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Master’s Thesis

Medicinal Plant and Tourism Development: Opportunities and

Potentials for the Case of Oita Prefecture

By

TERESA Kartika Mabel 51218006

March 2020

Master’s Thesis Presented to Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master’s in International Cooperation Policy

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents ... i Certification Page ... iv Acknowledgement ... v List of Figures ... vi Abstract ... 1 Chapter 1 Introduction ... 2 1.1 Background ... 2

1.2 Objectives of the study ... 4

1.3 Research Problem ... 4

1.4 Hypothesis ... 4

1.5 Research Questions ... 5

1.6 Significance of the research ... 5

1.7 Thesis Outline ... 6

Chapter 2 Literature Review ... 7

2.1 Food Tourism and Japan’s Travel Culture ... 7

2.2 Japanese Cuisine ... 10

2.2.1 Shokuiku ... 11

2.2.2 Washoku ... 13

2.2.3 Yakuzen ... 15

2.3 Food and Medicine ... 17

2.4 Medicinal Plant and Tourism ... 19

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Chapter 3 Methodology ... 24 3.1 Research Strategy ... 24 3.2 Data Collection ... 24 3.2.1 Interview ... 25 3.2.2 Observation ... 26 3.3 Research Sites ... 27

Chapter 4 Findings and Analysis ... 29

4.1 The Medicinal Plants of Oita Prefecture ... 29

4.2 Medicinal Plants in Food Tourism ... 36

4.3 Knowledge on Medicinal Plants and Restaurant Use ... 39

4.4 Businesses with Edible Medicinal Plants ... 41

4.4.1 Oga Farm ... 41

4.4.2 Tomiku Chaya ... 47

4.5 Academic and Community Collaboration ... 51

4.6 Conclusion ... 53

Chapter 5 Discussion and Analysis ... 55

5.1 SWOT Analysis of Medicinal Plant Tourism Application in Oita Prefecture ... 55

5.1.1 Strength ... 55

5.1.2 Weakness ... 56

5.1.3 Opportunities ... 57

5.1.4 Threat ... 58

5.1.5 SWOT Conclusion ... 59

5.2 Answering Research Questions ... 60

5.2.1 Research Question 1 ... 60

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5.2.3 Research Question 3 ... 62

5.3 Recommendation ... 63

Chapter 6 Conclusion ... 64

References ... 70

Appendix ... 80

Questionnaire Form English: ... 80

Questionnaire Form Japanese: ... 81

Question Guide English: ... 82

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Certification Page

I, Teresa Kartika Mabel (Student ID 51218006) hereby declare that the contents of this master’s Thesis / Research Report are original and true and have not been submitted at any other university or educational institution for the award of degree or diploma.

All the information derived from other published or unpublished sources has been cited and acknowledged appropriately.

_____________________________________ Teresa Kartika Mabel 2019/12/05

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Acknowledgement

In the completion of this study, I would like to convey my deepest gratitude to all individuals involved. My utmost gratitude to Professor Vafadari Kazem, for his support, kindness and patience, and for all the knowledge he taught me. To Dr. Tadanori Yano, thank you for your generous advice and support with results of your comprehensive research in the field of medicinal plants. To Professor Yotsumoto Yukio for his insights on Japanese Culture, especially in the subjects related to the medicinal plants. To every professor in the Tourism and Hospitality division, thank you for all the knowledge, insights and the chance to do a lot of discussions you have given to me that contributes to the completion of this study. To Ms. Sakura, Ms. Saya, Ms. Hori, Ms. Weda Arachige and Mr. Jovian, for all your support and help during this study.

To my parents, thank you for allowing me to go to Japan, as it broadens my perspective and gave me a chance to grow and be more than what I was. Thank you for your continuous belief in what I believe, for your unconditional support and for your prayers and love. I love you both. To my closest circle of friend here in Beppu, thank you for the friendship and companionship you have given me. Thank you for the late-night brainstorming sessions, for the calm amidst the storm, and for the utmost and continuous belief that I can do this, I wouldn’t be able to finish this without all of you.

And to each and every person involved in the process of this research, whom I can’t mention, your help and your support will not be forgotten. I will be forever grateful.

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Medicinal Herb Class Poster for Fukuoka City ... 31

Figure 2. Medicinal Herb Cooking Class Situation ... 32

Figure 3. Medicinal Plant used for Cooking Class ... 32

Figure 4. Food being taught in Medicinal Herb Class ... 33

Figure 5. Medicinal Plant Available in Coastal Area ... 34

Figure 6. Medicinal Plant Available in Mountain Area ... 35

Figure 7. Oga Farm Site Map ... 42

Figure 8. Oga Farm Restaurant and Flower Garden ... 43

Figure 9. Oga Farm Flower Garden ... 43

Figure 10. Oga Farm Special Tea Blend ... 45

Figure 11. Dishes at Oga Farm using Medicinal Herb ... 46

Figure 12. Tomiku Chaya ... 47

Figure 13. Tomiku Chaya Interior ... 48

Figure 14. Washoku at Tomiku Chaya ... 49

Figure 15. Nutritional Facts Available at Tomiku Chaya ... 50

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Abstract

Tourism and travel are often seen as a chance to indulge in food and activities normally seen as luxury in everyday life. However, the rising concern on health is changing the behavior of the tourists. The more conscious a tourist is about his or her health, the more the tourist will look for the healthier alternative when travelling, especially in food. Existing literature has looked at food tourism, food culture and medicinal plant in different fields, but there is limited research that explores the possibility of interdisciplinary research by utilizing medicinal plant in food tourism. Therefore, this study bridges the gap in the literature by exploring the role of medicinal plants in food tourism in Japan.

A series of scholarship, expert interviews, in-depth interviews and visual and participatory observations was conducted with more than 30 restaurants and souvenir shop owners, scholars and local communities to gain insights on how medicinal plant is utilized in the tourism industry. Contributing factors for a successful application of medicinal plant in food tourism, including the role of local community and the awareness of the existence and availability of medicinal plants were identified. The importance of the awareness on medicinal plants, especially related to natural disaster management and food security were also discovered in this research.

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background

In the 21st century, society are becoming more conscious on their health, as shown in the rise of life expectancy and their continuous attention to their quality of life. People are becoming more aware on what they are consuming, as they believe that there is a close relationship between what they eat and how it can impact their health (Mollet & Rowland, 2002; Siró, Kápolna, Kápolna, & Lugasi, 2008; Vicentini, Liberatore, & Mastrocola, 2016). In the realm of tourism industry, food is considered central, as it is not only viewed as a basic necessity: food can be a window to a destination; their authentic heritage, culture and identity (Hall & Sharples, 2003; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2008). The rising health conciousness are influencing the tourists’ eating behaviour: the more conscious they are on their health, the more they are looking for alternative that fit with their ‘healthy eating’ behaviour (Chang, 2017).

