Rise and fall of the arabesque world : around "The masque of the red death"

Rise and fall of the arabesque world : around

"The masque of the red death"

著者（英） Mami Hild

journal or

publication title

Doshisha literature

number 32

page range 39‑55

year 1986‑03‑10

権利（英） English Literary Society of Doshisha University

URL http://doi.org/10.14988/pa.2017.0000016530

RISE AND FALL OF THE ARABESQUE WORLD

-AROUND "THE MASQUE OF THE RED DEATH"

MAMI HILD

I

"The sun-ray dropped, in Lemnos, with a spell! On th' Arabesque carvings of a gilded hall" (Italics, mine):l This is a description of a drowsy moment when death approaches the speaker in Edgar Allan Poe's "AI Aaraaf." "It [tapestry] was spotted all over, at irregular intervals, with arabesque figures"

(Italics, mine):2 This is a depiction of the interior of a bridal chamber where a bridegroom witnesses the death and the resurrection of his wife in "Ligeia."

As seen in these examples, Edgar Allan Poe was fond of using arabesque interiors in his works, and in "The Philosophy of Furniture" he clearly announced his taste for arabesque decoration by saying, "Indeed, whether on carpets, or curtains, or tapestry, or ottoman coverings, all upholstery of this nature should be rigidly Arabesque.,,3

On the other hand, Poe sometimes uses the term "arabesque" in a different way as follows: "There were arabesque figures with unsuited limbs and appointments,,,4 in "The Masque of the Red Death." And he wrote, "These figures partook of the true character of the arabesque only when regarded from a single point of view . . . . he saw himself surrounded by an endless succession of the ghastly forms,,,5 in "Ligeia." Obviously in these cases the term "arabesque" is not used for an interior decoration but used as a sort of synonym of "grotesque." In this same manner Poe juxtaposed the term

"grotesque" and "arabesque" in the preface for Tales of the Grotesque and [39J

40 Arabesque.

Arabesque patterns and the idea of arabesque were repeatedly.used in Poe's works and have a significant meaning both asa major pattern of decoration and as the "prevalenttenor,,6 of his tales. Why was he so attracted . by the idea of arabesque, and what did he draw out. of it? Though he was almost obsessed with the idea of arabesque, he did not use the word

"arabesque" at all in his last and major work, Eureka. Why did he abandon the term, "arabesque," which he had held for a long time? In this paper I will discuss these points, focusing on "The Masque of the Red Death" which depicts Prince Prospero, who created an arabesque world of his own and collapsed with it.

II

Red Death is described as an epidemic disease, the most hideous and fatal amoIlg all, in "The Masque of the Red Death." Its name parallels the "Black Death" of medieval days, but Red Death itself is imaginary. The adjective

"red" is suggestively used, indicating the (.:olor of blood, which is indispensable for life and at the same time, in the case of this disease, the

"Avatar and seal of death.,,7 David Ketterer and Joseph Patrick Roppolo considered Red Death as a symbol of life, .judging from the indication of the calor of blood, and KettEirer said, "Life itself, then, is the Red Death, the one 'affliction' shared by all mankind."s When one believes in the constancy of life and the good old course of things, like the citizens in Vondervotteimit- tiss in "The Devil of the Belfry," life cannot be threatening and death is out of consideration. But when one realizes the transiency of life and the existence of death, both of them become threatening.

The fear of yet unknown death and the fear of life which inevitably leads one to death are well symbolized not only in"The Masque of the Red Death"

but also in several other works, including "The Pit and the Pendulum." The

prisoner in "The Pit and the Pendulum" knows that his every motion is watch~d: nevertheless; he cannot see the tormenter from the vault where he is imprisoned. He cannot see his surroundings well because of the darkness of the vault, and he does not have any idea at all what sort of torture he is going to get. Without knowing anything except that he is sentenced to death, he is psychologically as well as physically tormented.

