Title THE PROBLEM OF PHYSICAL EVIL
Author(s) E.D.オズバーン
Citation 聖学院大学総合研究所紀要, No.3, 1993.3 : (12)-(32)
URL http://serve.seigakuin-univ.ac.jp/reps/modules/xoonips/de tail.php?item_id=3394
Rights
聖学院学術情報発信システム : SERVE
SEigakuin Repository for academic archiVE
THE PROBLEM OF PHYSICAL EVIL
Evert D. Osburn
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m
The b a s i c form o f t h e problem o f e v i l i s a s f o l l o w s : 1 . E v i l e x i s t s .
2 . An o m n i p o t e n t God c o u l d d e s t r o y e v i l ( o r n o t have a l l o w e d i t ) . 3 . A good God would want t o d e s t r o y e v i l .
4 . T h e r e f o r e , s i n c e e v i l i s n o t d e s t r o y e d , God i s e i t h e r ‑ a . Omnipotent b u t l e s s t h a n a l l g o o d .
b . B e n e v o l e n t b u t l e s s t h a n a l l powerfu l . c . L e s s t h a n a l l good and l e s s t h a n a l l powerfu l . d . N o n ‑ e x i s t e n t .
1When s p e c i f i c a l l y a p p l i e d t o p h y s i c a l e v i l , t h e above r e a s o n i n g p r o d u c e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s y l l o g i s m .
1 . I f s u f f e r i n g i s j u s t i f i a b l e , i t may be wrong t o work a g a i n s t i t . 2 . I t i s n o t wrong t o work t o e l i m i n a t e s u f f e r i n g .
3 . Hence , s u f f e r i n g may n o t be j u s t i f i a b l e .
4 . But i f s u f f e r i n g i s n o t j u s t i f i a b l e , t h e n t h e t h e i s t i c God d o e s n o t e x i s t .
5 . For G o d ' s e x i s t e n c e i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h u n j u s t i f i a b l e s u f f e r i n g . 6 . And t h e r e i s u n j u s t i f i a b l e s u f f e r i n g .
7 . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t h e i s t i c God d o e s n o t e x i s t .
2P r e m i s e s i x i s t h e c r u x o f t h e p r o b l e m . I f i t i s a c c e p t e d a s t r u e ,
t h e n i t i s b e l i e v e d by many t h a t t h e r e c o u l d be no C h r i s t i a n God , o r
t h a t i t i s a t l e a s t p r o b a b l e t h a t He d o e s n o t e x i s t . The l a t t e r c o n c l u ‑
s i o n i s drawn from t h e D o c t r i n e o f M e t i c u l o u s P r o v i d e n c e , and may b e
e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way.
1 . C h r i s t i a n s c l a i m t h a t an o m n i s c i e n t , o m n i p o t e n t , w h o l l y good God e x i s t s .
2 . An o m n i s c i e n t , o m n i p o t e n t , w h o l l y good God would p r e v e n t o r e l i m i n a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f g r a t u i t o u s e v i l .
3 . But g r a t u i t o u s e v i l e x i s t s .
4 . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n God d o e s n o t e x i s t .
3The above s y l l o g i s m s s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e t h e C h r i s t i a n w o r l d v i e w . How can a God c h a r a c t e r i z e d by o m n i p o t e n c e , o m n i s c i e n c e , and p e r f e c t g o o d n e s s be e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y t h e c a u s e o f d i s e a s e s , n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s , and i n h e r e n t g e n e t i c d e f e c t s ? SinceGod i s d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e w o r l d , i s He n o t somehow r e s p o n ‑ s i b l e f o r t h e p h y s i c a l e v i l s o f H i s c r e a t i o n ?
These q u e s t i o n s have p o s e d a s e r i o u s c h a l l e n g e t o o r t h o d o x C h r i s ‑ t i a n i t y o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s . T h e o l o g i a n s and laymen a l i k e have p r o d u c e d v a r i o u s t h e o d i c i e s d e f e n d i n g b o t h t h e g o o d n e s s and g r e a t ‑ n e s s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d .
However , n o t a l l t h e o l o g i a n s b e l i e v e t h a t d e f e n d i n g God" i s n e c e s ‑ s a r y a t a l l . The g r e a t K a r l B a r t h i n h i s e x p o s i t i o n on t h e book o f J ob comments t h a t Yahweh d o e s n o t a s k f o r J o b ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a g r e e ‑ ment , o r a p p l a u s e . On t h e c o n t r a r y , He s i m p l y a s k s t h a t he s h o u l d be c o n t e n t n o t t o know why and t o what end he e x i s t s , and d o e s s o i n t h i s way n o t a n o t h e r .
川ForB a r t h , t h e n e e d f o r a t h e o d i c y i s i t s e l f a symptom o f man's e n s l a v e m e n t t o moral and l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g and n o t i o n s which a r e i r r e l e v e n t t o t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e d i v i n e l y u n i q u e G o d .
5B a r t h d o e s i n t r o d u c e h i s r e a d e r s t o a s p e c u l a t i v e a c c o u n t o f e v i l i n
h i s d i s c u s s i o n on d a s N i c h t i g e " C u n c r e a t e d N o t h i n g n e s s ) which i s
e v i l i n t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b l e s e n s e , t h a t which i s i n i m i c a l t o God and
H i s c r e a t i o n .
6N e v e r t h e l e s s , B a r t h ' s t r e a t m e n t s o f e v i l e m p h a s i z e i t s
u t t e r i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y . Das N i c h t i g e " e l u d e s man c o n c e p t u a l l y
and e x i s t e n t i a l l y . E v i l i s s u p r a m o r a l f o r B a r t h , and i t i s i n e x p l i c a b l e
and i n a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e human c r e a t u r e , and o n l y t h e d i v i n e s u b j e c t ,
God , can comprehend and overcome iC
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f B a r t h ' s t e a c h i n g i s t h a t i t c o n ‑ c e a l s t h e f i n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s f a c i n g a l l t h e o d i c i e s , b e c a u s e e v e r y p o s i ‑ t i o n t h a t h o l d s t o t h e p e r f e c t g o o d n e s s o f God must l e t go H i s a b s o l u t e power a n d / o r freedom , o r e l s e m a i n t a i n t h a t e v i l e x i s t s u l t i m a t e l y w i t h i n G o d ' s good p u r p o s e .