Japan has been well-established as one of the healthiest countries in the world, ranked 4th in 2019 World’s Healthiest Country according to the Bloomberg Global Health Index (Bloomberg, 2019). The Bloomberg Global Health Index uses several variables including life expectancy at birth, environmental factors, non-communicable diseases mortality rates and causes of death. According to World Health Organization, in 2018, the life expectancy of Japan is in the average of 84.2 years old (WHO, 2018). Many factors have contributed to the long, healthy live enjoyed by the people of Japan, and one of the prominent contributing factors is food. Traditional Japanese dishes is considered healthy, well-balanced and highly nutritional, due to the variety and freshness of ingredients used, and also due to the cooking process to create the dishes (Gabriel, Ninomiya, & Uneyama, 2018). In Okinawa, the people credit their health and longevity to the Okinawan Diet, a diet typically use Sweet Potato as the primary

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source of carbohydrate, and fishes as the primary source of protein. Japan has further cemented its image to be synonymous with healthy food in 2013, with Washoku, the traditional Japanese diet is included in the list of UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCO, 2013; Cwiertka, 2015; Kohsaka, 2017)

Medicinal Plant has been hailed as one of the alternative sources to achieve a healthier life. All around the world, traditional knowledge on how to process and utilize medicinal plant exist, differing from one region to another, but always on the same page: to use plant as a mean of remedy (Trivedi, 2006). Asia hosts four of the most famous traditional medicinal system in the world: Ayurveda, Chinese, Tibetan and Unani, supported by the rich biodiversity in medicinal plant, and the vast traditional knowledge in the ancient literature (Sheng-ji, 2001). Aromatic and medicinal plants have continued to be utilized in human life and heritage, and it is estimated that there are 70.000 plant species that are considered medicinal. In Japan, there are approximately 250 types of medicinal plant that are popular and currently used as Kampo medicine (Farnsworth & Soejarto, 1991; Inoue, Shinichiro, & Cracker, 2017). The use of these medicinal plant varies from traditional remedies, such as medicine and bath, to the use of medicinal plant in food. Yakuzen refers to the type of cooking that use medicinal plant, based on several philosophy such as Inyo Gogyo Ron, the Five Elements in Yin-Yang in Chinese Philosophy, Ishokudogen, an ancient belief that food and medicine come from the same source, and therefore, can’t be separated and Shindofuji, that human body can’t be separated from the land, the health of the environment will affect the health of human (Wang & Ohara, 2003; Marra, 2011; Nishimura, Maeda, & Nakamura, 2012).

The existence of various food culture in Japan, especially Yakuzen, opens the possibility of using medicinal plant in food tourism, to cater to the needs of health-conscious tourists that are looking for the more wholesome diet. This study will explore the opportunity and possibility of the application of medicinal plant in food tourism, especially in the Oita

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Prefecture. The author chooses Oita Prefecture as it is rich, not only the available edible medicinal species, but also in the traditional knowledge of how to process these species. The existence of Beppu City, known as the Onsen City, a city recognized as one of the health and wellness tourism destination in Japan, offering not only entertainment, but also health and wellness improvement experience, such as the hot springs and spas.

1.2 Objectives of the study

The objectives of this study are explained as below:

1. To explore the role of medicinal plant in food tourism promotion in Japan

2. To explore the potentials of existing medicinal plant menus in food tourism in Japan 3. To explore the role of local communities on medicinal plant in food tourism

development in Japan

1.3 Research Problem

The rising awareness of health, and the current trend of travelers looking for a more authentic experience makes it possible for the emergence of a new market for alternative healthy food using edible medicinal species. However, the current market in Japan is not seen to be utilizing this abundant resource to offer authentic food experience, and to promote the destination. There are limited literatures that explore the possibility of utilizing medicinal plant for food tourism, and the preliminary observation showed that the existence of these medicinal plant products is limited.

1.4 Hypothesis

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2. Lack of awareness about the existence and availability of medicinal plants limit the application for food tourism in Japan

1.5 Research Questions

In order to accomplish the above-mentioned objectives and to solve the research problem, these research questions are determined:

1. How is diversity, seasonality, geographical location of medicinal plant is utilized in tourism promotion in Japan?

2. How is the uniqueness, availability and health and nutrition facts of medicinal plant is utilized in tourism promotion in Japan?

3. What is the role of local communities that is affecting the use of medicinal plant in tourism promotion in Japan?

1.6 Significance of the research

This study is expected to contribute to the existing literature, by bridging the gap between medicinal plant use in everyday food and food culture, and food tourism for destination promotion. This study is also expected to raise awareness about medicinal plant biodiversity in Japan, and in turn is expected to contribute to the effort of maintaining food security. This research will raise awareness about medicinal and edible plant which can contribute to natural disaster management in case of lack of food and the possibility to replace everyday food by the edible and medicinal plant provisionally revitalizing the culture of food and cooking with such resources and plants.

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1.7 Thesis Outline

This study is divided into six different chapters. Chapter one covers the introduction of this study: the background, scope of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, problem statement, significance of the study and thesis outline. Chapter two reviews the existing literature surrounding the topic of medicinal plant and food tourism, including food culture in Japan, the use of medicinal plant in food, and medicinal plant in food tourism, especially in the connection with health and wellness tourism. Chapter three explains the methods and methodology used in this thesis. Chapter four presents the finding and analysis of the research. Chapter five discusses how the findings answer the research questions presented in the introduction. Chapter six will draw the conclusion and outlines the limitations of this research.

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Food Tourism and Japan’s Travel Culture

The research and study surrounding the relationship of food and tourism has been growing in popularity and number in the past decade, as highlighted by Ellis, Park, Kim, & Yeoman (2018), mentioning the rising number of international conferences, special issues in tourism academic journals, major international publications and popular academic books, resulting in the development of different perspectives and definitions on food tourism. According to Hall & Sharples (2003), the characteristic between tourists who utilize food as a mean of sustenance during their travel period and tourists whose enjoyment and delight in food impact their choice of destination, activities and behaviour should be distinguished in order to define food tourism. Therefore, Food Tourism can be defined as:

“visitation to primary and secondary food producers, food festivales, restaurants and specific locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production region are the primary motivating factor for travel” (Hall & Sharples, 2003, p. 10)

World Food Travel Association have different definitions for food tourism throughout the years, continuously refined along with the changes that happened within and to the industry. The earliest definition used from 2001 to 2012 explained Culinary Tourism as “The pursuit and enjoyment of unique and memorable food and drink experiences, both far and near” (Wolf, 2001). In 2012-2018, WFTA introduced the term “Food Tourism”, as the term Culinary Tourism is perceived as elite, hence the term Food Tourism as it covers larger range of experiences, including street foods, to the gourmet experiences. In 2018, Food Tourism is

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defined by WTFA as “the act of traveling for a taste of place in order to get a sense of place.” (WFTA, 2018).

Originally, food in tourism was considered as basic needs, that purchasing and consuming food in the tourism destinations is seen more of a convenience to the travellers. But in the more recent studies, tourism researchers are exploring more on the connection between food and culture in food tourism (Kim, 2015). Tourists’ treatment of food usually leans more towards a functional role in their home, but in their travel, eating can take a deeper symbolic meaning. Food can be a gateway to experience enjoyment in tasting their various kind, especially in the context of exploring new cultures: what food they are eating, when to eat them, how it is cooked and the habits of the locals, and the socio-cultural aspects surrounding it (Mitchell & Hall, 2003; Long, 2004; Tussyadiah, 2006). Food Tourism is seen as a pathway to experience the ‘cultural sense’ of a particular place, and as a medium of cultural exchange and knowledge transfer between food tourists and local people through food related experiences (Horng & Tsai, 2012; Silkes, Cai, & Lehto, 2013).

