父子関係が日本人大学生の愛着 と 攻撃性に与え る影響
The ef fect of the father-child relationship on attachment and aggression
in Japanese college students
ASAKAWA Kiyoshi*
FUKUI Shiho**
KAJIWARA Yuki* **
MIKI Mariko** **
本研究で は、 第一の目的 と し て、 父親が子に接す る態度 (養育態度) に焦点 を当 て、 そ れが青年期の個人の特性で あ る Iw M に どのよ う に影響す るのかを検討す る。 ま た、 第二の日的 と し て青年期の攻撃性に着日 し 、 父親の養育態度によ り 、 攻撃性の内容が どのよ う に変化す るのか を大学生122名 を対象に検討 し た。 その結果、 父親 と 男児 の間に情緒的結 びつき が生 じ れば、 男子大学生は、 建設的攻撃性 を よ り 表出 し 、 安定 し た内的作業 モ デルを形成す る こ と がわか っ た。 こ れら の 結果は、 人格の発達心理学的観点から検討 さ れた。
Key words : father ' s atti tude, internal work ing model, aggression
Aim
A numbers of studies have revealed that parental inter- action with their children played a significant role in
child's growth. Especially, many studies on parent-child
relationship focused on mother-child interaction, in other words mother was regarded as the direct caretaker of their children for ling ages. For instance, Sugawara and Ito (2006) examined the relation between mother-parenting and sel f-esteem/ interpersonal anxiety in adolescent. The results showed that ejective or disciplined maternal parent- ing tended to promote sel f-esteem and interpersonal anxi- ety in adolescent. On the other hand, overprotective or expecting mother 's rearing tended to improve sel f-esteem, but less interpersonal anxiety in adolescence. From these findings, maternal rearing seemed to be linked the level of sel f-esteem and interpersonal anxiety in adolescence. Bowl by (1969, 1973) proposed attachment theory describing as a lasting psychological connectedness between human be- ings, and also suggested that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers had a tremendous impact
that continues throughout li fe. Thus, Bowl by (1973) de-
voted the
Concept of internal work ing models in relation to at- tachment style in which the child's image of the sel f as well as the image of other people played a central role. A insworth (1978) yielded three distinct patterns of attach- ment, namely secure attachment, anxious-resistant attach- ment (e.g., ambivalent behavior towards the caregiver), and avoidant attachment (e.g., avoiding proximity or inter-
action with the caregiver). Such as Bowl by or A insworth, the majority of attachment studies have focused on mothers, this is because mothers tend to establish a sense of security. Hazan&Shaver(1987) researched on adult attachment, which is the same motivational system that gives rise to the close emotional bond between parents and their children is responsible for the bond that develops between adults in emotionally intimate relationships. Nowadays, many researchers have focused on analysis of multimode1 attachment styles from infancy. So, IJzendoorn and M arianne (1997) pointed out that father did shape their attachment, but a lesser extent than mothers, and also father might compensate for their relative lack of influence throughout indirect channels, that is, by way of their im- pact on mother 's attachment and sensitivity.
Since 1970's many of researchers initiated researches on father 's absence with detailed report of maternal/parental interaction with their children, and these studies have con- sistently shown that fathers spend much less time with
their children than mothers do (Pleck 1987). Over the
past two years, levels of father 's involvement in their fam- ily have changed particularly in economical circumstance, maternal employment, therefore fathers have come to be recognized as important contributors to the social, emo- tional, and cognitive development of their children
(M arsiglio, Amato, Day, & Lamb, 2000) According to Lamb (1997), Paternal involvement in children's lives is
considered critical for promoting positive child outcomes
* Hyogo University of Teacher Education (Dept. of School Psychology) * * Toyonaka Educational Center * * * Hyogo prefectural consultation office for children and family
(see M arsiglio et al., 2000, for review). Findings have par-
ticularly emphasized the father-child relationship as an in-
fluence on child well-being (Lamb, 1997) Amore positive
father-child relationship has been found to contribute sig-
nificantly to the emotional and intellectual well-being of children (Lamb, 1997) and paternal warmth is positively
associated with indicators of subsequent well-being for adolescents, such as marital success and supportive social
networks (Franz, M cCle11and, & Weinberger, 1991).
Research on the father-child relationship among adoles- cents is slowly emerging, but much still needs to be learned to determine how the quality of the father-child relationship and fathers' parenting styles influence out-
comes for this age group (Lamb, 1997). Previous re-
search has found that paternal warmth is positively associated with indicators of subsequent well-being for adolescents, such as marital success and supportive social
networks (Franz, M cCle11and, & Weinberger, 1991).
So, firstly in this study we focused on the relationship be- tween father 's rearing behavior and attachment style, and cleared how father's rearing style effect on each attach- ment style.
The term aggression refers to a range of behaviors that
can intentionally result in both physical and psychological
harm to onesel f, other or objects in the environment.