8F u r t h e r m o r e , when someone i s u n d e r g o i n g i n t e n s e s u f f e r i n g and i s h a v i n g d o u b t s a b o u t God , 1 a g r e e w i t h Hans Kung t h a t s p e c u l a t i v e and p h i l o s o p h i c a l r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s a r e a b o u t a s h e l p f u l t o t h e s u f f e r e r a s a l e c t u r e on t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f f o o d s t u f f s t o a s t a r v i n g m a n . " 9
The f a c t i s t h a t t h e answer , o r l a c k o f o n e , t o t h e q u e s t i o n s Why do 1 s u f f e r ? and How i s p h y s i c a l e v i l j u s t i f i a b l e i n view o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t o f God? i s c r i t i c a l t o C h r i s t i a n and n o n ‑ C h r i s t i a n a l i k e . As Kung p o i n t s o u t , Our a t t i t u d e t o s u f f e r i n g i s c o n n e c t e d a t t h e d e e p e s t l e v e l w i t h o u r a t t i t u d e t o God and t o r e a l i t y a s a w h o l e . S u f f e r i n g c o n s t a n t l y p r o v e s t o be t h e c r u c i a l t e s t o f t r u s t i n God and o f b a s i c t r u s t , p r o v o k i n g d e c i s i o n s . Where i s t r u s t i n God more c h a l l e n g e d t h a n i n w h o l l y c o n c r e t e s u f f e r i n g ? " l O
S i n c e t h e C h r i s t a n worldview i s s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d by t h e problem o f s u f f e r i n g , and h o n e s t q u e s t i o n s p o s e d by s u f f e r i n g p e o p l e s t r u g g l i n g w i t h d o u b t s h o u l d be r e a s o n a b l y answered , t h i s p a p e r w i l l a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e a r a t i o n a l t h e o d i c y , a f t e r f i r s t d e f i n i n g p h y s i c a l e v i l .
D e f i n i t i o n o f P h y s i c a l E v i l
C a r n e l l d e f i n e s n a t u r a l e v i l a s a l l t h o s e f r u s t r a t i o n s o f human v a l u e s which a r e p e r p e t r a t e d , n o t by t h e f r e e a g e n c y o f man , b u t by t h e n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s i n t h e u n i v e r s e . " l l P l a n t i n g a a p p e a r s t o a g r e e w i t h t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , b u t b r o a d e n s i t by a s s e r t i n g t h a t i t i s any k i n d o f e v i l t h a t d o e s n o t r e s u l t from f r e e human a c t i v i t y . 1 2 Hick r e i t e r a t e s t h i s c o n c e p t when h e s a y s , N a t u r a l e v i l i s t h e e v i l t h a t o r i g i n a t e s
4 )
i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f human a c t i o n s : i n d i s e a s e , bac i l 1 i , e a r t h q u a k e s , s t o r m s , d r o u g h t s , t o r n a d o e s , e t c . " 1 3
However , t h i s w r i t e r a g r e e s w i t h P e t e r s o n t h a t i t i s n o t a l w a y s p o s s i b l e t o c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e p h y s i c a l e v i l from moral e v i l . There a r e c o m )
りl e xe v i l s , s u c h a s a w r o n g f u l a c t i o n C m o r a l e v i l ) and a p a i n f u l r e s u l t C n a t u r a l e v i l ) e f f e c t e d by t h a t a c t i o n .1 4
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s b e s t t o c o n s i d e r n a t u r a l e v i l a s f a l l i n g u n d e r f o u r c a t e g o r i e s . F i r s t , t h e r e a r e p h y s i c a l e v i l s t h a t a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o human agency , s u c h a s f i r e s o r p h y s i c a l h a n d i c a p s c a u s e d by s o m e ‑ t h i n g t h a t one a g e n t i n f l i c t s on a n o t h e r . Second , t h e r e a r e p h y s i c a l e v i l s c a u s e d by g e n e t i c m a l f u n c t i o n i n g , s u c h a s p h y s i c a l d e f o r m i t i e s o r r e t a r d a t i o n . The t h i r d c a t e g o r y c o n s i s t s o f a l l n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s p r o d u c e d by some p r o c e s s i n n a t u r e t h a t i s o u t s i d e o f man C e . g . , e a r t h q u a k e s , f l o o d s , d r o u g h t s , e t c よ F i n a l l y , d i s e a s e s b e l o n g t o t h e realm o f p h y s i c a l e v i l . 1 5
N ow , p h y s i c a l e v i l s due t o human agency , g e n e t i c m a l f u n c t i o n i n g , n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s o r d i s e a s e s d i d n o t o c c u r a b s o l u t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f moral e v i l . G o d ' s o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n was v e ηgood C G e n . 1 : 3 1 ) . I t was n o t u n t i l man s i n n e d t h a t b o t h he and t h e e a r t h were c u r s e d C G e n . 3 : 1 7 ‑ 1 9 ) . J e r e m i a h 1 2 : 4 , 1 1 and Romans 8 : 2 0 ‑ 2 2 make i t a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t h a t a l l o f c r e a t i o n was a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d by t h e w i l l f u l d i s o b e ‑ d i e n c e o f man.1 6 The continuous present tense of the verbs σ u σ τ ε ν αご ε
Land σ
'VVWOLε ν
Li n Romans 8 : 2 2 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s a f f l i c ‑ t i o n o f t h e e a r t h e v e n now p e r s i s t s . Thus , a t h e o d i c y f o r p h y s i c a l e v i l n e c e s s a r i l y p i v o t s upon o n e ' s view o f moral e v i l .