The tradition of food in tourism in Japan can be traced to the earliest history, starting, originally, from pilgrimage routes followed by austere individuals for religious reasons. These pilgrimage routes then were followed by and became popular within the aristocracy in the Heian period and to the common people during the Edo period (Watkins, 2008). There are common characteristics of these pilgrimages that can be observed, even in the modern habits of Japan’s travel culture, and one of them is miyage. As the financial resources of the common people can be limited, pilgrimage are often made possible through resource pooling (or in a modern sense, through crowdfunding), by forming religious or regional groups, accumulating their resources and sending a representative to go through the pilgrimage on behalf of the whole member of the group (Vaporis, 1994). As the pilgrimage is made enabled through the cumulative effort of the members, it is important for the representative to bring home gifts as

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a token of appreciation, and as a symbol that the family and friends are always in the thought of the traveler. These gifts, known as miyage, are believed to be not only a way of repaying the favor, but also as a proof that the traveler had made it to the destination, and concluded their journey, and therefore, a miyage should represent the destination culturally and symbolically. (Graburn, 1983; Graburn, 1987). The pressure of bringing back gifts that convey, not only gratitude, but also the essence of the destination back home gave way to the development of a fundamental concept during the pilgrimage era: meibutsu. Literally translated as “famous things”, it can be interpreted as anything, be it cuisine, arts or architecture, that is special to a destination. The worth of a destination is measured by this meibutsu, if it doesn’t have anything famous, then it is a waste of time to visit the place (Vaporis, 1994; Graburn, 1987; Watkins, 2008). To be able to provide products that fulfil the requirements for miyage through meibutsu, destinations such as temple and shrines are offering souvenirs and local specialities, which later will grow into another important industry, generating additional income for the locals. An example of the souvenir, or kinen, is offered in the form of kinen-stampu or souvenir stamps, a form of calligraphy bearing the stamp and writing from a specific destination, which will serve as an evidence that the traveller had reached the destination. This custom can be seen even in moden-day Japan; tourists visiting shrines are collecting stamps in a book (Graburn, 1987; Vaporis C. N., 1995)

In the concept of meibutsu, food comes to play a significant role, as one of the ‘famous things’ that can be experienced in a destination, undoubtedly, is food. Meibutsu in food and its seasonal variations, which can come in the form of special type of food cooked and processed using traditional knowledge, or exclusive ingredients available only in the area, are the pull factors that influence food tourism in Japan (Tussyadiah, 2006; Kim & Iwashita, 2016). One of the example of meibutsu in Japanese Food Tourism is Ekiben. Ekiben, a short term for ekibento or station boxed lunch, is a common sightings in every railway stations in Japan.

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Originally sold in a simple form of onigiri for travellers who need a quick meal, ekiben evolved to become not only a functional product but also a way for the travellers to understand more about the destination they are visiting. Ekiben offers a glimpse to the meibutsu of the destination: seasonal ingredients that are only sold in a limited time (tako-meshi or octopus rice, can only be purchased in the season of octopus), unique regional dishes (ayu sushi or river trour sushi that is sold in Shizuoka Station), and distinctive presentation (fugu or blowfish-shaped container for fukumeshi in Shimonoseki Station) (Noguchi, 1994; Matsumoto, 2000; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2019).

The trend of experiencing meibutsu in the form of culinary adventure as a ‘things to do’ in a destination are being answered by tour operators and travel agencies all over Japan. They are offering food-themed travel packages, gurume tabi or gourmet trip, which is usually a combination of two or more of these options: overnight stay, onsen bath, spa option, sightseeing or travel, and of course, dining (Kim, 2015; Kim & Iwashita, 2016). Not only travel agencies and tour operators, other companies such as Japan Post and Japan Railway, and also accomodation providers such as ryokan and hotels are also offering similar packages. On the other hand, previous studies showed that Japanese Cuisine remains favoured over other type of cuisine, such as Chinese Cuisine or Western Cuisine in Japan, which demonstrate the desire of the traveller to experience the authenticity of the destination, in local and unique food culture that portray their vast culture (Ashkenazi & Jacob, 2000; Tussyadiah, 2006).

2.2 Japanese Cuisine

There are various terms that can be used to describe Japanese Cuisine. The complexity of Japanese Culture, including food, is suggested in the use of several terms, such as ‘kuminkushoku’ or ‘national people’s cuisine’, ‘washoku’ or ‘traditional dietary cultures of the

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Japanese’, ‘nihon ryori’ or ‘Japanese cooking’, ‘shokuiku’ or ‘nurturing health through eating’ and ‘yakuzen’ or ‘medicinal herbs food’ (Rath, 2016)

2.2.1 Shokuiku

Even though Japan is considered one of the healthiest countries in the world, there are several health problems related to the change of dietary intake and eating habits, namely the increasing cases of obesity, especially due to the rise of “western” dietary habits. Shokuiku is a healthy eating campaign initially started by Hattori Yukio, a chef well known in the early 1990s (Takeda H. , 2008). Shokuiku, with nurturing through eating as its literal translation, attempts to spread the knowledge on food ingredients and cooking skill, including knowledge on traditional Japanese recipe. Registered as a Basic Law in 2005, Shokuiku is considered as the government’s attempt to tackle the increasing health problem caused by dietary habits, and at the same time, proposing a solution on the increasing dependency on imported goods (Miyoshi, Nishi, & Tsuboyama-Kasaoka, 2012).

The Shokuiku campaign put a noticeable emphasis on the rice-based diets as ‘Japanese Element’ of Japanese food, as seen in most of the PR document promoting this campaign. Rice-based diets is presented as healthy and well-balance meals, as a main source of carbohydrate and energy, and often accompanied with elements of contemporary Japanese image, such as chopsticks and earthen ceramic bowl. This image is also often presented together with modern and globalized Japanese food, and also with foreign influenced-dishes, such as meals that use foreign ingredients and spices (Assmann, 2015)

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Some of the sample texts can be seen below:

“A meal with boiled rice to prevent lifestyle‐related diseases. A meal with boiled rice for easy dieting.

Chew rice firmly, so you are always active.

Regardless of age, a meal with boiled rice to maintain your health.

A meal with boiled rice to support local food production and ‘slow food’. Boiled rice is the best breakfast.

Having boiled rice, your stomach remains in good condition.

(‘Menus with Boiled Rice for age 40 and above’, published by JA Zen‐Noh, as cited by Takeda H., 2008)”

Japanese dishes are given more emphasis to be incorporated into everyday life of Japanese people, including in the school meal for children. School meal was introduced as a part of concept of improving health through good nutrition in the early 20th centuries and is a part of nationwide subsidized program of Japan’s Ministry of Education (Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012; Asakura & Sasaki, 2017). In the postwar period, Japan suffered from poor rice harvest, and other stable source of carbohydrates other than rice is needed. International Wheat Agreement allowed Japan to purchase wheat at a stable price for an extended period of time, and bread and milk is introduced to the school meal nationwide as an alternative carbohydrate source (NIER, 2013). Following the Shokuiku campaign, schools throughout the country start to organize a more ‘Japanese’ style of meals, with rice as the primary source of carbohydrate, and several side dishes including fish/meat, vegetables, soup, seaweed and pickles (Takeda, Banwell, & Dixon, 2016).