(0buchi, 1993), and Hata (1998). Freud (1997) defined ag-
gression as a part of ego function to control one's sel f
feeling, and human basic drive. Adachi argued (2001) that
aggression may be regarded as helpful function for healthy sel f-assertiveness/sel f-esteem or assumed to lead to de- structive action or emotion. Therefore Adachi pointed out that aggression had two aspects. I f aggression is seen as ego function to maintain one's feeling or onesel f, the process in building up aggression would be based on the relationship among people such as parent-children. Bowlby
(1969) also said that energy for human living was induced
by a good experience or relationship between child-parent.
From this point of view, it could be said that child loam
the way of his/her emotional control following his/her par- ents as a model tak ing on the characteristics. So not only mother but also father supports their children to create emotion such as aggression. M orishita (2001) reported that i f father was a loving person and not a dominative one, boys in childhood tended to be considerable or kind per- son, and it would be good for girls to develop their sel f control. Persons (1955) pointed out that the important function of father was socialization and stabilization of children, and for that father become models of behaviors
in advance of actual exper ience or models of emotional control such as aggression.
So secondly, we focused on aggression in adolescence, and studies on how father 's rearing style effect on aggres- sion. In our study, aggression was classified into destruc- tive /constructive one.
M ethod
Par ticipants
122 students (50man, 72woman) were recruited from
two colleges in Hyogo prefecture in Japan. M ater ials and Pr ocedure
Father 's attitude toward their children was measured by
a Questionnaire developed by M iyashita (1991). This
measure consisted of 30 items (e.g. positive atti tude- negative atti tude, strict attitude-lenient atti tude), and all items were judged on 5-point scales (1= negative atti tude and 5= positive attitude). By the Questionnaire of Father 's rearing attitude, there were three factors led by factor analysis: father 's supportive/acceptive atti tude (Cronbach
alpha varied .93), father 's equal attitude (Cronbach's alpha= .86), and father's dominative attitude (Cronbach's alpha= .80). The overall Cronbach's alpha was .87.
Father 's supportive/accretive attitude had shown that fa- thers positively or affectionately involved in their childrearing. Father 's equal attitude reflected father 's im- partial, equal and coherent rearing style. Dominative childrearing style reflected belief in overprotection, obedi- ence, excessive control. Toda's questionnaire (1988) was used for the measurement of Students' IWM . This meas- ure consisted of 18 items comprising three types of attach- ment (secure, ambivalent, avoidance), and all items were
judged on 4 point scales (1= definitely false and
4= definitely true). Thus, the Toda's questionnaire of
IWM had good internal reliability with Cronbach alpha of secure 84, Cronbach alpha of ambivalence 82, Cronbach alpha of avoidance .65, and overall .75. Further, Aggression in daily li fe was measured by the inventory developed by Sugano., Yoshida., and Oguma (1998). This
measure consisted of 16 items comprising two types of aggression (destructive aggression, constructive aggression), and all items were rated on 4 points scales (1= definitely false and 4= definitely true). In terms of factor analysis on A ggression scale Cronbach alpha of destructive aggression .82, Cronbach alpha of constructive aggression 80, and
Cronbach alpha of the overall .79.
Procedure:
and was regarded to respond to complete a set of ques- tionnaires during regular classes. The inventory took ap- proximately 15 minutes to complete.
Results
M ean scores and SD of father 's each childrearing style in high/low group were represented in Tablet .
Tablet M ean scores and SD of Father 's childrearing style
Gender N mean SD
ANOVAS revealed the main effect of father's equal rearing style on secure attachment (F(1,118) = 8.82, p<.01). Compared to lower group of the equal group, the higher group indicated significantly high scores on secure attach- ment. In terms of Father's equal rearing style, both the father 's way of take caring and gender gave the main ef- fect on ambivalent attachment in adolescent ( (1,118) =
4.68, pく.05 F(1,118) = 8.37, p<.01). Therefore, male
showed highly ambivalent attachment scores, compared to the scores in female. Thus, the higher group of equal rear-
ing style displayed significantly high scores on ambivalent
attachment, compared to the lower group. W ith avoidant attachment, there was no effect of father 's equal rearing style.
3. Father 's dom inative at titude and the relation to each attachment type
There was no significant main effect of dominative rearing style and gender on secure attachment in adoles- cent. With Father's dominative attitude toward their chil- dren, there was a significant main effect of gender on ambivalent attachment (F(1,118) = 7.45, p<.01). That is, scores of ambivalent attachment in male were higher than those in female. In terms of avoidant attachment, gender
also showed the effects on the attachment style in adoles-
cent (F(1,118) = 5.52. pく.05). Therefore, male marked sig- nificantly higher scores than female did.
