Man often becomes what he believes himself to be. If I keep on saying to myself that I cannot do a certain thing, it is possible that I may end by really becoming incapable of doing it. On the contrary, if I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to do it even if I may not have it at the beginning.
Mahatma Gandhi
In the quote above, Mahatma Gandhi provides his readers/followers with a simple yet profound message about inner beliefs and motivation. His message can be applied to many aspects of an individual’ s life, including the acquisition of a second language. If, an individual actually believes that he or she will never be able to acquire and/or use a second language, then he or she will probably never learn one. However, if an individual is properly motivated and has confidence in his or her abilities, then the task of actually learning and using a second language might not be so daunting. In Japan, English courses are part of the regular curriculum in every public and private university, but a vast number of Japanese students dutifully complete their required courses without ever truly believing that they will become fully functioning English speakers. On the other hand, and to a much lesser extent, there are those who do enter Japanese universities with the belief that they will become competent English speakers. So, what is it that motivates some Japanese students to learn and use English in their daily lives while others are content to treat it as a mandatory hurdle that needs to be cleared in order to graduate? And, what can English teachers in Japanese universities do to increase motivational levels in their respective classrooms? In this essay, I will present critically analyzed data gathered from two different surveys conducted at a private Japanese university as well as discuss theories associated with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in an attempt to answer these questions.
A Focus on Motivation in University Classrooms
Samuel Rose
I will also outline how English teachers can work towards increasing motivation levels in their classrooms with the hope that this information will help Japanese students better prepare for a prosperous future.
Background
In “Motivation and ELT: Looking Ahead to the Future,” Ema Ushioda writes,
“the unquestioned importance ascribed to English in global, national, and educational policy terms does not simply translate into unquestioned positive motivation for learners of English” （233）. Ushioda’ s comments are particularly relevant with regard to university students in Japan. The overwhelming majority of Japanese university students know that English will help them improve their chances of employment after they graduate, and yet there is still an underwhelming sense of motivation to actually learn how to speak English.
In “Anxiety and Predictors of Performance in the Foreign Language Classroom,” Sae
Matsuda and Peter Gobel identify a possible reason for this lack of motivation when they
state, “oral classroom activities are most problematic and anxiety-provoking for foreign
language learners” （22）. This has been a traditional belief in Japan for many years and was
reinforced once again in 2013 by Toshiaki Endo in the Japan Times article entitled “LDP
Takes Aim at English Education, Seeks to Boost TOEFL Levels.” In this article, Endo,
the leader of the Liberal Democratic Party’ s education revitalization department, refers
to the English communication abilities of young students and states, “We all know that
the （current） six years of English education did not help us speak English.” Despite this
apparent lack of ability and/or motivation to learn how to speak English, critical analysis of
a university student survey reveals that many Japanese students view “speaking” as the
most important skill to acquire while studying English. This particular survey was written
in Japanese and was given to 138 students in five different departments in the Faculty of
Letters at Rissho University. English literature, history, Japanese literature, philosophy
and sociology majors were all asked to participate in the survey. The third question （see
Appendix A） asked the students to identify what they perceived to be the most important
English skill, and 52% of the students chose “speaking.” The chart below provides a clearer
breakdown of the student responses.
The fact that 30% of the students did not respond to question number three, or, could not make one specific choice, is cause for concern, but for the purposes of this essay, the fact that 52% of the students chose “speaking” indicates that it is an area of interest amongst students studying English.
Although oral communication competence was deemed to be the most important skill one should acquire whilst studying English, critical analysis of a second survey reinforced Matsuda and Gobel’ s earlier arguments about anxiety in oral communication classrooms. In this survey （see Appendix B）, 135 of the same students were asked three questions about their confidence levels while speaking English. Unfortunately, an astounding 98.5% professed to have very little self-confidence in their speaking abilities.
The charts below provide more information.
2014 Kiso Eigo Survey:
The most important English skill.
Speaking Listening Reading Writing
Other/No Response
Natural English conversation skills.
Very Good Good Poor Very Poor
Self-con�idence while speaking English.
Very Good Good Poor Very Poor
Spontaneous English speaking skills.