Shokuiku plays a role in reintroducing ‘Japanese food’ to Japan, and it also aims to promote and educate the people, mainly school children, on food knowledge and cooking

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skill (Kimura, 2011). Many schools organize various cooking classes and incorporate them into the curriculum after the basic law of Shokuiku is passed. Not only focusing on food and how to process them, agricultural knowledge and experience, and knowledge on local dishes and products is also introduced by school teachers (Yotova, 2016). As Shokuiku positions healthy eating as something that should be done every day to achieve a healthy living, other aspects of healthy living are also introduced alongside the food knowledge (Assmann, Culinary Politics in Japan: The Shokuiku Campaign, 2017). For example, in Kamakura, seminars and workshops on shojin ryori, or vegetarian food is organized by the local education committee, to give knowledge to the school children and their parents on other Japanese dishes that is influenced by Zen Buddhism, and also on how to practice Zen meditation (Takeda H. , 2008).

Despite the well-meaning intention of the Shokuiku campaign to promote healthy living through healthy eating, there are indications that the campaign may be considered as an attempt to disseminate a specific well-known stereotype of Japan. Japan is well known for its Historical Tradition and the natural four-season, and Shokuiku campaign is perceived as an attempt to enforce this image to create a living tradition in the current generation of Japanese. Shokuiku promotes healthy lifestyle as something that an individual should practice every single day, and the implementation of Shokuiku in educational organization and daily life will create a natural image of ‘Japanese’ stereotype (Mah, 2010; Assmann, 2017)

2.2.2 Washoku

Washoku is registered as the Intangible Cultural Heritage of the UNESCO in 2013 and is now known as the typical and ideal Japanese diet (Cwiertka, 2015). Ichiju-sansai is the style used to describe the characteristic of washoku, which composed of gohan

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(rice), shirumono (soup), shyusai (main dish) and two fukusai (additional dishes). Usually, a typical washoku dish will consist of rice, miso soup, fish dish, green and yellow vegetable dish, and pork or beef dish, with pickle and seaweed as side dishes and served with green tea. The combination of small portion, various ingredients and dishes and typical Japanese utensils used, chopstick and earthen ceramic bowl, are the factors that contributes to the notion of Washoku as healthy diet (Andoh, 2005; Dohrmann, et al., 2018; Gabriel, Ninomiya, & Uneyama, 2018)

According to Michael Ashkenazi and Jeanne Jacob (2003), Washoku and any type of Japanese food typically will use three staple ingredients of Japanese Food, which are Rice, Fermented Soybean Paste (miso) and fish product as a base for soup stock (dashi or katsuobushi).

Rice in Japan is considered one of the most common sources of carbohydrates, although in some region of Japan, other source of carbohydrates such like potato, sweet potato and yam are used as the main ingredients to provide calories. Carbohydrates is needed to produce energy for daily activities and is the largest portion of the calorie intake in the Japanese Diet. By eating carbohydrate regularly, the fiber in rice and other ingredients will help with digestion, and will keep the blood sugar level in check, helps to feel full and reduce appetite in the long run. In most Japanese dishes, Rice is typically steamed boiled and served on its own without any seasoning or flavoring. Other popular dish in Japan that’s derivates from rice is the glutinous cake, or mochi. Mochi is used for rituals and other cultural customs, found mostly during new year or during festivals, typically served as sweet snack usually enjoyed together with green tea, although some savory type of mochi can also be found throughout Japan. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 1995; Ashkenazi & Jacob, 2000; Cwiertka, 2006; Yoshiike , Hayashi, Takemi, Mizoguchi, & Seino, 2007)

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Miso, or fermented soybean is a food base that is versatile and can be used in a wide range of dishes. Miso soup is typically served with any meal throughout the day, but miso’s use in not limited only to soup, but can also be used as base for pickles and other fermented food. There are a lot of varieties for miso, as they exist in a lot or color and taste, sweet, sour and savory, from darker varieties like black or brown miso to lighter red and creamy yellow ones. As a product of soybean, miso contains a lot of dietary fiber, vitamins and mineral salts, with high antioxidant content and inflammatory activities. Soybean and its derivatives can also help with weight loss, improve blood pressure, reduce the risk of osteoporosis and also helps with the cardio vascular system (Kobayashi & Sugawara, 1999; Mullin, 2005)

Katsuobushi is a necessary ingredient in any Japanese dishes. It is the base and the main flavoring for a lot of Japanese dishes, and one of the main ingredients to produce the Umami flavor. Katsuobushi is made from bonito, a small variety of tuna, by boiling, drying and smoking it, losing 50% of its moisture and weight and creating a large log of dried bonito. This log will later be shaved and boiled with water to create dashi, or the base stock for many Japanese dishes. Umami flavoring created from katsuobushi is considered one of the contributing factors of health in Japanese diets, as the umami flavor increase palatability and satiety, and prevent over-eating (Ashkenazi & Jacob, 2003; Hosking, 2015)

2.2.3 Yakuzen

The use of medicinal plant in Japan is heavily influenced by Chinese medicine, and there are two notable periods in which the impact is the strongest, the first one is from Nara to the middle of Heian period (600-833 AD) and the second one is from the middle of Ashikaga to the beginning of Tokugawa period, between the year 1404 to year 1639

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AD (Saito, 1999). Cultural and knowledge exchange through envoys that were sent to the Sui dynasty (589-618 AD) and Tang dynasty (618-907 AD) of China happen throughout the first period. In the in 553 AD, Emperor Kinmei sent scholars in medical study, history and astrology to Korea as a part of knowledge exchange. Two Korean scholars, Hanryobu and Choda came to Japan, through Kyushu area, around this time as well and known as the first formal specialist of medicinal herbs who came to Japan. There was also a man named Chiso, a Go-person who was naturalized in 563 AD and gave about 164 volumes on Chinese medicine books that was said as the first medicine related book from overseas in Japan. In 703 AD, after the administrative reorganization called the Taiho Code (大宝律令 Taihō-ritsuryō), Japanese medicine and Chinese medicine in Japan started to be systemized. On the ancient reports of provincial culture (播磨国風土 記 Harima no Kuni Fudoki and 出雲国風土記 Izumo no Kuni Fudoki ) various kinds of medicinal herbs and their use are being introduced (Sekimizu, 2010)

During the second period, the known oldest book on botany was written by Manase Dosan 曲直瀬道三 (1507-1594), called the Gikin Honzo, and focused on food. This book specified which ingredients are permitted and prohibited in food, and explained about the vegetables, fruits, grains, and the combination with meats and fishes, and their use for medication and treatment. After Tokugawa Ieyasu 徳川家康 (1543-1616) won the Sekigahara war in 1600, the region became stable in the Edo era. As economic condition became stable, the needs of health treatment rises, and research center on Chinese medical study called Kohoigaku was established, which later create medical system for diagnosis and treatment prescription, and also produced about 220 methods and medicines that is widely used across the country (Saito H. , 2000).