M o r a l E v i l and t h e F r e e W i l l D e f e n s e
B e f o r e we a d d r e s s t h i s i s s u e d i r e c t l y , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t
even God h a s c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s " . F i r s t , He h a s l o g i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s .
Of c o u r s e , God i s l o g i c , mind , and i n t e l l i g e n c e . But even He c a n n o t
do what i s l o g i c a l l y s e l f ‑ c o n t r a d i c t o r y C e . g . , make a s q u a r e c i r c l e o r
a c u b i c s p h e r e ) .
God a l s o h a s moral r e s t r i c t i o n s . S i n c e He i s p e r f e c t g o o d n e s s and r i g h t n e s s , t h e Lord c a n n o t c o n t r a d i c t His n a t u r e by d o i n g what i s n o t r i g h t ; He i s c o m p e l l e d t o always do what i s b e s t and r i g h t .
F i n a l l y , God has c e r t a i n s e l f ‑ i m p o s e d r e s t r i c t i o n s a l o n g w i t h l o g i c a l and moral l i m i t a t i o n s . He c a n n o t do t h i n g s which c o n t r a d i c t what He h a s p r e v i o u s l y d e c r e e d . Once God d e c i d e s t o do s o m e t h i n g , He
~so b l i g a t e d t o c a r r y i t ou t .
17The l a t t e r r e s t r i c t i o n , a l s o known a s t h a t which i s a c c i d e n t a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t i f God had good r e a s o n s t o c r e a t e t h i s world and t h e s e c o u l d n o t be a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h o u t e x c l u d ‑ i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e v i l , t h e n He c o u l d n o t have done o t h e r w i s e . I t i s t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f t h e w r i t e r t h a t t h i s i s i n d e e d t h e c a s e . I t was a c c i d e n t a l l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r God t o have c r e a t e d t h i s world w i t h o u t a l l o w i n g f o r e v i l , g i v e n H i s p u r p o s e s f o r t h e w o r l d .
A u g u s t i n e ' s F r e e W i l l D e f e n s e
A u g u s t i n e t a u g h t t h a t i f man i s good , and c a n n o t a c t r i g h t l y u n l e s s h e w i l l s t o do s o , t h e n he must have f r e e w i l l , w i t h o u t which he c a n n o t l i v e r i g h t l y . " 1 8 F r e e w i l l was n o t g i v e n t o man t h a t he might s i n , b u t o n l y t h a t he s h o u l d l i v e r i g h t l y . That t h i s was G o d ' s i n t e n t i o n i s p r o v e d by t h e f a c t t h a t God p u n i s h e s f r e e ‑ w i l l s i n n i n g , which would b e a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f H i s j u s t n a t u r e u n l e s s t h e f r e e w i l l was o n l y meant t o do g o o d . T h e r e f o r e , i f man had no f r e e c h o i c e o f w i l l ,how c o u l d t h e r e e x i s t t h e good a c c o r d i n g t o which i t i s j u s t t o condemn e v i l d o e r s and reward t h o s e who a c t r i g h t l y ? 川
9A c t i o n s may be deemed e i t h e r s i n f u l o r good o n l y i f t h e y a r e done v o l u n t a r i l y .
Two c o n c l u s i o n s may be drawn from A u g u s t i n e ' s p r o p o s i t i o n . The f i r s t , known a s t h e law o f d o u b l e e f f e c t , i s t h a t f r e e w i l l was g i v e n f o r t h e good e f f e c t o f r i g h t a c t i o n s b e i n g done by f r e e moral a g e n t s , b u t t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e s t h e ρ o s s i b i l i t y o f c h o o s i n g e i t h e r r i g h t o r
6 )
w r o n g .
The s e c o n d c o n c l u s i o n , t h e law o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y , m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f moral g o o d n e s s i s o n l y a c h i e v a b l e t h r o u g h f r e e w i l l , and any e v i l committed by t h e f r e e w i l l i s j u s t i f i e d i n l i g h t o f t h e g r e a t e r good t h a t God i n t e n d e d t o have f r e e moral a g e n t s d o .
Thus , God must have g i v e n man f r e e w i l l s i n c e i t i s r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e moral g o o d n e s s , and He o u g h t t o have c r e a t e d s u c h a world a s o u r s b e c a u s e a world w i t h moral good C a n d e v i l ) i s b e t t e r t h a n a world w i t h no moral e v i l C o r g o o d ) . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f maximizing t h e good o u t w e i g h s t h e f a c t t h a t e v i l may a l s o be maximized i n a f r e e w o r l d . I n a l l t h i s God i s a b s o l u t e l y j u s t i f i e d ; t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r moral e v i l , and t h e r e s u l t i n g p h y s i c a l e v i l , i n t h e world t h e r e f o r e b e l o n g s t o t h e f r e e moral a g e n t s t h e m s e l v e s .
20R e f i n e m e n t s o f t h e F r e e W i l l D e f e n s e
A l v i n P l a n t i n g a a s s e r t s ,I t was n o t w i t h i n G o d ' s power t o c r e a t e a world c o n t a i n i n g moral good b u t no moral e v i l .
"21Man c o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r e e i f God c o m p l e t e l y c o n t r o l l e d a l l o f h i s a c t i o n s . S i n c e f r e e agency c o u l d n o t be a b s o l u t e l y d e t e r m i n e d i n a l l o f i t s a c t i o n s by God , t h e n moral e v i l c o u l d n o t have been e l i m i n a t ‑ e d a s a p o s s i b i l i t y e i t h e r .