Very Good Good Poor Very Poor
After reviewing the results from the two surveys, one can surmise that Japanese students understand the importance of speaking English, and yet still have very little confidence in their actual English speaking abilities. It was this contrasting information that inspired further research on motivation with regard to second language acquisition in Japanese university classrooms.
Varying Degrees of Motivation
In “Why do High School Students Lack Motivation in the Classroom? Toward an Understanding of Academic Amotivation and the Role of Social Support,” Luc Pelletier et al.
write, “One of the most prominent academic problems plaguing today’ s teenage youth is a lack of motivation toward academic activities” （567）. This apparent lack of motivation for academic activities is a definite concern for second language teachers because “motivation is one of the main determinants of second/foreign language （L2） learning achievement”
（Dornyei, 273）. In Key Topics in Second Language Acquisition, Vivian Cook and David Singleton make a similar argument when they write, “Attitudes, self-perception, self- confidence and anxiety have long been seen as feeding into the motivational factor in the L2 learning process” （94）. The results from the surveys above indicate that the key to developing a Japanese student’ s motivation in an English classroom is not adversely affected by his or her lack of interest in the subject, it is adversely affected by his or her confidence and/or anxiety whilst speaking English. Additionally, the fact that so many Japanese students have very little confidence in their speaking abilities by the time they enter universities, can, and does, in many cases, lead to feelings of “learned helplessness.” In
“Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom,” Zoltan Dornyei describes this psychological phenomenon in the following:
Learned helplessness refers to a resigned, pessimistic, helpless
state that develops when the person wants to succeed but feels
that success is impossible or beyond him or her for some reason,
that is, the probability of a desired goal does not appear to be
increased by any action of effort. It is the feeling of “I simply can’ t
do it,” which, once established, is very difficult to reverse （276）.
If numerous Japanese students are in fact entering university English classrooms with a sense of “learned helplessness” with regard to learning and/or speaking English, then it will be up to their teachers and/or educational institutions to help them reinvigorate their motivation to acquire English communication skills. But, how does one “motivate” a young student, and what does “motivation” actually mean in terms of learning a second language?
According to Dornyei, “One of the most general and well-known distinctions in motivation theories is that between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation” （275）. In the text entitled Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior, Edward Deci and Richard Ryan succinctly describe intrinsic motivation in the following:
Intrinsic motivation is in evidence whenever students’ natural curiosity and interest energise their learning. When the educational environment provides optimal challenges, rich sources of stimulation, and a context of autonomy, this motivational wellspring in learning is likely to flourish （245）.
Based on Deci and Ryan’ s comments above, a confident Japanese university student with every intention of becoming a fully functional English speaker will most likely be intrinsically motivated. One could even argue that such a student actually enjoys learning English or “a second or foreign language for its own sake without any external coercion or pressure” （Wu, 502）. And, of course, if studying English is deemed to be an enjoyable endeavor, the chances of learning it and becoming a competent English speaker should dramatically increase.
Unlike intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation is seen as being an outside motivational force. An extrinsically motivated student, for example, will study hard because he or she would like a good grade and/or receive some sort of reward for his or her effort.
Some theorists argue that excess extrinsic motivation can actually impede an individual’ s intrinsic
motivation. In Japan, the English sections on university entrance exams often create a lot
of stress for many high school students. Unfortunately, numerous students are so focused
on studying English specifically for the purposes of taking an entrance exam, they start to
see English as an obstacle to clear instead of as a subject to learn and enjoy. In “Motivation
after Matriculation: Are Japanese Learners of English Still Alive After Exam Hell?” Richard
Berwick and Steven Ross point out that motivation for studying English tends to “peak in the last year of high school （206）” and further note that intense studying for exams does very little to sustain a high level of motivation throughout a student’ s academic career.
According to Berwick and Ross, “exam hell,” or the intense extrinsic motivation associated with entrance exams veritably detracts from a student’ s intrinsic motivation to study English.