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Yakuzen, loosely translated as ‘medicinal herbs food’, is a concept that promotes the use of medicinal plant or herbs in food. Yakuzen comes from the idea that the plant-based source of medicine and food can’t be differentiated clearly, and both should be dealt with similarly. Using the concept of Yakuzen in everyday food is expected to promote disease prevention and improve overall body health. The concept of Yakuzen originated from the ancient Chinese concept of balance, the yin and yang (positive and negative) of the body, how food should change to fulfill the body’s needs according to the seasons, and that meals cooked with Yakuzen concept should cater to individual’s personal needs. There are four types of dishes that can be included as Yakuzen, which are

食用(shokuyo), 食養 (shokuyo), 食療(shokuryo) and Yakuzen itself. The first one, 食用

(shokuyo) refers to regular, edible dishes. The second 食養 (shokuyo) refers to the dishes that is created to maintain health as opposed to heal, and with the main purpose of giving more nutrition to the body, such as for diet, skincare and anti-aging properties. The third one 食 療 (shokuryo) refers to the dishes that is used to recover health, assist in recuperation, and for those who are in delicate health. Yakuzen refers to the dishes that specifically use herbal medicine, with the purpose of curing disease, and for prevention and maintenance of overall health (Sento, 2011)

2.3 Food and Medicine

Japanese people have long credit the balanced and nutritional eating from typical Japanese dish or Washoku as the reason for their health and longevity. Washoku is claimed to have low glycemic load, healthy fat profile, low calorie intake and moderate protein intake, and the combined action of all these can reduce aging (high in antioxidant) and inflammation. Together with the fact that Japan has good sanitation, active lifestyle and healthcare all over

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the country, these Japanese diet promotes healthy aging and longevity (Caprara, 2018; Tomata, et al., 2019)

Food and medicine are being taught in the formal education system as two widely different subjects, but Pieroni and Price (2006) argued that as the ingredients of both food and medicine may come from the same sources, it can be difficult to make a distinction between the two. There are instances in our life that food is being given, not only as a means of nourishment, but also as a source of comfort, and is believed to play a part in healing and recuperation. (Menrad, 2003; Pieroni & Price, 2006). Dishes that are made with ingredients that are nutrient-rich, that satisfy hunger and provide needed nutrients, while also deliver positive impact on health and prevent nutrient-related disease can be defined as functional food (Farr, 1997; Hardy, 2000; Menrad, 2003; Abdel-Salam, 2010).

Functional Food is a concept originally promoted in Japan, as a conclusion of 86 research programs on food functions done from the early 1980s to early 1990s responding to the problem of aging population in Japan, with the objective of keeping the aging population healthy as long as possible (Roberfroid, 2000). From the conclusion of these research, Japanese Minister of Health and Welfare develop regulation that separates drugs with functional foods, and in 1991 issued rules for food label on healthy food category called FOSHU (Food for Specified Health Uses). FOSHU can be defined as:

“foods that are composed of functional ingredients that affect the structure/function of the body. These foods are used to maintain or regulate specific health conditions, such as gastro-intestinal conditions, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol level. (Nakajima, 2002, as cited in Bailey, 2005, p. 251).

To be able to use FOSHU label, any food product should fulfil three requirements: clinical testing and scientific evidence on health-related claims, proof of history for food safety for consumption, and establishment of effective components in the ingredients. (Roberfroid,

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2000; Shimizu, 2002; Bailey, 2005; Burdock, Carabin, & Griffiths, 2006; Siró, Kápolna, Kápolna, & Lugasi, 2008)

Medicine and its uses in tourism falls into the category of Medical Tourism, as Medical Tourism can be defined as travelling with the motivation to get medical care and services, including surgical, dental and curative treatments, with and without the combination with visitation to tourism attraction for leisure (Connell, 2006; Turner, 2007; Balaban & Marano, 2010). On the other hand, medicine and medical tourism is also considered as a part of Health and Wellness Tourism, for there are five part that constitutes health tourism: leisure, health activities, health as motivation, wellness activities and medical treatment (Goeldner, 1989; Hall C. M., 2013). As it is argued that there is no clear distinction between the source for medicine and food (Pieroni & Price, 2006), to use food ingredients with medicinal properties to create food related product for tourism can be also considered as a part of both Food Tourism and Health and Wellness Tourism.

2.4 Medicinal Plant and Tourism

Reliance on nature for basic life necessities, including food, clothing, shelter, many other basic materials for productivity and medicine has been practiced by human throughout the ages. Herbal Medicine, or plant-based medicine in still considered as one of the most reliable form of medicine for the vast majority of people, and is once again gaining popularity as alternative medicine due to the increasing cost of prescription drug (Hoareau & DaSilva, 1999; Gurib-Fakim, 2006). The use of medicinal plant does not account only for everyday life use, but also in the event of emergency. In the event of disaster, when access to food and medicine is limited due to various reasons while the needs of it is high due to injuries, the knowledge of medicinal plant becomes important. As mentioned in several literature, the existence of medicinal plant is important in the more remote area of civilization, where in the time of disaster, might be

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hard to access due to limited infrastructure and resources. Stomach related problems such as diarrhea, cholera and dysentery commonly arise during natural disaster due to unhygienic condition. Limited supply of medicine may not be enough to cure the ailments but having knowledge on which plants can be made into remedies can help alleviate the symptoms and become emergency treatment to ensure survivability until the supply can be normalized. (Leonardo & Zambrano, 2009; Lodhi & Mikulecky, 2011; Iloka, 2016)

In Japan, the co-existence of human and nature evolve to the development of socio-economic landscape, commonly known as Satoyama and Satoumi. Satoyama can be defined as a landscape in which secondary forests, ponds and grasslands, together with cultivated lands and residential areas are being managed and conserved by the local community (Morimoto, Kondo, & Miyauchi, 2009; Chen & Qiu, 2012). The same concept applies also to a sustainable management of various coastal areas, including river, wetlands, coast and sea that is interlinked with farmlands and residential areas, which can be referred to as Satoumi (Duraiappah, 2012; Indrawan, Yabe, Nomura, & Harrison, 2014; Chakraborty & Gasparatos, 2019). In these landscapes, important biodiversity is carefully managed by promoting sustainable use through cultivation, harvesting and consuming edible wild plants, including medicinal plants, creating a balanced relationship between human and nature. Cultural and system knowledge needed to sustainably manage these landscapes are being referred to as traditional knowledge, and regeneration in which these knowledges will be passed down is important to ensure the continuity of these landscapes. (Cetinkaya, 2009; Takeuchi, 2010; Dublin & Tanaka, 2014).