Furthermore , i t may be t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f moral good and e v i l i n t h e world i s t h e b e s t one p o s s i b l e . I t i s f e a s i b l e t h a t God c o u l d n o t have c r e a t e d a world c o n t a i n i n g a b e t t e r m i x t u r e o f good and e v i . 1
22P e t e r s o n a l s o a p p e a l s t o t h e f r e e w i l l d e f e n s e a s an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r e v i l , b u t he r e f i n e s t h e argument t o i n c l u d e even g r a t u i t o u s e v i l C s u c h a s some p h y s i c a l e v i l s a p p e a r t o b e ) . He comments
Among t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s open t o man i s t h a t o f f r e e l y c h o o s i n g
t o b r i n g a b o u t an u t t e r l y g r a t u i t o u s e v i l . For God t o p r e v e n t o r
e l i m i n a t e a l l g r a t u i t o u s e v i l s i n a m e t i c u l o u s way would be f o r
Him t o j e o p a r d i z e t h e o n l y k i n d o f f r e e w i l l which can a l l o w t h e human e n d e a v o r t h e h i g h e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e . . . i f t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f human f r e e w i 1 1 i s t a k e n t o i n v o l v e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b r i n g i n g a b o u t r e a l l y g r a t u i t o u s e v i l , t h e n God c a n n o t c o m p l e t e l y p r e v e n t o r e l i m i n a t e g r a t u i t o u s e v i l w i t h o u t s e v e r e l y d i m i n i s h i n g f r e e w i l l . That would be l o g i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e .
23P e t e r s o n , P l a n t i n g a , and A u g u s t i n e have shown t h a t t h e moral e v i l i n t h e world i s due t o t h e a c t i o n s o f f r e e moral a g e n t s . God i s o m n i s c i e n t , o m n i p o t e n t , and good , b u t t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t He c r e a t e d f r e e a g e n t s i n o r d e r t o maximize t h e good a l l o w e d f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e y would c h o o s e e v i . l That t h e y d i d s o i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , n o t an i n d i c t m e n t upon God , b u t upon t h e moral a g e n t s t h e m s e l v e s .
Furthermore , s i n c e p h y s i c a l e v i l i s t r a c e a b l e back t o moral e v i l , man i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t a l s o . The p r e s e n c e o f e v i l , e v e n p h y s i c a l e v i l , d o e s n o t compromise t h e c h a r a c t e r o f God , b u t p o i n t s t o t h e d i r e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s i n .
U n a c c e p t a b l e S o l u t i o n s t o t h e P r o b l e m o f P h y s i c a l E v i l
There a r e a number o f s i m p l e s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s problem f o r t h e t h e i s t who i s c o n t e n t t o modify h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d . He can a s s e r t e i t h e r ( 1 ) t h a t God i s n o t p o w e r f u l enough t o make a world w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l e v i l , o r ( 2 ) t h a t God c r e a t e d o n l y t h e good i n t h e u n i v e r s e and some o t h e r power c r e a t e d t h e e v i l , o r ( 3 ) t h a t God i s o m n i p o t e n t b u t i m p e r f e c t and c h o s e t o c r e a t e an i m p e r f e c t w o r l d .
24Rabbi Kushner , whose s o n d i e d o f p r o g e r i a ( r a p i d a g i n g " d i s e a s e ) a t a g e f o u r t e e n , c h o s e o p t i o n ( 1 ) a s h i s s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem i n h i s p o p u l a r book , When Bad T h i n g s H . a ρ ρe n To Good P e o p ! e . I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f J ob he con c 1 uded t h a t God was n o t p o w e r f u l enough t o p r e v e n t J o b ' s s u f f e r i n g ; God i s j u s t and good , b u t n o t o m n i p o t e n t . He comments ,God w a n t s t h e r i g t h e o u s t o l i v e p e a c e f u l happy l i v e s , b u t
8 )
sometimes even He c a n ' t b r i n g t h a t a b o u t . I t i s t o o d i f f i c u l t even f o r God t o keep c r u e I t y and chaos from c 1 aiming t h e i r i n n o c e n t v i c t i m s . " 2 5 He g o e s on t o s a y t h a t many e v e n t s happen a t random and do n o t r e f l e c t G o d ' s c h o i c e s . S i n c e t h e world i s s t i 1 l e v o l v i n g , n o t a l l o f t h e c h a o s (=randomness) a t t h e b e g i n i n g o f c r e a t i o n has been e l i m i n a t e d , s o random e v i l o c c u r s i n t h o s e c o r n e r s o f t h e u n i v e r s e where G o d ' s c r e a t i v e l i g h t h a s n o t y e t p e n e t r a t e d . " 2 6 So God wants j u s t i c e and f a i r n e s s i n t h e world b u t c a n n o t a r r a n g e f o r them; He i s s i m p l y i m p o t e n t t o a c h i e v e His p u r p o s e s . But He i s c o m p a s s i o n a t e and l o v i n g and comes t o t h e a i d o f t h o s e who a r e a f f l i c t e d s o t h a t t h e y have t h e s t r e n g t h t o c o p e w i t h t h e i r p r o b l e m s . H e r e i n l i e s t h e t r u e v a l u e o f r e l i g i o n . God i s s e e n a s t h e G r e a t I n s p i r e r who g i v e s t h e s t r e n g t h t o overcome t r a g e d i e s , even i f He c a n n o t p r e v e n t t h e m .
Though many have a c c e p t e d K u s h n e r ' s s o l u t i o n " f o r p h y s i c a l e v i l , i t i s p r o f o u n d l y f l a w e d a t t h r e e l e v e l s . The f i r s t l e v e l i s e x e g e t i c a l . J ob 3 8 ‑ 4 2 c 1 e a r l y a f f i r m s G o d ' s power and s o v e r e i g n t y , r a t h e r t h a n d e n y i n g i t . J o b ' s r e s p o n s e t o G o d ' s s p e e c h e s was , 1 know t h a t Thou c a n s t do a l l t h i n g s , and t h a t no p u r p o s e o f Thine can be t h w a r t e d "
( 4 2 : 2 , NASB). Furthermore , i t was God who p e r m i t t e d J o b ' s s u f f e r ‑ i n g i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e C 1 : 6 ‑ 1 2 ; 2 : 1 ‑ 6 ; 4 2 : 1 1 b ) , and S c r i p t u r e e l s e w h e r e t e a c h e s t h a t sometimes i t i s God who b r i n g s p h y s i c a l d i s a s t e r upon p e o p l e C I s a . 3 1 : 2 ; 4 5 : 7 ; 4 7 : 1 1 ; Amos 3 : 6 ) . C l e a r l y , t h e n , God i s o m n i p o t e n t i n t h e B i b l e ( d . J e r . 3 2 : 1 7 ; M a t t . 1 9 : 2 6 ) .