Intense extrinsic motivational factors can in fact detract from an individual’ s intrinsic motivation, but this does not mean that all forms of extrinsic motivation will have an adverse affect on language learning. According to Dornyei “extrinsic rewards can be combined with, or even lead to, intrinsic motivation” if they are sufficiently self-determined and internalized （276）. This suggests that university English teachers in Japan need to find or discover a balance between extrinsic as well as intrinsic motivational factors. Of course, each and every class is different and motivation levels will vary dramatically, which is why it is important for teachers to be able to adjust accordingly to the varying classroom dynamics. Or, as Kees de Bot points out in “Rates of Change: Timescales in Second Language Development:”
Motivation to learn a foreign language can vary from one moment to another and may be influenced by different types of motivation on different timescales. Long term motivation may come from career plans, shorter term motivation from the wish to pass an exam, an even shorter term motivation from expressing a view in class （36）.
In an ideal situation, all of the students would be intrinsically motivated, but this is obviously not the case in Japanese schools, which is why a delicate balance needs to be achieved. For the purposes of this essay going forward, “motivation is simply defined here as ‘a balance of optimal conditions relevant for the individual to ensure that they achieve their potential’”
（Buckler and Castle, 221）. Thus, if optimal conditions in a classroom require more extrinsic
motivational behaviors, then it will be up to the individual teachers and/or institutions to
create the optimal conditions necessary for second language acquisition.
Teachers and Motivation in the Classroom
Teachers cannot simply “give” their students motivation, but a teacher’ s actions can be instrumental when it comes to influencing or facilitating motivational behavior. In “Listening to Romanian Teenagers: Lesson in Motivation and ELT Methodology,” Florentina Taylor points out just how important a teacher can be with regard to motivation when she writes, “One of the main motivational factors that student participants identified was the teacher’ s own motivation, engagement and interest－both with regards to the subject and to their students”
（41）. Taylor further explains that the “implications are dramatic: If the teacher is genuinely interested in the students, this increases the students’ interest and engagement too” （42）. In
“Confidence in the Classroom: Ten Maxims for New Teachers,” James Eison reinforces this idea when he writes, “In the classroom, an instructor’ s enthusiasm is often contagious; so too, is the lack of enthusiasm” （24）. Unfortunately, however, an English teacher’ s enthusiasm and/or motivation may not be enough to inspire Japanese university students lacking intrinsic motivation. Optimal second language teaching conditions in Japan, or anywhere for that matter, also require positive classroom environments, actively involved students, and authentic teaching materials.
Teachers undoubtedly play a significant role in the creation of a nurturing, enriching
and motivational learning environment. If students view their classroom environments in a
positive manner, intrinsic motivation will increase. According to Xinyi Wu, the “immediate
classroom environment produces a direct effect on the L2 learning process. It can therefore
be an indispensable supportive condition for the maintenance and development of intrinsic
motivation” （502）. But, how does one establish a positive classroom environment? Dornyei
answers this question by encouraging teachers to create “classroom situations in which
students can get to know each other and share genuine personal information” （282） such
as feelings, fears and desires. As mentioned earlier, the majority of the survey participants
wanted to learn how to “speak” English, and thus encouraging these students to interact
with one another （in English） in an oral communication class would not only help them
practice speaking, it would also help them learn more about one another. A teacher can
further increase the chances of creating a positive classroom environment by establishing
a proper code of conduct or a set of classroom rules at the beginning of each new course.
When students know exactly what is and what is not acceptable in the classroom, they can specifically focus on learning and not on the inevitable distractions that come with disruptive behavior. Of course, a teacher’ s strict adherence to the classroom rules combined with his or her ability to share “genuine personal information” with students will undoubtedly set a positive example for everyone in the class.
A highly motivated teacher who has managed to establish a positive classroom environment still needs to overcome other motivational impairments. In “Teaching for Learning,” Patricia Cross writes, “When students are actively involved in the learning task, they learn more than when they are passive recipients of instruction” （7）. Dornyei echoes these comments when he writes, “sharing responsibility with students, offering them options and choices, letting them have a say in establishing priorities, and involving them in the decision making enhance student self-determination and intrinsic motivation” （278）. Thus, rather than English teachers simply instructing students to study and practice speaking certain English grammatical structures, they could encourage their students to be more involved with what they will actually be studying. In oral communication classes, for example, students could be asked to choose the topics they would like to study, or, at the very least, they could be asked to think about the English they would like to use in relation to a particular topic.