In tourism, medicinal plants are more commonly known as the part of health and wellness tourism. People travel to all over the world, to find alternative remedy for various ailments, seeking not only to cure sickness, but also to rejuvenate their souls (Nolan & Schneider, 2011). The knowledge needed to be able to process medicinal are deeply rooted in the community and the culture. Herbs, medicinal and aromatic plants are considered to have the potential to create

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opportunities in tourism development (Kala, 2015), as several studies have highlighted, for example, using community-based education center for tourism attraction as sustainable development planning in Thailand (Butthongdee, 2015). Herbal related activities, such as herbal remedies consumption, planting and developing herbal gardens in India, is noted to provide not only health benefits for tourists who are looking for treatments, but also enhancement in economic benefits through the creation of job opportunities, nutritional development and community effort in the conservation of biodiversity and ecology of the region (Deka, Borgohain, & Bharali, 2015). Furthermore, medicinal plant- based tourism can also be seen as an integrated tourism form, as mentioned by Farsani, Zeinali and Moaiednia (2018), explaining that in for tourism development, medicinal plant is very versatile, and can be used in many form of tourism, including, but not limited to educational tourism, gastronomy or food tourism, medical tourism, heritage and agriculture tourism, ecotourism and adventure tourism.

2.5 Beppu as Health and Wellness Tourism Destination

In modern time, taking a bath is considered as a mundane and ordinary activity, done every day with the purpose of maintaining hygiene and disease prevention. But the resources to take a bath are not always readily available, and the early civilizations, including the Greeks, Persians and the Hebrews are employing different resources in their distinct bathing culture (Smith & Puczkó, 2009). Japan is blessed with abundant active volcanoes, and therefore, with numerous hot springs. The existence of this natural resources is being utilized by the people of Japan, creating a bathing culture called touji, in which water from an onsen, or a hot spring is used as medical treatment for muscular pain and injuries, to accelerate recovery, and for rejuvenation (Serbulea & Payyappallimana, 2012). Corresponding with the origin of Food Tourism in Japan, as mentioned in the earlier sub-chapter, pilgrimage to religious sites unfolds

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the development of onsen tourism. While visiting the religious sites, bathing in local onsen are encouraged, as a part of purification ritual, also as a way for the travelers to relax and enjoy the local specialties, or meibutsu. As tourism evolved to be more recreational than religious, onsen as a destination evolved to create more holistic experiences: changing from bath-only establishments, to larger-scale resorts, offering not only bathing services, but also other services like massage and beauty treatments, food and market (Mansfield, 2001).

Beppu City, located on Kyushu Island’s east coast, in Oita Prefecture, is one of the most well-known destination for onsen tourism. This small city is blessed with more than 2000 hot springs, divided into 8 different groups on the seaside and mountainside area: Kamegawa, Beppu, Hamawaki, Shibaseki, Myoban, Kannawa, Horita and Kankaiji Onsen, offering numerous traditional and modern bathhouses and natural hot springs throughout the city (Han & Yotsumoto, 2010). Not only famous in modern time, the fame of Beppu as hot springs resort area was recorded as far back to the eighth century, as former Emperors visited Beppu for yu no hana, a type of bath salt containing sulfur. In Meiji and Showa era, Beppu is claimed to be the largest hot spring resort in Japan. (Malcolm & Erfurt-Cooper, 2009; Tsukamoto, 2016). The utilization of hot springs for recreational and therapeutic measures makes Beppu as one of the most famous sites for Health and Wellness Tourism. The existence of resort-type establishments and their surrounding businesses provides a holistic experience for the travelers, not only for healing through bathing, but also other recreational activities, including destinations such as Beppu Hells, authentic cultural experience such as onsen matsuri and also unique food experience such as Jigoku-mushi (food cooked in onsen).

2.6 Summary and Research Gap

The food culture in Japan contributes to the health enjoyed by its citizens, showing the connection between health and food culture. Medicine is originally viewed as a part of Health

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and Wellness Tourism and is separated from food, but the literature about yakuzen showed that medicine can be incorporated into food, using ingredients that has medicinal properties. Despite the abundance of existing literature on the use of medicinal plants, there are few literatures that explores the possibility of using medicinal plants for food tourism. This study aims to explore such possibility. The existence of food culture, and the characteristic of Japanese food tourism market contributes to the possibility of using medicinal plants for food tourism as tourism promotion.

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Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Research Strategy

This study utilized mainly qualitative methods for data collection and analysis. It starts

with interviews and scholarship to collect data with experts in the field who have devoted substantial time and effort in gathering information on special plants as the main subject of the research. The focused interview led the researcher to look for relevant literature about medicinal plant and its associated knowledge in Japan with a keyword (Yakuzen) and how this knowledge is developed as well as its applications in food culture and tourism. The review of literature determined the lack of literature on tourism applications medicinal plants in Yakuzen literature itself and among who are using such plants in their business such as restaurants and other parts of food tourism industry.

The literature review has brought insight for data collection which is mainly conducted and focused in Oita prefecture where the researcher could find access to a unique source of data through scholarship. Data collection methods for this research includes expert meeting and focused group interview and direct and participant observation. The author has attended several events relevant for medicinal food processing and certification groups and related activities before starting data collection with the industry such as restaurant owners and staff.

3.2 Data Collection

This research utilized interviews and direct observation as main methods for primary data, it also looks at the existing literatures to find the most relevant area which backs up the primary data

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and in order to emphasis on tourism applications of medicinal plants in Japan in general and in Oita prefecture.

3.2.1 Interview

The interviews were conducted in order to gain empirical data to answer the research questions and fulfil the research objectives.

1. Research Question 1: How is diversity, seasonality, geographical location of medicinal plant is utilized in tourism promotion in Japan?

In order to answer this research question, expert interview is conducted. Expert interview, in essence, is doing an interview with any individual that is considered by the researched to possess a knowledge, that it not unique to himself or herself, but may not be available to other individuals working on the same field with the specific circumstances (Meuser & Nagel, 2009). The aim of expert interview is to serve as an exploratory means, that the expert interview will equip the research with a starting point, or an initial foundation, upon which hypothesis or structure of the study area may be generated (Bogner & Menz, 2009). To fulfil the conditions mentioned above, this expert interview was conducted with a researcher that has been doing a research about medicine and medicinal plant in Oita Prefecture for more than 30 years. The result of this interview, which will be explained more in the next chapter, determined more than 200 edible medicinal plant species that are available in Oita Prefecture. From this sum of determined species, the expert then proceeded to recommend 40 most popular edible medicinal plant that are considered most likely to be found in restaurants and souvenir shops. The recommendation was made according to these considerations: (1) that the plants is readily available, (2) that the plant is commonly used in Japanese household, (3) that the plants are considered versatile in terms of

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2. Research Question 2: How is the uniqueness, availability and health and nutrition facts of medicinal plant is utilized in tourism promotion in Japan?

In order to answer this research questions, a survey based on the result of the expert interview is created. The survey contains the list of recommended edible medicinal plant, which then was used to determine how medicinal plant is being utilized in Oita Prefecture. Semi-structured interview, which give more flexibility, as the interviewer can do follow up questions based on the interviewee answers, in order to obtain more descriptions from the perspective of the interviewee (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015; Brinkmann, 2018). The semi-structured interview is done together with the survey, with a sum of 27 souvenir shops and restaurant owners that were willing to participate in the research.

3. Research Question 3: How are the local communities is affecting the use of medicinal plant in tourism promotion in Japan?

In order to answer this research question, an in-depth interview with business owners that utilize medicinal herb in their business is conducted, in order to gain a better understanding on how medicinal plant can be utilized in a business, and also to understand how the local communities are involved in the use of medicinal plant in food tourism. Furthermore, participatory observation in exchange activities with local communities and educational institutions will also give a closer look on the perspective of promoting tourism using medicinal plant.