S e c o n d l y , K u s h n e r ' s view o f man i s u n b i b l i c a l . G e n e s i s t e a c h e s t h a t t o be human i s t o be moral ( y o u o u g h t and o u g h t n o t do c e r t a i n t h i n g s ) , f r e e (Adam and Eve had a u t h e n t i c freedom t o c h o o s e ) , and r e s p o n s i b l e ( w h a t e v e r you do h a s l i f e ‑ a n d ‑ d e a t h c o n s e q u e n c e s ) . " 2 7 But man f r e e l y c h o s e t o do e v i l and became depraved , s o no one can be c a l l e d a m o r a l l y good" p e r s o n a p a r t from God ( P s a . 1 4 : 1 ‑ 3 ; J e r . 1 7 : 9 ; Rom. 3 : 2 3 ) .
F i n a l l y , what r e a l good i s a God who i s i m p o t e n t ? What
canGod
do? To say t h a t He i s c o n t r o l l e d by c r e a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r way
around n o t o n l y c o n t r a d i c t s S c r i p t u r e , b u t r o b s Him o f t h e a b i l i t y t o work a n y t h i n g toward H i s d e s i r e d g o a l s .
Of c o u r s e , t h e B i b l e a l s o t e a c h e s t h a t God i s h o l y and p e r f e c t ( 1 Pe t . 1 : 1 5 ; Mat t . 5 : 4 8 ) , and t h a t He i s t h e o n l y God i n t h e u n i v e r s e ( I s a . 4 3 : 1 0 ; 4 5 : 2 1 ‑ 2 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , i t must be c o n c l u d e d t h a t anyone who h o l d s t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f S c r i p t u r e i s f o r c e d t o r e j e c t any o f t h e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e problem o f e v i l which deny G o d ' s o m n i p o t e n c e , j u s t i c e , o r moral g o o d n e s s .
A P e r s o n a l S o l u t i o n t o t h e P r o b l e m o f P h y s i c a l E v i l
I t h a s a l r e a d y been s t a t e d t h a t p h y s i c a l e v i l was a r e s u l t o f moral e v i l , and t h a t t h e l a t t e r was a r e s u l t o f t h e f r e e w i l l c h o i c e s o f f r e e moral a g e n t s . God i s n o t m o r a l l y c u l p a b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f e v i l i n t h e world , s i n c e He must have g i v e n man f r e e w i l l i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e maximum moral g o o d n e s s , and He o u g h t t o have c r e a t e d a world where moral g o o d n e s s was p o s s i b l e , even i f i t meant a l l o w i n g f o r s i n . I t i s t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f t h i s e s s a y t h a t a world w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t number o f moral v i r t u e s i s b e t t e r t h a n o n e w i t h f e w e r o f them , and t h a t a world w i t h a h i g h e r a t t a i n m e n t o f moral v i r t u e s i s b e t t e r t h a n o n e w i t h a l e s s e r a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e m . V i r t u e s l i k e c o u r a g e , mercy , and f o r g i v e n e s s a r e o n l y a t t a i n a b l e i n a world where s i n i s p r e s e n t , and some v i r t u e s a r e f u r t h e r p e r f e c t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f e v i l ( e . g . l o v e and k i n d n e s s ; L k . 1 0 : 2 5 ‑ 3 7 ) . l n d e e d , t h e p e r f e c t man , C h r i s t , was p e r f e c t e d t h r o u g h s u f f e r i n g s " i n an e v i l world ( H e b . 2 : 1 0 ) . The c r o s s i t s e l f , G o d ' s h i g h e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f l o v e CRom. 5 : 8 ) , would n o t have been p o s s i b l e i n a world w i t h no e v i
J.28V i r t u e s l i k e p e r s e v e r a n c e ( J ames 1 : 2 ‑ 4 ) and sympathy would be a b s e n t from a world w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l e v i l , and t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e o f o t h e r v i r t u e s c a n n o t be o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f some e v i l . One u n d e r s t a n d s j u s t i c e b e t t e r i f he h a s s u f f e r e d i n j u s t i c e , a p p r e c i a t e s l o v e more a f t e r h a v i n g been h a t e d , e t c . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r e s e n c e o f
( 2 0 )
p h y s i c a l e v i l may be e x p l a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manne r .
291 . I t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r God t o do H i s moral b e s t C i f He c h o o s e s t o do a n y t h i n g mora I ) .
2 . A world w i t h t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f more v i r t u e s a n d / o r t h e h i g h e s t a t t a i n m e n t o f each v i r t u e v i a s u f f e r i n g i s m o r a l l y p r e f e r r a b l e t o one t h a t h a s no s u f f e r i n g b u t h a s f e w e r v i r t u e s and/ o r a l o w e r a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e m .
3 . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o have p h y s i c a l e v i l i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n some v i r t u e s and i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e o f o t h e r v i r t u e s .
4 . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r God t o p e r m i t p h y s i c a l e v i l s C o r t h e c o n d i t i o n ) by which He can p r o d u c e t h e m o r a l l y b e s t w o r l d .
30This world o f p h y s i c a l e v i l s i s n o t t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e world , a s L e i b n i t z a r g u e d , b u t i t i s t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e means by which God w i l l a c h i e v e t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e world , t h e New Heaven and t h e New E a r t h .