Students should also be encouraged to think about how a particular topic will help them outside of their classroom environment. Encouraging students to “actively participate” in the development of English topics and/or materials would not only empower them, it would also allow them to focus on subjects that they themselves deemed to be “real” or “authentic.”
If, for example, students help create lesson plans that they believe to be “authentic,” then their motivation to study and learn that material should subsequently increase.
“In an era of diversity and equity, it is perhaps surprising that including students
in educational decision making is still rare in mainstream schooling” （Taylor, 36）. The lack
of student involvement in the creation of “authentic materials” in English classrooms in
Japan has long been a major detriment to intrinsic motivation. The fact that the majority
of the survey participants in this project viewed oral communication skills to be a top
priority, combined with the fact that most of these students have spent the majority of
their English studies preparing for university entrance exams, indicates that their actual
needs and wants have not yet been significantly addressed. Additionally, if students believe that the English they study in order to do well on exams will not translate into confidence whilst actually speaking the language, questions about inauthentic material will emerge. If students truly believe they are studying inauthentic materials then it is quite likely that their intrinsic motivation to learn English will decrease, which is often the case in Japan. In
“Digital Games and ELT: Bridging the Authenticity Gap,” Alastair Henry writes about the learning materials used in classrooms and writes, “authentic materials are inherently more interesting because they are ‘real’ and have a ‘real’ message to convey” （139）. Pelletier et al. also discuss the idea of using “authentic materials in classrooms and state, “When the task is not an integral component of a student’ s life, or if, in effect, it is not important to the student, amotivation may result” （569）. And thus, a teacher may be enthusiastic and extremely adept at creating a positive classroom environment, but she will still face significant challenges with regard to raising intrinsic motivation levels if the material she is using is not deemed to be “authentic” by her students.
Conclusion
In 2015, Japan’ s global economic standing is not as robust as it was before the turn of the century. A Japanese university student’ s future job prospects are also not as secure as they once were. In this time of uncertainty, intercultural communication and understanding is an extremely important commodity and bilingual students with global perspectives and ambitions are in demand. Unfortunately, critical analysis of the data gathered from two Japanese university student surveys reveals that there is a disconnect between what Japanese students would like to learn with regard to English and what they are actually studying before entering universities. It has been argued here that this disconnect impairs the overall levels of intrinsic motivation found in English classrooms.
Rather than cast aspersions and/or blame for this apparent lack of motivation, it has been suggested that university English teachers throughout Japan can in fact rise to the challenge of raising their students’ intrinsic motivation levels. Of course, raising motivation levels, especially when some students are dealing with a sense of “learned helplessness,”
will undoubtedly be a significant challenge for many individuals in the teaching profession.
However, if enthusiastic or motivated teachers manage to create positive classroom environments while getting their students to actively participate in the production of
“authentic” teaching materials, they will increase their chances of success. Of course, even highly motivated students need to know that their English efforts will require time, and thus it is important to maintain a high level of motivation throughout the learning process.
After all, as Gandhi indicated in the opening passage, if a student has the belief that she can speak English, she shall surely acquire the capacity to speak it even if she may not speak it at the beginning.
Works Cited:
Buckler, Scott and Castle, Paul. Psychology for Teachers. London: Sage Publications, 2014.
Berwick, Richard and Ross Steven. “Motivation after Matriculation: Are Japanese
Learners of English Still Alive After Exam Hell?” JALT Journal, Vol. 11, No. 2, 193- 210. 1989.
Cook, Vivian and Singleton, David. Key Topics in Second Language Acquisition.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2014.
Cross, Patricia. “Teaching ‘For’ Learning.” 23p.; Paper presented at the North
Carolina Sate University Centennial Year Provost’ s Forum. Raleigh, NC, February 12, 1987.
de Bot, Kees. “Rates of Change: Timescales in Second Language Development.”
Motivational Dynamics In Language Learning. eds. Dornyei, Zoltan, MacIntyre, Peter and Henry, Alastair. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2015.
Deci, Edward and Ryan, Richard. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in
Human Behavior . New York: Plenum Publishing, 1985.
Dornyei, Zoltan. “Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom.”
The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 78, No. 3, 273-284. Autumn, 1994.