3.2.2 Observation

One of the methods that are employed in this research is through observation. Visual observations can be defined as data that are collected through visual means, and are being described as such to accompany the primary subject of the research with the occurrence

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surrounding the subject (Margolis & Zunjarwad, 2018). Visual observations, supported by the evidence in the form of photographs, are giving this study a deeper understanding of the subject, and giving the reader a chance to understand more through the accompaniment of a picture. The visual observation is done in every site where the interview is conducted, in the restaurants, souvenir shops, and the site of the business that utilize medicinal plant as their main attraction. The other type of observation method that is employed is participatory observation, which was done as the author participated in classes and workshops related to medicinal plants conducted by the experts, and in several scholarly and exchange activities with high school students from Yufu City and Kunisaki City.

3.3 Research Sites

Holistic perspective of wellness opens the possibility of approaching health, not only through medical treatments, but also through food and drinks. Preliminary observational study and literature review shows that Japan, and especially Oita Prefecture is rich with resources in medicinal plants, not only in natural resources, but also in heritage and cultural resources. Beppu city is being chosen as the research sites, as it is one of the most famous Health and Wellness tourism destination in Japan. In Beppu city, the experience offered in resorts is not only about bathing, onsen, and medical treatment, but also about food. This study will explore the situational analysis and the possibility of medicinal plant utilization, with the aim of presenting suggestion on how medicinal plant can be further utilized in Beppu City, as a tool for tourism promotion and development.

Tomiku Chaya and Oga Farm were being chosen as relevant case studies mainly because both establishments are utilizing medicinal plant to create products that are relevant to food tourism. However, the way medicinal plants are being utilized is different in both

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establishments, therefore, using two different cases can give different examples on how medicinal plant can be utilized for food tourism.

One of the aspects of tourism development is not only about recreation or economic development, but also about education. As the author is a member of an educational institute, this study also includes the observation made during various exchange activities with other academic institutions, such as Yufu City High School, and Kunisaki High School. The purpose of these exchange activities, especially related to medicinal plants, is to give a broader perspective on what roles community plays in tourism promotion. Participating in these activities gives the author a chance to see the perspective of the community towards tourism, and to witness how collaboration between institutions can contributes towards developing the potential of tourism in Beppu City.

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Chapter 4

Findings and Analysis

This chapter discuss the findings of the research which are conducted in several areas including medicinal plants in general and tourism applications of such plants, such as food tourism, health tourism and opportunities for involving local community in possible benefits from medicinal plant tourism.

4.1 The Medicinal Plants of Oita Prefecture

Oita Prefecture is rich in terms of biodiversity associated with edible and medicinal plants. There are various types of such species exists around the prefecture that attracted scholars to research them. The plans are geographically located all over the prefecture especially in mountains and coastal areas of Kunisaki Peninsula that are called Satoyama and Satoumi in Japanese and represents the rich natural resources of Oita. Satoyama and Satoumi are defined as a product of human and ecology interaction, resulting in ecosystem, land management and landscapes. Satoyama refers to the terrestrial or mountain ecosystem, while Satoumi refers to the aquatic, or coastal ecosystem (Saito & Hideaki, 2013)

This research looks at the existing researches and literature on natural resources of Oita in general and in particular, utilizing interview with one of the most influential scholars in the field who determined a sum of 200 various species of such edible plants in Oita prefecture. For this purpose, Dr. Tadanori Yano, founder and CEO of Medicine Study Group NPO (おくすり 研究会) is interviewed and the results of his research is explored by this research in order to find the relevance of medicinal plants in tourism promotion in a community-based approach.

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especially in the use of medicine for self-medication. One of the researches that Dr. Yano are actively engaged at is related to the identification and use of edible medicinal plants that are available in Oita Prefecture.

Through expert interview, it is revealed that together with Oita Prefectural Office, Dr. Tadanori Yano has been conducting series of lectures and workshops in the cities all over the Oita Prefecture, including Kitsuki, Oita and Fukuoka. These workshops are aiming to impart the knowledge on how to identify, cultivate and utilize medicinal plants, especially in the form of food and dishes. This workshop is part of the initiative as a part of natural disaster prevention, following the 2015 Kumamoto Earthquake. In the event of Kumamoto Earthquake, when the roads were closed and the supply of food was obstructed, the people, especially those who are far from the main roads, were relying on the abundance of the nearby forest. Local communities foraged the forests and coasts to find edible plants. These natural resources gave them temporary relief and supplies that ensure their survival when their supply of food is not adequate, and there is limited way to secure more food supply. But there are also cases and possibilities of poisoning from the inability to identify and to process edible plants that are available in the vicinity. In order to prevent poisoning and to provide knowledge required in the event of limited food supply due to natural disasters, the medicinal plant workshop was created. The medicinal plant workshops, in essence, have two goals in mind: (1) to offer an alternative healthy lifestyle by utilizing the edible medicinal plant in everyday life and (2) to make sure that in the event of natural disaster, food supply can be secured to increase the chance of survival.

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Figure 1. Medicinal Herb Class Poster for Fukuoka City

Source: Dr. Tadanori Yano (2019)

The author had a chance to attend one of the classes held by Dr. Tadanori Yano. The class was held in one of the community centers in Beppu City, near Shoningahama Park. At this event, the author had a chance to interact with the students attending the classes, which are mostly housewives and grandmas. When asked about their reason to join this class, they claimed that they want to have a better life and healthier life, because they feel that they can prevent disease by eating medicinal plants. While most of the participants’ goal is to have a better life, there are also individuals who are really interested in medicinal plants and is joining the class to be able to get certification on medicinal plant knowledge. They want to be able to teach about medicinal plant after they finish the course, making them valuable human resources.

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Figure 2. Medicinal Herb Cooking Class Situation

Source: Dr. Tadanori Yano (2018)

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Figure 4. Food being taught in Medicinal Herb Class

Source: Author

The expert interview also gave the author insights about more than 200 medicinal and edible species that can be found and are accessible to be harvested throughout the year and in all four seasons. Figure 5 and Figure 6 shows all the species, divided by where they can be found (in coastal or mountain area) and the season they can be harvested in. Out of these species, 40 species of edible medicinal plants are then recommended through these considerations: (1) availability, (2) awareness, (3) versatility. Divided by the seasons they can be harvested in, the biggest number, around one-third of the species are available throughout the year, and then around one-fifth are available only in spring, and followed by summer and autumn, and the least number of species are available only in winter.

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Figure 5. Medicinal Plant Available in Coastal Area

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Figure 6. Medicinal Plant Available in Mountain Area

Source: Author

Based on the food they can be made of, most of these edible medicinal plants are commonly consumed brewed into tea and hot drinks, but they can also be made into alcoholic drinks, appetizer, dessert and sweet dishes, main courses and rice dishes. Divided by these food categories, about one third of these edible medicinal plants can be made into main courses (tempura, fried and simmered dishes, soba and noodle), another one-third are commonly used

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in dessert and sweet dishes (jam, bread, rice cakes, pudding, mochi and dango), about a fourth are mostly known as drink (tea and juice), and the rest are divided between those that can be made into appetizers (salad, soup, chawanmushi), rice dishes (onigiri, added to rice as furikake) and alcoholic drinks.