A fear of death and life toward death is, in other words, a fear of time, which steadily passes toward death. In "How to Write Blackwood Articles,"

Signora Psyche Zenobia thrust her head into the opening in the dial-plate of a gigantic clock from inside to see the outer view, and had her head cut off by the minute-hand of the clock. After she found that she could ·not pull back her neck from the opening, the passing time was an extreme horror for her. In

"The Pit and the Pendulum" the prisoner was tortured by a descending pendulum, the edge of which was as keen as that of a razor. Poe expressed the passage of time toward death effectively by depicting the descent of the sharp pendulum, using such adverbs as "steadily," "certainly," "relentlessly,"

"unceasingly," and "inevitably."g In "The Tell-Tale Heart" the criminal was scared by the sound of the victim's heart-beat which sounded like a watch, and at last confessed his crime. Jean-Paul Weber pointed out that there was an unconscious desire to make a clock run as one likes in "The Devil in the Belfry."

In "The Masque of the Red Death" there is a depiction of a clock with a gloomy image. The gigantic clock of ebony was set in a black chamber with blood-colored window panes. Whenever the clock struck hours, the mas- queraders stopped dancing, musicians ceased playing, and "it was observed that the giddiest grew pale, and the more aged and sedate passed their hands overtheir brows as if in confused revery or meditation.")) The masqueraders did not venture to step in that black chamber, scared at the muffled peal of the dock which was solemnly emphatic. When all the masqueraders died, the

masked figure of Red Death "stood erect and motionless within the shadow of the ebony clock."12 These words indicate that the symbol of the fear of life and death centers on that time. The cause of fear symbolized by the masked figure was, thus, the idea of life and death and the idea of time.

Some mysterious points concerning the masked figure disguised as an incarnation of the Red Death are left without clarification. It would be an unforgivable act to appear in disguise as the Red Death in front of the people who escaped from the Red Death and tried to forget about its fear by performing the masquerade. Nevertheless, strangely enough, the figure of the Red Death did not catch the attention of other people for a long time. It was the last day when people noticed him, and on that day all of them had to die away. The narrator says, "He [the masked figure of the Red Death]. had come like a thief in the night,"13 but it is not clarified when and how he came into Prince Prospero's walled abbey which was firmly locked.

People were scared by the spectral figure of the Red Death, and the figure walked through the seven chambers, but when they ran after him and caught him there was no physical substance in the grave cerements and the corpse-like mask. These mysterious points are not clarified, to make the whole story grotesque, but if we do not read this story as realism, and if we consider that the cause of fear in the story is not the grotesque figure nor the epidemic disease but fears related to life, death, and time, the mysteriousness can be well interpreted. The masked figure of the Red Death was the incarnation of the idea of the Red Death; that means, it represented the idea of life and death, or the idea of time which brought people toward death. As this was an idea which everybody held instinctively, there was no need for it to enter the abbey from outside. Though people tried to forget about it, the idea was in everyone's mind from the beginning. As David Halliburton says, it had oniy to be recognized to be there¹⁴ People did their best to forget life, death and time by their orgies, but when the dark ebony clock struck twelve

they could not help thinking of what they tried to forget, and at that very moment the figure of the Red Death appeared in their presence.

The mysterious setting where a character's obsessive idea was personified and the personified figure was found by his side without coming from outside was a favorite technique of Poe's and he used it often. In "Berenice," the background of the mysterious woman, Berenice, was left unclarified, and even her family name was not known. She came into the narrator's library, but he could not notice when she came in, and only by the sound of dosing the door did he find that she had left the room. As the narrator recognized, he saw her

not as a being of the earth, earthy, but as the abstraction of such a being;

not as a thing to admire, but to analyze; not as an object of love but as the theme of the most abstruse although desultory speculation¹⁵ The wife of the narrator in "Morella" was also presented without her background clarified. The narrator was obsessed with the idea of the relation between identity and death: "the principium individuationis, the notion of that identity which at death is or is not lost forever, was to me, at all times, a consideration of intense interest.,,16 He lived with Morella only to find out the truth concerning this issue. The narrator of "Ligeia" lived with Ligeia and said he loved her, but he did not even know her family name and he did not remember, or did not know, where and how he met her. He tried to find proof of ]oseph Granvill's proposition tnat "Man doth not yield himself to the angels, nor unto death utterly, save only through the weakness of his feeble will,»!? through Ligeia's death and resurrection. As Daniel Hoffman cleverly pointed out, the name Ligeia rhymed with the key word, "idea,,,18 and Ligeia and other female figures represented ideas of the narrators.