Eison, James. “Confidence in the Classroom: Ten Maxims for New Teachers.”
College Teaching, Vol. 38, No. 1, 21-25. Winter, 1990.
Gobel, Peter and Matsuda, Sae. “Anxiety and Predictors of Performance in the Foreign Language Classroom.” System, Vol. 32, Issue 1, 21-36. 2004.
Mie, Ayako. “LDP Takes Aim at English Education, Seeks to Boost TOEFL Levels.”
The Japan Times. March 29, 2013.
Accessed March 2, 2015:
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/03/29/national/abe-takes-aim-at-english- education-seeks-to-boost-toefl-levels/#.U8383V7nllI
Green-Demers, Isabelle, Legault, Lisa and Pelletier, Luc. “Why do High School
Students Lack Motivation in the Classroom? Toward an Understanding of Academic Amotivation and the Role of Social Support.” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 98, No. 3, 567-582. 2006.
Ushioda, Ema. ed. International Perspectives on Motivation: Language Learning and Professional Challenges. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
Henry, Alastair. “Digital Games and ELT: Bridging the Authenticity Gap.” in Ushioda 133-155
Taylor, Florentina. “Listening to Romanian Teenagers: Lesson in Motivation and ELT Methodology.” in Ushioda 35-59
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233-239
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Appendix A
Appendix B
（2015年10月７日受理、2016年１月20日採択）
基礎英語アンケート
Student number Name
Q1. 大学や社会で、英語力は必要だと思いますか。
必要 どちらとも言えない 不要
Q2. Q1の回答の理由は何ですか。
Q3. 英語力を４技能に分解すると、どの技能を一番身に付けたいですか。左側に丸を付けてください。また、それぞれの技能について、あなたはどの段階 ですか。
聞く 使える もう少し 使えない
話す 使える もう少し 使えない
読む 使える もう少し 使えない
書く 使える もう少し 使えない
Q4. 今までに英語で書かれた本を（最初から最後まで）読んだことがありますか。
読んでない 一冊 五冊以下 十冊以下 十冊以上
Q5. 英語を使ってどのようなことができるようになりたいですか。
Q6. 英語の資格を持っていますか。
持っていない 実用英検 級
TOEIC 点
TOEFL 点
その他（ ） Q7. 今までで一番良かった英語の授業はどのようなものでしたか。
July 2014 Rissho University Student Survey 1. Please rate your natural English conversation skills.
あなたの英会話スキルはどのレベルですか？
Very Good Good Poor Very Poor 2. Please rate your spontaneous English speaking skills.
自発的な（無理の無い自然な）英会話スキルはどのレベルですか？
Very Good Good Poor Very Poor 3. Please rate your self-confidence while speaking English.
英語を話す時、あなたはどのくらい自信がありますか？
Very High High Low Very Low
基礎英語アンケート
Student number Name
Q1. 大学や社会で、英語力は必要だと思いますか。
必要 どちらとも言えない 不要
Q2. Q1の回答の理由は何ですか。
Q3. 英語力を４技能に分解すると、どの技能を一番身に付けたいですか。左側に丸を付けてください。また、それぞれの技能について、あなたはどの段階 ですか。
聞く 使える もう少し 使えない
話す 使える もう少し 使えない
読む 使える もう少し 使えない
書く 使える もう少し 使えない
Q4. 今までに英語で書かれた本を（最初から最後まで）読んだことがありますか。
読んでない 一冊 五冊以下 十冊以下 十冊以上 Q5. 英語を使ってどのようなことができるようになりたいですか。
Q6. 英語の資格を持っていますか。
持っていない 実用英検 級
TOEIC 点
TOEFL 点
その他（ ） Q7. 今までで一番良かった英語の授業はどのようなものでしたか。
July 2014 Rissho University Student Survey 1. Please rate your natural English conversation skills.
あなたの英会話スキルはどのレベルですか？
Very Good Good Poor Very Poor 2. Please rate your spontaneous English speaking skills.
自発的な（無理の無い自然な）英会話スキルはどのレベルですか？
Very Good Good Poor Very Poor 3. Please rate your self-confidence while speaking English.
英語を話す時、あなたはどのくらい自信がありますか？
Very High High Low Very Low