F u r t h e r Reasons f o r P h y s i c a l E v i l
Although t h e above argument may e x p l a i n why God made t h e world He c r e a t e d , t h e r e a r e a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f p h y s i c a l e v i l s i n t h e world , which a r e l i s t e d a s f o l l o w s :
1 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s come d i r e c t l y from o u r own f r e e c h o i c e s , s u c h a s one who c o n t r a c t s l u n g c a n c e r t h r o u g h heavy smoking o r AIDS t h r o u g h p e r m i s c u o u s s e x u a l b e h a v i o r .
2 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s come i n d i r e c t l y from t h e e x e r c i s e o f o u r f r e e d o m . I f we d r i v e w h i l e b e i n g t i r e d , p e r s o n a l s u f f e r i n g may r e s u l t .
3 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s come t o u s d i r e c t l y from t h e f r e e c h o i c e s o f
o t h e r s C e . g . , c h i l d a b u s e , w i f e ‑ b e a t i n g ) .
4 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s come t o u s i n d i r e c t I y from t h e f r e e c h o i c e s o f o t h e r s C e . g . , Smoking w h i l e p r e g n a n t may c a u s e b i r t h d e f e c t s ) . A l s o , t h e f a c t t h a t man h a s c h o s e n t o p r o d u c e a i r p l a n e s , a u t o m o ‑ b i l e s , e t c . makes i n j u r y d u e t o a c c i d e n t s i n e v i t a b l e . T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y n o t G o d ' s f a u l t C c f . Ecc l . 1 0 : 8 ‑ 9 ) .
5 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l i s t h e p o s s i b l e b y ‑ p r o d u c t o f o t h e r w i s e good a c t i v i t i e s . Swimming i s g e n e r a l l y b e n e f i c i a l and p l e a s u r a b l e , b u t drowning i s a l s o p o s s i b l e .
6 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l comes upon u s a s a r e s u 1 t o f demonic a c t i v i t y CMat t . 1 7 : 1 4 ‑ 1 8 ; L k . 1 3 : 1 6 ) .
7 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s a r e God‑given w a r n i n g s o f g r e a t e r p h y s i c a l e v i l s . Some p a i n i s n e c e s s a r y a s a warning t h a t a more s e r i o u s p h y s i c a l problem i s imminent u n l e s s i t i s t a k e n c a r e O f .
318 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s a r e G o d ‑ i n f l i c t e d p u n i s h m e n t upon a p o s t a t e p e o p l e C e . g . , Sodom and Gomorrah) and may be imposed e v e n upon s i n f u l C h r i s t i a n s C c f . 1 Co r . 1 1 : 3 0 ; H e b . 1 0 : 2 6 ‑ 2 7 ) . But t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e o n l y e x p l a n a t i o n f o r p h y s i c a l e v i l , a s some have s u g g e s t e d C c f . Lk 1 3 : 1 ‑ 4 ) .
9 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l o c c u r s s o t h a t a g r e a t e r good c a n be r e a l i z e d , s u c h a s t h e man b e i n g born b l i n d i n o r d e r t h a t t h e works o f God might be d i s p l a y e d i n him" ( J n . 9 : 1 ‑ 3 , NASB; c f . I s a . 2 6 : 9 ) . 1 0 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s s e r v e a s w a r n i n g s o f g r e a t e r moral e v i l s .
C . S . Lewis comments , N
0d o u b t p a i n a s G o d ' s megaphone i s a t e r r i b l e i n s t r u m e n t ; i t may l e a d t o f i n a l and u n r e p e n t e d r e b e l l i o n . But i t g i v e s t h e o n l y o p p o r t u n i t y t h e bad man can have f o r amend‑
men t . I t removes t h e v e i l [ a n d a l l o w s him t o r e a l i z e h i s n e e d f o r GodJ
"32He g o e s on t o s a y t h a t s u f f e r i n g t e a c h e s man o b e d i e n c e t o God i n s p i t e o f h i s n a t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s , and t h a t s o m e t i m e s r e t r i b u t i v e p a i n can have p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s .
33‑351 1 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l i s n e c e s s a r y f o r s o u l ‑ m a k i n g . " As p r e v i ‑ o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , many v i r t u e s a r e a c t u a l i z e d o r a r e a b l e t o be maximized o n l y i n a w o r l d o f p h y s i c a l e v i l . P e t e r s o n a s s e r t s t h a t
( 2 2 )
t h e r e a r e some h i g h l y v a l u a b l e t r a i t s which God wants e a c h s o u l t o p o s s e s s " ( e . g . , a b i l i t y t o a c t v i r t u o u s l y toward o n e a n o t h e r ) t h a t may o n l y be p r o d u c e d i n c e r t a i n e n v i r o n m e n t s .3 6
Hick s a y s t h a t a human e n v i r o n m e n t d e s i g n e d t o t h i s e n d must b e s i m i l a r t o o u r p r e s e n t w o r l d a t l e a s t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t o p e r a t e s upon g e n e r a l l a w s and c o n s e q u e n t l y i n v o l v e s a t l e a s t o c c a s i o n a l p a i n s f o r s e n t i e n t c r e a t u r e s w i t h i n i t . " 3 7 Of c o u r s e , t h i s w r i t e r b e l i e v e s n o t o n l y t h a t s u c h an e n v i r o n m e n t must be s i m i l a r t o o u r p r e s e n t w o r l d , b u t t h a t i t i s t h i s w o r l d , a s God must c r e a t e t h a t world which would b e s t s e r v e H i s p u r p o s e i f He c r e a t e s a t a l l .