Therefore, they lived with narrators without any process for becoming acquainted with them. When each of the narrators came upon his idea, the

44

female figure who represented the idea came to exist with him. Likewise, in

"The Masque of the Red Death," when masqueraders remembered the idea concerning hfe, death, and time, the masked figure of the Red Death appeared in the hall.

III

Those who were obsessed with fear of life, death, and time took refuge in Prince Prospero's residence. His residence was depicted as a creation of his eccentric and august taste and also of his love of the bizarre, and one of its clearest characteristics is that it was isolated from the outer world. His residence was a castellated abbey, and a strong and lofty wall girdled it in.

Moreover, the iron gates were welded so that not only from outside but also from inside nobody could open the gates. With such precautions people inside tried to forget about the outside calamity, Red Death, and had orgies, providing all the devices of pleasure. Among all the performances, the masquerade was the most magnificent. Compared with the outside reality, the inside orgies were called fancies and· the masqueraders were called dreams. As it is indicated by these words, "fancies" and "dreams," it can be said that Prince Prospero and his party's escape into the seclusion of the walled abbey suggests their flight from consciousness into fancy and dream.

Besides the isolated situation, the unusual interior of the abbey, which is called bizarre, characterizes the world of Prince Prospero and his guests.

The interior design, furniture, and ornaments were peculiar, and the Prince was said to have a fine eye for colors and effects to create such surroundings, but we can see the same or similar interiors in many of Poe's works, such as Usher's room in "The Fall of the House of Usher," a room in a palace in "The Duc de L'Omelette," a room of the strange young man in "The Assignation,"

the. bridal chamber in "Ligeia," and the ideal room discussed in "The Philosophy of Furniture." "Ligeia" shows the prevalent tenor of Tales of the

Grotesque and Arabesque well. When we compare the descriptions of the interior of Ligeia's bridal chamber and Prince Prospero's room, referring to the idea of "Philosophy of Furniture," Poe's intentional choice of interior is clarified.

One of the common characteristics of Poe's favorite settings was isolation from the outside; like the narrator of "Ligeia," Prince Prospero and seveal other characters in Poe's works lived in the same sort of building, "a castellated abbey." Characters did not have and did not want to have anything to do with the outside world. In other words each of the places was an independent realm. There were windows; especially in the chambers in

"Ligeia" and "Philosophy of Furniture" there were large windows reaching down to the floors, but the outer light did not come inside directly through those windows. There was crimson stained-glass in the windows in the bridal chamber in "Ligeia," Prince Prospero's black room, and the ideal room in

"Philosophy of Furniture"; and the rays of the sun and the moon, and, in Prospero's room, the torch light, "fell with a ghastly lustre on the objects within,"19 by passing through the blood-tinted glass. Another common point was the use of enormous golden ornaments for the effect of beauty. and glitter: in the room of Prince Prospero, golden ornaments were scattered to and fro or hanging from the roof; in "Ligeia," chain, censer, and candelabra were all gold, and carpet and curtains were a:lso rich cloth of gold; and in

