s t o r y unfolded, and the speaker was constantly under pressure t o make o r ト goingd e c i s i o n s a s t o which character got foregrounded and which got backgrounded. I t i s understandable t h a t t h i s l a c k of immediate context support and of f i x e d r o l e s of s t o r y c h a r a c t e r s i n the third‑person Baby t a s k put e x t r a pressure on the l e a r n e r s , whose l e x i c a l and grammatical resources were already l i m i t e d . 1 0
Another viewpoint‑related expression often used by the T L speakers was the p a s s i v e v o i c e . Most T L speakers used p a s s i v e v o i c e , a s with giving and receiving v e r b s , a s a viewpoint f i x a t i o n d e v i c e . See example ( 6 ) below where the p a s s i v e constructions a r e underlined:
( 6 ) ... s o n o inu w α , y α ppari c h o t t o s α b i s h i k u omou no k a , a n o o , jibun n i h α maw α renaku n a t t e shim α u n o d e , o ( =inu) s o o j i o h a j i m e t a r i ( . . . ) o ( =inu) c h o t t o chuui o h i k o o t o suru no d e s u g a , o ( =inu) i k k o o n i , c h u u i , s α r e z u , s o r e d e , e e t o , s o n o inu w α , d e t e t t e shimaim α
SU.. . . the dog, a f t e r a l l seems t o f e e l a l i t t l e l o n e l y , uhm, s e l f ( =he) i s not cared about any more, s o , ¢ ( =dog) s t a r t s vacuuming, and ( ... )
φ( = dog) t r i e s t o a t t r a c t ( the couples ) a t t e n t i o n a l i t t l e b i t , but ,
φ( = dog) i s s t i l l , not paid a t t e n t i o n t o , s o , w e l l , the dog, l e a v e s .
(TL
山09
由B) Of the 22 utterances i n which the T L speakers depicted t h i s p a r t i c u l a r scene of the dog trying t o g e t the couples a t t e n t i o n back, a t o t a l of 20 c a s e s ( 9 1 %) featured the dog remaining i n a continuous t o p i c r o l e a s i n ( 6 ) above.
10 One might argue that the fact that the Baby story had four story characters led the learners to rely on more frequent subject switches and overt reference than in the first‑/ second‑person narratives. While this might partially explain the decrease in the propor‑
tions of zero pronouns in the Baby narratives, it should be noted that many of the Suspect and Picnic stories also included story participants other than the speaker; e.g., members of the host回family,classmates, and teachers in the former as seen in (2), and the sandwich and dogs in the latter. Nevertheless, those stories did not incur overt subject reference as frequently as the Baby stories did. In fact, despite its di
妊
erent theoretical framework and methodological procedures from the present study, Sato (1999) reports a similar result: beginning‑and intermediate‑level JFL learners in his conversational data omitted subjects more often in first‑and second‑person contexts (88% and 89% for the former group and 76% and 89% for the latter, respectively) than in third‑person contexts (54% for the former and 38% for the latter).
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世界の日本語教育
Table 7 Frequencies of Auxiliary Verbs of Giving and Receiving in the Third‑
Person Baby Stories
Nov IntM Adv TL
‑te ageru (N)
。 。 。
4‑te kureru (N)
。 。
5 8‑te morau (N)
。 。 。
13Total (N)
。 。
5 25N/100 clauses
。 。 1 . 3
3.8 Table 8 Frequencies of Passive Construction in the Third田Person Baby StoriesPassive construction (N) Passive (N/100 clauses)
Nov
。 。
IntM
。 。
Adv
。 。
TL 13 2.0
As shown in Tables
7
and8
above, auxiliary verbs of giving and receiving and the passive construction were almost non‑existent in the learners' third‑ person narratives. The high frequency of subject shifts and resultant overt referential form choice in third回personnarratives by the learners occurred because they were focusing only on local problems of telling stories; i.e., keeping reference to the story participants straight by marking any subject shifts with overt reference. What was lacking in the learners' repertoire was the ability to tell stories using a more global story由tellingtechnique: fixing the viewpoint of third‑person narration and telling stories from a particular story由participantsperspective. The topic of the learners' narrative was less deeply anchored and more vulnerable to the occurrence of other competing referents than that of the T L speakers'. This tendency was more prominent among the lower四proficiencyspeakers, which was probably because these learners had not yet fully incorporated viewpoint‑related expressions into their IL system.11 Rather, it was often easier for these learners to tell the story from the perspective of whoever was put in subject position, thus avoiding the situation where employing syntactically challenging viewpoint四 related expressions was imperative.12 This could be one of the factors which11 In a pair of recent studies, Tanaka (1996, 1997) looked at JSL and JFL learnersuse of viewpoint‑related items and reported similar results, suggesting that acquiring these items is not an easy task for learners and occurs over considerable time.
12 Although Japanese language textbooks and reference grammars give generic descriptions of the giving and receiving verbs as devices to describe the transaction of things or favor between two parties, and of passive voice as a state or action which cannot be controlled, the TL speakers in the present data were apparently using them with dis‑ course町pragmaticpurposes in mind, skillfully fixing their viewpoint and preventing fre‑ quent topic/subject switches and full NPs from occurring.