The expert interview with Dr. Tadanori Yano yielded a result that showed the vast diversity and seasonality of the medicinal plant that are available in Oita Prefecture, both in the mountainside area (Satoyama) and the coastal side area (Satoumi). Out of more than 200 edible species available, 40 species are considered the most famous, using the mentioned considerations. The interview also revealed how medicinal plant can be utilized not only as a source of raw materials that can be used to create tourism product, but also as food reserves in the event of natural disaster. The collaboration of the expert with the government yields a supply of trained human resources, which is identified as one of the strengths in the application of medicinal plant for food tourism and tourism promotion in Oita Prefecture.

4.2 Medicinal Plants in Food Tourism

Research result showed that even though there are more than 200 species of edible medicinal plants available in Oita Prefecture, from the 40 species of edible medicinal plants that are considered as the most famous and are mentioned in the survey, only half of them are being used in the souvenir shops and restaurants, with the most commonly used is Ginger (シ ョウガ - Shoga), followed by Burdock (ゴボウ - Gobou), Beefsteak Plant (シソ - Shiso) and Round Turnip (カブ - Kabu). Orange (ミカン - Mikan), Parsley (ミツバ - Mitsuba) and Apricot (あんず - Anzu) are also used in souvenir shops and restaurant, but the number of establishments that are using these species are less than those mentioned above.

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The following group of edible medicinal plants: Common Fig (いちじく- Ichijiku), Maidenhair Tree or Ginkgo (イチョウ - Ichou), Persimmon (カキ - Kaki), Kumquat (キンカ ン - Kinkan), Kudzu (クズ - Kuzu), Japanese Parsley (セリ- Seri), Asian Royal Fern (ゼンマ イ - Zenmai), Butterbur (フキ - Fuki), Japanese Mugwort (ヨモギ - Yomogi), Pearl Barley (ハ トムギ - Hatomugi), Strawberry Geranium (ユキノシタ- Yukinoshita) and Loquat (ビワ - Biwa) are listed in the survey, but only a small number of establishments carry them as a product. The souvenir shops and restaurants are also using other edible plants considered as medicinal, not included in the list of 40 edible medicinal plants, but are listed in the 200 medicinal plants available in Oita Prefecture, such as Carrot (ニンジン - Ninjin), Radish (ダ イコン - Daikon), Eggplants (ナス - Nasu), Cabbage (キャベツ - Kyabetsu), Japanese Cucumber (キュリ - Kyuri) and Squash (カボチャ - Kabocha). The other commonly used edible medicinal plant is Yuzu (ユズ), being one of the specialties in Beppu and Oita city, this type of orange is incorporated into various souvenir products, such as jelly, drink and candies, and even non-food product such as bath salt, candle and soap.

Ginger are being used differently in restaurant and in souvenir shops. In restaurants, ginger is mainly used as spice, or as pickles (in sushi restaurants) but in souvenir shops, ginger can be found incorporated into various products. Other than as spices and pickles, which are also available in ready-to-use forms (instant powders and bottled pickles), ginger is also made into candies and herbal drinks, and being sold fresh and dried. Burdock is used quite similarly in both souvenir shops and restaurants, commonly made into a simmered dish called きんぴ ら (kinpira) in restaurants, and available in ready-to-eat version in the souvenir shops. Round Turnip is typically made into pickles in the restaurants, and the same pickle (in ready-to-eat version) can be also found in the souvenir shops. Both Burdock and Round Turnip, as well as

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several other edible medicinal plants, such as Carrot, Radish, Eggplants, Cabbage, Japanese Cucumber and Squash, are available in several souvenir shops, processed and packaged together as ready-to-eat boiled vegetables or pickled vegetables.

Orange, Common Fig, Apricot, Persimmon, Kumquat, Loquat, are usually served fresh in restaurants as dessert or as appetizer but can also be found in souvenir shops as processed products such as jam, juice and jelly, also as candies and bun/bread/biscuits filling. Ginkgo, Kudzu, Japanese Parsley, Parsley, Asian Royal Fern, Butterbur, Japanese Mugwort and Strawberry Geranium are not available in most souvenir shops, but are available in the restaurants, mostly served incorporated into dishes such as Steamed Egg Custard (ちゃわん むし- Chawanmushi) as spices or added into rice and onigiri as furikake, or as a standalone dish such as tempura, or sautéed or simmered dishes (kinpira). Pearl Barley is available in souvenir shops and served in restaurant as tea but can also be found in souvenir shops incorporated in face lotions as skincare and cosmetic.

The greatest number of edible medicinal plants being used in a restaurant is 15, and only two restaurants in Beppu do this. Both restaurants are Japanese restaurants serving typical Japanese set menu (commonly known as Washoku/Teshoku), usually composed of fish/meat dish as the main dish, a couple of side dishes, usually sautéed vegetables and/or miso soup, pickles, and rice. In these two restaurants, medicinal plants are being used in various ways, including as main course and pickles (using Burdock and Turnip), or as garnishes (using Beefsteak Plant), but mainly as spices (added to the dish as additional ingredients, such as Ginger, Ginkgo and Butterbur). They also serve the medicinal plants as dessert and appetizers (using Fresh Orange, Kumquat and Yuzu), and as tea (using Pearl Barley). The greatest number of edible medicinal plants being used in a souvenir shop is 9, and only one souvenir shop in Beppu has this number. The products found that are made from medicinal plants are mostly pickles and ready-to-eat boiled vegetables (using Burdock, Round Turnip, Carrot, Radish,

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Eggplant and Squash), incorporated into sweets such as cakes and cookies (using Apricot, Ginger, Orange, Yuzu and Loquat). Pearl Barley can also be found in this souvenir shop as tea, also as face lotion.

The research results in this section support the hypothesis presented, that the potential for medicinal plants being used in food tourism is not reached in Japan. Only half of the listed edible medicinal plants that are being utilized in the restaurants and souvenir shops. The utilization of these plants is also varied, divided in general into two categories: food products designed for dining-in and food products designed as souvenirs, which are identified as a strength in the application of medicinal plants for food tourism and tourism promotion in Oita prefecture.

4.3 Knowledge on Medicinal Plants and Restaurant Use

The research result showed that although most restaurant owners claimed to have little to no knowledge on edible medicinal plants, upon further questioning, the restaurant owners actually know and use few of these medicinal plants, such as ginger and shiso, as these ingredients are commonly used in Japanese dishes. The other familiar medicinal plants are Japanese Parsley (セリ- Seri) and Shepherd’s Purse (ナズナ – Nazuna) as these plants are being used in Seven-Herbs Porridge (七草粥 – Nanakusa Gayu), a Japanese tradition of eating seven herbs with porridge or rice at January 7th for health and longevity. The reason for the restaurant owners to claim that they have little to no knowledge on edible medicinal plants is because even though they are familiar with the ingredients (as these ingredients are being used in everyday cooking), they don’t know that these ingredients are considered as healthy and medicinal. There are a couple of restaurant owners who claimed that they have some knowledge on edible medicinal plants. One restaurant owner is interested in healthy lifestyle, and thus, he learns about edible medicinal plants, but mainly for his personal use, mostly

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