"Philosophy of Furniture," a tint of gold as well as that of crimson

"determined the character of the room."20 Poe denied the much too prevalent straight lines in "Philosophy of Furniture" and in Prospero's house presented sharp turns of the hallway and windings of the suites. The last and ultimate point in common is the rooms' arabesque nature. In "Philosophy of Furniture" Poe insisted, "Indeed, whether on carpets, or curtains, or tapestry, or ottoman coverings, all upholstery of this nature should be rigidly Arabesque."21In "Ligeia," the arabesque figures which were regarded as "the

chief phantasy of all"22 were on the gold draping at irregular intervals, but when one saw it from a certain point of view it took on the "true character of the arabesque" and one "saw himself surrounded by an endless succession of the ghastly forms." In Prince Prospero's rooms, arabesque figures included the masqueraders, who were, following Prospero's order, not only grotesque but also had several other aspects such as "glare and glitter and piquancy and phantasm.,,24

As we can see in these examples "arabesque" was used in the three works but in different ways. By forbidding the excessive use of straight lines and curved lines with uniformity, the ornamental design of the furniture became an arabesque pattern. In order to fit the request of Prince Prospero, masqueraders had to be grotesque, glittering, piquant, and fantastic at the same time, and as a result they were called arabesque figures. The figures of the design on the draping in "Ligeia" seemed to be scattered at irregular intervals but they made a picturesque scene when looked at from a certain' angle, and it was called the true character of arabesque. Poe did not give a clear definition of arabesque, but. all these elements depicted in the works, together with the isolation from the outer world and the break of harmony with nature by using crimson glass, can be considered to make a state which Poe called arabesque. The elements looked contradictory to each other; as the narrator of "The Masque of the Red Death" says, "There were much of the beautiful, much of the wanton, much of the bizarre, something of the terrible, and not a little of that which might have excited disgust."z5 Opposing elements existing at the same place are part of the state of arabesque.

This state of arabesque was often used in Poe's works' as a medium to reveal a new reality. In Marginalia Poe repeatedly recommended not trying to see the reality directly but to see it "through the veil of the soul,,,z6 or with half-closed eyes, as naked senses "see too little-but then always they see too much."z7 What one can see through such a veil is no longer a strict reality but

47 a fancy where, according to Poe, "the confines of the waking world blend with those of the world of dreams."28 Poe tried to make fancy, which "exists but for an inappreciable point of time,"29 last longer by symbols of the state of arabesque. This arabesque state is an aspect of Poe's effort to get rid of a division which separates opposing elements that cannot exist at the same time in one's reasonable sense, such as reality and dream, life and death.

David Ketterer called this status "Foe's continuum reality, the new dimension,,,3o and David Halliburton said, "The chamber is the arena in which are staged both of the central, and finally indistinguishable, struggles:

the struggle of dream and reality, and the struggle of death and life."31 Eventually, Poe's interest was in the relation between life and death, through the character's sense of time and also through the setting of the arabesque state in his works.

N athaniel Hawthorne's malll interest may not have been the relation between life and death, but like Poe, Hawthorne set up "neutral territory"

where reality and dream were mingled with each other to explore the truth in life, centering on the issue of good and evil. Poe's arabesque setting as an ideal state reminds us of Hawthorne's neutral territory and the tragedy of Young Goodman Brown in the ambiguity. According to Hawthorne, familiar things in a familiar room show completely different aspects' under the dim light of the moon. This does not mean that darkness prevents a writer from catching the exact shapes of them. Far from that-they then are "completely seen."32 The difference is brought about because they are "so spiritualized,"

and become "things of intellect" by "the unusual light. ,,33 Hawthorne called such an atmosphere under the moon "a neutral territory, somewhere between the real world and fairy-land, where the Actual and the Imaginary may meet."34 He suggested two other things which generated a neutral territory:

"a smouldering glow of the half-extinguished anthracite" and a reflection in a mirror. 35 The effects of the three elements combine to create a neutral

48

territory. In his romances; he made ambiguous backgrounds for tensions of reality and dream, for the issue of good and evil. One of these examples is

"Young Goodman Brown."