1 2 . Some p h y s i c a l e v i l s a r e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o u t w o r k i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l l a w s a c c o r d i n g t o which G o d ' s c r e a t i o n o p e r a t e s ( e . g . , l i g h t n i n g ‑ f i r e s , h u r r i c a n e s , e t c . ) . A n a t u r a l o r d e r i n t h e w o r l d i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e h i g h e r g o o d . Lewis o b s e r v e s t h a t e v e n an o m n i p o t e n t God i s u n a b l e t o c r e a t e a s o c i e t y o f f r e e moral a g e n t s w i t h o u t a t t h e same t i m e c r e a t i n g an i n d e p e n d e n t and i n e x o r a b l e " N a t u r e , s i n c e t h e a g e n t s must be i n an e n v i r o n m e n t where c h o i c e s can be made.3 8
Without t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f n a t u r a l l a w s r e s u l t i n g from G o d ' s p r o v i ‑ d e n c e , r a t i o n a l a c t i o n would be i m p o s s i b l e . There must b e a r e g u
幽l a r i t y o f s e q u e n c e f o r f r e e a g e n t s t o b e a b l e t o know whether a c e r t a i n a c t i o n would be p o s s i b l e , w h e t h e r i t c o u l d o c c u r a s p l a n n e d , o r what t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s would b e . Without n a t u r a l o r d e r , r a t i o n a l a g e n t s c o u l d n o t p r o p o s e an a c t i o n o r a c t t h e m s e l v e s , b u t b o t h o f t h e s e a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r an a g e n t t o be d e t e r m i n e d t o be a f r e e moral b e i n g .3 9
I n a w o r l d o f f i x e d n a t u r e and c o n s t a n t l a w s , n o t a l l s t a t e s o f
m a t t e r w i 1 l b e e q u a l l y a g r e e a b l e t o t h e w i s h e s o f a g i v e n s o u l . . . n o r i s
i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m a t t e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e a t any g i v e n moment t o b e
d i s t r i b u t e d s o t h a t i t i s e q u a l l y c o n v e n i e n t . . . t o each member o f
s o c i e t y .
川oThe welcomed downpour on t h e f a r m e r ' s p a r c h e d h i 1 l t o p
l a n d may p r o d u c e a f l o o d i n t h e v a l l e y t e n m i l e s away , f o r e x a m p l e .
Moreover , God c a n n o t c h a n g e n a t u r a l . l a w s a r b i t r a r i l y s o a s t o
e l i m i n a t e a l l p o s s i b l e g r a t u i t o u s e f f e c t s . I f t h e r e i s a change i n t h e s y s t e m o f n a t u r a l l a w s , t h e r e must b e an a l t e r i n g o f t h e n a t u r e s o f t h e o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e system a s w e l l , which would l e a d t o u n i m a g i n a b l e c h a o s .
41For example , i f g r a v i t y were t o be s u s p e n d e d on one b l o c k t o p r e v e n t t h e p r o v e r b i a l f a l l i n g p i a n o from h i t t i n g t h e baby below , t h e n what would happen t o a l l t h e c h i l d r e n p l a y i n g u n d e r t h e power l i n e s ? !
Speaking on t h i s s u b j e c t , P e t e r s o n s a y s ,God c a n n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e f r i g h t e n i n g p o s s i b i l i t y o f g r a t u i t o u s n a t u r a l e v i l a s l o n g a s He c h o o s e s t o s u s t a i n n a t u r a l o r d e r which , i n t u r n , s u s t a i n s a g r e a t many n a t u r a l and moral g o o d s .
川R e i c h e n b a c hc o n c u r s , n o t i n g t h a t
N a t u r a l e v i l s a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f n a t u r a l o b j e c t s a c t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o n a t u r a l l a w s upon s e n t i e n t , n a t u r a l c r e a t u r e s . . . S i n c e t h e g r e a t e r good e n t a i l s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n a t u r a l e v i l a n d . . . an i n d i v i d u a l c a n n o t be h e l d m o r a l l y a c c o u n t a b l e o r blameworthy f o r t h a t which i t i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r him t o have done o t h e r w i s e , God c a n n o t b e h e l d m o r a l l y a c c o u n t a b l e o r blameworthy f o r n a t u r a l e v i l s .
431 3 . F i n a l l y , some p h y s i c a l e v i l s may o c c u r f o r r e a s o n s o n l y God i s
aware o f . B e i n g f i n i t e c r e a t u r e s , God may have p u r p o s e s f o r e v i l
which o n l y He knows C G e n . 5 0 : 2 0 ; D e u t . 2 9 : 2 9 a ; Rom. 1 1 : 3 3 ) .
Furthermore , e v e n i f t h e above r e a s o n s may be s u f f i c i e n t f o r a
p a r t i c u l a r p h y s i c a l e v i l , v e r y o f t e n man d o e s n o t know which r e a s o n
i s t h e c o r r e c t o n e . I t i s d a n g e r o u s f o r anyone t o b e l i e v e t h a t
someone s u f f e r i n g from a p h y s i c a l h a n d i c a p i s u n d e r p u n i s h m e n t f o r
s i n , f o r example ( J n . 9 : 1 ‑ 3 ) . U l t i m a t e l y man must have f a i t h i n
t h e c h a r a c t e r o f God and acknowledge t h a t whatever He d o e s o r
a l l o w s i s n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h a t c h a r a c t e r .
L e s t We F o r g e t : God A l s o S u f f e r e d
The s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem o f p h y s i c a l e v i l i s m u l t i f a c e t e d , a s can be s e e n , and o f t e n t e n d s t o be t h e o r e t i c a l more t h a n p r a c t i c a l . But many t i m e s a p e r s o n i n g r e a t n e e d i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n p h i l o s o p h y o r t h e o r i e s , s o t h i s w r i t e r f e e l s i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o i n c 1 ude a b r i e f s e c t i o n on t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f C h r i s t i n t h i s argumen t .
Wenham comments , No C h r i s t i a n d a r e d o u b t G o d ' s g o o d n e s s i n p e r m i t t i n g t h e most g r i e v o u s s u f f e r i n g , when he remembers t h e means which God c h o s e f o r t h e o v e r t h r o w o f e v i l . I t was i n t h e d e p t h o f agony t h a t C h r i s t ' b o r e o u r s i n s i n h i s body on t h e t r e e ' ( I P e t . 2 : 2 4 )
."44I t i s t h e N ew Testament u s a g e o f t h e word π α σXW which e x p o s e s t h e f u l l i m p a c t o f C h r i s
t's s u f f e r i n g . T h i s word i s u s e d 4 2 t i m e s i n t h e New Testament , w i t h most o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e s r e f e r r i n g t o C h r i s t H i m s e l f o r t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f C h r i s t i a n s f o r H i s s a k e . Such a c 1 0 s e c o n n e c t i o n between C h r i s t and s u f f e r i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t He was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e b i b l i c a l s o l u t i o n t o p a i n and e v i 1 .