Young Goodman Brown went into the forest and was shocked to think that many pious villagers attended the witches' sabbath. He was almost maddened with despair to see even his wife there. He was forced to be baptized with her, but at the last moment, he found himself "amid calm night and solitude."36 Either the nightmare world in the forest or the plain world in the village might be reality and the other fantasy, but Hawthorne did not clarify which was which and left those two opposed worlds in front of Young Goodman Brown as they were. Brown was not capable of distinguishing them, nor accepting the ambiguous state where reality and dream were mixed, and eventually became a distrustful man who could not believe anyone in the village and died sadly. The tragedy of Young Goodman Brown occurred because he could not accept the ambiguous state. Though he was shown two different realms which existed at the same time, he could live only in one or the other of them which was to be the world of his consciousness.

Likewise, the same sort of tragedy occurred in "The Masque of the Red Death," where Prince Prospero created an arabesque site where reality and dream existed at the same time to escape from life, death, and time.

Prince Prospero made an arabesque world of his own and set up life and death, and other elements which were considered as polarities, in the same place with the help of half-closed eyes. His party were absorbed in such a realm of fancy as the arabesque figures, by themselves making the arabesque effect complete. They succeeded in forgetting about life, death, and passing time, but in spite of their oblivion, the ebony clock struck hours to show that time, which brought people into death, was passing constantly. Though people's heart-beats were feverish compared with the gloomy muffled peal of the clock, both sounds were equally constant and pointed toward death.

Prospero's world of fancy was not an ultimate shelter from fear and when

"The Masque of the Red Death" was found everyone died, including Prospero who was the creator of that world. As David Ketterer said, the

"unearthly sovereign whose reign is over us all, whose dominions are unlimited, and whose name is death" in The Narrative of Arthur Cordon Pym was the same being who presides "over all" in "The Masque of the Red Death."3? Death was depicted as conqueror over all in the poem, "The Conqueror Worm," and Ligeia, who recited this poem of almighty death, also recited the passage of Glanvill on the power of will which conquered death.

But when Ligeia seemed to be resurrected, the narrator stopped, and her resurrection was not clearly described but left uncertain. In "The Pit and the Pendulum" the prisoner was saved from fear, but the rescue came from outside in the manner of deus ex machina. It indicated that the rescue from fear, even if unrealistic, would never be found inside-even inside the arabesque world. As fancy existed only for "an inappreciable point of time,,,38 the artificial arabesque world, as a special setting with furniture and light, was also limited and temporary.

IV

It proved impossible to escape from or go beyond life, death, and time by creating an arabesque world. Those who feared death, life-which was toward death-and time-which brought them to death-took refuge in an arabesque realm; but eventually they lived a life directed toward dying, and were brought by time to death. In the 1830s, Poe wrote a series of stories of women, "Berenice," "Morella," and "Ligeia," searching for something beyond life, death, and time. But in each case, the story was brought to an end at a crucial point without clarifying if a narrator could find something or not, and the story was successful in leaving a mysterious atmosphere. In

"The Fall of the House of Usher" written at the end of the 1830s, and in "The

Masque of the Red Death" in the 1840s, however, Poedid not use such ambiguous endings but emphasized nothingness which was left at the end of the stories: everything, including people and the house, sank into a deep and dank tarn at the end of "The Fall of the House of Usher," and everybody died and even the ebony clock, which symbolized passing time, stopped at the end of "The Masque of the Red Death." Poe gave up searching for the ways to overcome life, death, and time. He admitted that everything was finite and came to an end of nothingness, and then, on the premise that everything ended in nothingness, Poe tried to see beyond nothingness.

Eureka, written in 1848 as Poe's last work, was his essay on the universe; it was not a scientific research but an essay dedicated "to the dreamers and those who put faith in dreams as in the only realities."39 Though it was an essay, Poe mentioned "death and 'Life Everlasting',,,40 and showed that he was concerned about life and death by discussing the universe, in other words, he was searching for something which came beyond nothingness in the process of the universe. He was not satisfied with considering nothingness as the last end for everything and said in this essay, "I myself feel impelled to fancy . . . that there does exist a limitless succession of Universes.,,41 He combined his wish for infinity and his recognition of nothingness, and suggested an idea that "Infinity" was, like "God" and

"spirit," "by no means the expression of an idea, but of an effort at one," and it stood for "the possible attempt at an impossible conception."42 According to this general idea, Poe tried to analyze the constitution of the Universe.

He set up "oneness" as orginally created matter, and interpreted the constitution of the universe as having been effected "by forcing the originally and therefore normally One into the abnormal condition of Many.,,43 According to Poe, this action of diffusion from Unity was inevitably accompanied with a reaction of returning into Unity, and he said,

51 Its [Universe's) purposes are thus seen to have been comprehended in its diffusion; and with the return into Unity these purpoSes cease. The absolutely consolidated globe of globes would be objectless-therefore not for a moment could it continue to exist: 44

Again, in his essay on the universe, Poe put nothingness at the end of a process of the universe, but this time God remained after the disappearance of everything: "Let us. endeavour to understand that it would disappear, and that God would remain all in alL,,45 He continued,

On the Universal agglomeration and dissolution, we can readily conceive that a new and perhaps totally different series of conditions may ensue-another creation and irradiation, returning into self-another action and. reaction of the Divine Wi1l⁴⁶

This process of creation, irradiation, subsiding into nothingness would be, according to Poe, renewed forever "at every throb of the Heart Divine,,,47 and he concluded that the Heart Divine meant the hearts of our own. It is ironical that the throbs of a heart, which scared Poe as a symbol of time passing toward death, now symbolize a diffusion and a "concentralisation" of the universe, and also symbolize a renewal of creation.

Fancy and reality were juxtaposed,in Prince Prospero's arabesque world, and the lines which separate one from another were extinguished there. As David Ketterer said, the arabesque designs were "active symbols of Poe's efforts to melt away the rigid pattern,,48 that was imposed by man's reason.

By mixing what was normally kept apart, Poe's Prince Prospero tried to rise beyond life, death, and time. In other words, he tried to create an artificial universe under his jurisdiction and to become God, the Creator. But Prospero could not be a real God and the pseudo universe could not be a real universe after all because of the Masque of the Red Death. Though the masked figure was an embodiment of people's ideas of life and death, it is

52

questionable if Prospero's masquerade would last forever, even if people could completely forget about time, life, and death. The arabesque world was an attempt to catch a glimpse of the real universe.

Poe moved the setting from the castellated abbey with its concrete images to the conceptional universe in order to discuss the issue of life, death, and time. The constitution of the universe was not that of an arabesque state but a limitless continuum of nothingness and creations, which came one after another according to the Divine Will or the throbs of the Heart of God; "with Him there being neither Past nor Future-with Him all being Now.,,49 The main points at issue which Poe had long stuck to were whether death meant the last stop of everything and whether Will could last after death: and he drew one conclusion referring to the constitution of the universe. He considered the heart throbs of God as those of our own, and saw the Divine Will overlapped with human imagination. "Infinity" was, as Poe said, not the expression of an idea but the possible attempt of imagination, and it was fl uctuating "in accordance with the vacillating energies of the imagination."5o Prospero's continuum reality based on the arabesque idea could not be freed from the restriction of time, life, and death, but the existence of the continuum of the universe without any restriction could be inferred by depending on one's imagination.

In the "Preface for Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque" Poe said that terror in his stories was "not of Germany but of the soul.,,51 As Edward H. Davidson said, such terror of the soul might open "ways into farther and deeper understanding."52 The terror of discovering life's transiency and the self's helplessness could be a key to the constitution of the universe, and the madness out of terror could be the "divinest sense."53

Notes

1 Edgar Allan Foe, "AI Aaraaf," The Works of Edgar Allan Poe, Val. lll. Edited by

John H. Ingram (London: A. & C. Black Ltd., 1899), pp. 74-75.

2 Edgar Allan Poe, "Ligeia," Collected Works of Edgar Alf{mPoe; Tales and Sketches 1831-1842. Edited by Thomas Olive l'vlabbott (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 322. Hereafter abbreviated as CW 3 Edgar Allan Poe, "Philosophy of Furniture," CW, p. 498.