45M i c h a e l i s o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e p a s s i o n o f J e s u s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e f a c t t h a t
,7lα 0 ε ι v ( t h e i n f i n i t i v e form o r
7lασxω) o c c u r s o n l y i n s a y i n g s o f J e s u s r e l a t i n g t o H i s own p e r s o n " ( e . g . , L k . 2 2 : 1 5 ; 2 4 : 2 6 , 4 6 ) . 4 6 He a l s o n o t e s t h a t t h i s word may mean t o b e a r " and r e f e r i n p a r t t o t h e Hebrew word sebalam ぺ t ob e a r a heavy b u r d e n " , i n I s a i a h 5 3 : 4 .
47I n d e e d , t h e e n t i r e I s a i a h 5 3 p a s s a g e e m p h a s i z e s what s u f f e r i n g and
o p p r e s s i o n t h e man o f s o r r o w s " e n d u r e d . He knew g r i e f and s o r r o w
( v . 4 ) ; was p i e r c e d , c r u s h e d , c h a s t e n e d , and s c o u r g e d ( v . 5 ) ; was
o p p r e s s e d and a f f l i c t e d ( v . 7 ) ; and He was p u t t o g r i e f , s u f f e r i n g
a n g u i s h i n H i s s o u l ( v v . 1 0 ‑ 1 1 ) . J e s u s d i d n o t want t o s u f f e r on t h e
c r o s s (L k . 2 2 : 4 2 ) , b u t w i l l i n g l y d i d s o , e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f becoming
s i n on o u r b e h a l f ( 2 C o r . 5 : 2 1 ) ! The i n c a r n a t e God s u f f e r e d f o r men
s o t h a t we might o n e day be f r e e from s u f f e r i n g .
S u r e l y t h e r e i s no b e t t e r example o f one who s u f f e r e d u n j u s t l y . I f t h e g r e a t e r good argument f o r p h y s i c a l e v i l i s i n v a l i d , t h e n God must have been u n j u s t t o p u n i s h an i n n o c e n t C h r i s t !
There i s g r e a t v a l u e f o r t h e c o u n s e l o r i n t h e f a c t t h a t C h r i s t s u f f e r e d i n t e n s e l y f o r a l l o f h u m a n i t y . C h r i s t can i d e n t i f y w i t h u s b e c a u s e o f what He s u f f e r e d C H e b . 2 : 1 4 ‑ 1 8 ; 4 : 1 5 ) . God may n o t p r o t e c t u s 斤 oma l l s u f f e r i n g on t h i s e a r t h , b u t t h e hope we have o f a f u t u r e where a l l e v i l and p a i n w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d b e c a u s e o f C h r i s t ' s work on t h e c r o s s p r o t e c t s u s i n a l l t h e s u f f e r i n g we e n d u r e i n t h i s l i f e . We know t h a t e v e n God H i m s e l f i s a S u f f e r i n g God who g o e s w i t h u s , a God who c a r r i e s u s t h r o u g h t h e c h a o s o f g r i e f and h e l p s u s r e s t o r e o r d e r . " 4 8
C o n c l u s i o n
I t h a s been s e e n t h a t man i s r e s p o n s i b l e b o t h f o r t h e moral and p h y s i c a l e v i l i n t h e w o r l d . God c r e a t e d m o r a l l y f r e e a g e n t s i n a p e r f e c t e n v i r o n m e n t s o t h a t t h e y might have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o m a x i ‑ mize t h e g o o d . They w i l l f u l l y s i n n e d and b r o u g h t e v i l i n t o t h e w o r l d , y e t even t h i s i s b e i n g u t i l i z e d by G o d . P h y s i c a l e v i l s a r e t o b e s e e n a s c o n s e q u e n c e s , c o n d i t i o n s , o r c o n c o m i t a n t s o f f r e e c h o i c e , which a l s o s e r v e a s n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s and c o n c o m i t a n t s o f t h e b e s t k i n d o f means f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e b e s t o f a l l p o s s i b l e w o r l d S .4 9
A number o f r e a s o n s f o r p h y s i c a l e v i l were g i v e n , a l l o f which f a l l i n t o t h e t h e o d i c y p r o v i d e d . The p r e s e n c e o f p h y s i c a l e v i l i n no way c o n t r a d i c t s G o d ' s c h a r a c t e r , and t h e r e i s g r e a t c o m f o r t i n t h e f a c t t h a t He can a c c o m p l i s h H i s p u r p o s e s e v e n i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f e v i l C G e n . 5 0 : 2 0 ; Rom. 8 : 2 8 ) , and i n t h e knowledge t h a t He became i n c a r n a t e and e x p e r i e c e d s u f f e r i n g beyond i m a g i n a t i o n on o u r b e h a l f ; He i s p e r s o n ‑ a l l y i n v o l v e d i n e l i m i n a t i n g e v i l .
T h i s w r i t e r f a i l s t o s e e how P e t e r s o n can a s s e r t t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f
g r a t u i t o u s e v i l a c t u a l l y makes i t 1
うr o b a b l et h a t an o m n i p o t e n t , o m n i ‑
s c i e n t , w h o l l y good God e x i s t s .
50N e v e r t h e l e s s , 1 f i r m l y b e l i e v e t h a t
God d o e s have a p u r p o s e f o r p h y s i c a l e v i l , and t h a t even a p p a r e n t l y
g r a t u i t o u s e v i l s s e r v e a p a r t i n G o d ' s grand p l a n f o r t h e u n i v e r s e .
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