4 Edgar Allan Poe, "The Masque of the Red Death." CW p. 673.

5 Edgar Allan Poe, "Ligeia," p. 322.

6 Edgar Allan Poe, "Preface for Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque," Collected Works of Edgar Allan Poe: Tales and Sketches, 1831-1842, p. 473.

7 Edgar Allan Poe, "The Masque of the Red Death," p. 670.

8 Joseph Patrick Roppolo, "Meaning and 'The Masque of the Red Death,'" Poe: A Collection of Critical Essays. Edited by Robert Regan (N. ].: Prentice Hall, Inc.

1967), p. 139.

9 Edgar Allan Poe, "The Pit and the Pendulum," CW, p. 692.

10 "At the very most one could perceive in this little drama an unconscious desire to make a clock-a clock which remorselessly ticks away the minutes and chimes the hours-run excessively fast and slow." (Jean· Paul Weber, "Edgar Poe or the Theme of the Clock," Poe: A Collection of Critical Essays, p. 81.

11 Edgar Allan Poe, "The Masque of the Red Death," pp. 672-673.

12 Ibid., p. 676.

13 Ibid., p. 676.

14 "Death, to borrow a term from Lawrence, is 'realized'; it has no need to enter the abbey in order to be there, it has only to be recognized." (David Halliburton, Edgar Allan Poe: A Phenomenological View [N. ].: Princeton Ulliversity Press, 1973], p.

313.)

15 Edgar Allan Poe, "Berenice," CW, p. 214.

16 Edgar Allan Poe, "Morella," CW, p. 231.

17 Edgar Allan Poe, "Ligeia," p. 310.

18 "This is the only conceivable feminine name (assuming it to be such) which rhymes with the Great Key Word, Idea" (Daniel Hoffman, Poe, Poe, Poe, Poe, Poe, Poe, Poe [Garden City: Doubleday & Company, 1972], p. 247.

19 Edgar Allan Poe, "Ligeia," p. 321.

20 Edgar Allan Poe. "Philosophy of Furniture," p. 501.

21 Ibid., p. 498.

22 Edgar Allan Poe, "Ligeia," p. 322.

23 Ibid., p. 322.

24 Edgar Allan Poe, "The Masque of the Red Death," p. 673.

25 Ibid, p. 673.

26 Edga:r Allan Po.e, Marginalia, The Works of Edgar Allan Poe, Vo!. III, Edited by John H. Ingram (London: A. &

c.

27 Ibid, p. 356.

28 Ibid., p. 380.

29 Ibid., p. 380.

30 David Ketterer, The Rationale of Deception in Poe (Louisiana States University Press, 1979), p.39.

31 Halliburton, p. 211.

32 Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter, The Complete Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne, Vo!. I, Edited by William Charrat, Roy Harvey Pearce, and Claude M.

Simpson (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1965), p. 35.

33 Ibid., p. 35.

34 Ibid., p. 36.

35 Ibid., p. 36.

36 N athaniel Hawthorne, "Young Goodman Brown," Mosses from an Old Manse. The Complete Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne, V o!. X, p. 88.

37 Ketter, p. 95.

38 Edgar Allan Poe, . Marginalia, p. 380.

39 Edgar Allan Poe, Eureka, The Works of Edgar Allan Poe, Vo!. Ill, Edited by John H. Ingram (London: A. & C. Black, 1910), p. 91.

40 Ibid., p. 91.

41 Ibid., p. 164.

42 Ibid, p. 103.

43 Ibid., p. 109.

·44 Ibid, pp. 190-191.

45 Ibid, pp. 190-191.

46 Ibid, p. 192.

47 Ibid., p. 192.

48 Ketterer, p. 36.

49 Edgar Allan .Foe, Eureka, p. 147.

50 Ibid., p. 107.

55

51 Edgar Allan Poe, "Preface for Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque," CW, p. 473.

52 Edward H. Davidson, Poe: A Critical Study (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957), p. 134.

53 Ibid., p. 134.