4. Father 's suppor tive/acceptive attitude and the rela- tion to each aggression
The main effect of gender on destructive aggression was
found out (F (1,118)= 18.30, p<.001). This meant male
marked significantly higher scores than female did. Also, the main effect of father 's supportive/acceptive rearing at- titudes on constructive aggression was found (F (1,118) = 7.39, p<.01). Compared to lower group of father 's supportive/acceptive attitude, higher group of father 's supportive-accepted attitude displayed high scores on the aggression. Thus, interaction effect of gender X father's attitude was also founded ( f (1,118) = 6.96, p<.01). To examine the simple main effect of gender X father 's at- titude, a Bonferrino analysis was conducted. The result was showed that the significant di fference between high/- low group in male (F(1,118) = 13.65, p<.001), and the sig- nificant gender di fference in high group were found (F
(1,118) = 7.91, pく.01), (seeFigure1). Meanwhile, there was
no significant difference between 2groups in female. 5. Father 's equal attitude and the relation to each ag- gression
The findings showed that there was a main effect of
father's supportive/acceptive ttit1lde Low male 31 40.03 6.75 female 28 39.68 8.40 High male 19 52.47 9.45 father ' s equal attitude Low male 28 32.82 3.93 female 26 30.73 4.61 High
_
male 22 34.86 5.83 father's dominative attitude Low male 23 18.00 3.32 female 27 18.03 4.02 High_
male 29 26.57 2.84Father 's childrear ing style and the relation to IWM and Aggression
To examine the effects of father's rearing behavior on their children's IWM and aggression, a series of 2 (gen-
der) (high/low group of father 's rearing behavior) analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with IWM and aggression scores
as the dependent variables were carried out (see
Table2&3).
1. Father 's suppor tive/acceptive attitude and its
Relation to each attachment type.
For the result of father 's supportive/acceptive attitude
toward their child secure type of attachment, the main ef- fect of Father 's supportive/acceptive rearing attitude on their child secure attachment was shown ( f (1,118) = 7.13, p く.01). Compared to lower group of the supportive/acceptive group, the higher group indicated sig- nificantly high scores on secure attachment. In terms of the father 's rearing style, both of the father 's way of take caring and gender displayed main effect on ambivalent at-
tachment (F(1 ,118) = 5.08, pく.05 F= (1 ,118) = 6.64, pく.05).
Ambivalent attachment scores in male were significantly higher than those in female. Thus, there was a main effect
of gender on avoidant attachment (F(1,118) = 4.08, pく.05).
M ale showed highly ambivalent attachment scores, com- pared to the scores in female.
2. Father 's equal attitude and the relation to each at- tachment type
Father's supportive/
acceptive
attitude
Low
father 's rearing style and gender on destructive aggression
(F(1,118) = 4.70, pく.05 F(1,118) = 16.9, pく.001). It meant
male marked significantly higher scores than female did on aggression scores, and compared to lower group of father's equal attitude, higher group of father 's equal atti- tude displayed high scores on the aggression.
The main effect of father 's equal rearing attitudes on
constructive aggression was found (F(1,118) = 7.85, p く.01).
Compared to lower group of father 's equal attitude, higher group of father 's equal attitude displayed high scores on the aggression. Thus, interaction effect of gender X father 's
attitude was also found (F(1,118) = 6.84, p く.05). To ex-
amine the simple main effect of gender X father 's attitude, a Bonferrino analysis was conducted. The result was showed that the significant gendered di fference in high
groups (F(1,118) = 8.18, pく.01), and the significant group di fferences in male were founded (F(1,118) = 13.32, p
<.01). (see Figure 2). On the other hand, there were no significant di fferences between high/low groups of father 's equal attitude in female.
6. Father 's dominative attitude and the relation to each aggression
There was a main effect of gender on destructive ag-
gression (F(1,118) = 17.21, pく.001), and indicated destruc-
tive aggression scores in male were significantly higher than those in female. In terms of constructive aggression, there was no main effect and interaction.
Table2 M ean and SD of Father 's Childrearing style
(supportive/acceptive, equal and dominative) for secure, ambivalent and avoidant attachment.
Secure Ambivalent A voidant
Gender M ale 21 11.38 3.92 14.90 3.73 11.10 3.21 female 18 11.83 3.47 12.72 3.46 10.06 2.60 High M ale 29 13.76 3.94 12.48 4.51 11.14 2.81 female 54 13.31 3.45 11.33 3.37 9.72 3.29 Father's supportive/ acceptive attitude Low Gender aggression aggression M ale 21 8.24 2.34 15.67 4.99 Female 18 9.17 2.46 11.17 3.20 High M ale 29 10.72 2.66 13.34 4.21 Female 54 9.20 2.13 11.37 3.25 Father's equal attitude Low M ale 24 8.42 2.06 15.75 4.39 Female 22 9.14 2.66 11.59 3.22 High M ale 26 10.85 2.90 13.00 4.58 Female 50 9.22 1.99 11.20 3.25 Father's dominative attitude Low M ale 23 9.83 3.17 14.26 4.74 Female 27 9.28 2.60 11.24 3.50 High H i gh (l l・cup L ow ( l l・cu p
Figure 1 Constr uctive aggression score
一 0 8 6 - - 0 1 1 M ale 29 9.56 2.49 14.37 4.67 Female 43 9.14 1.91 11.37 3.06 ■r、l ate ■ Fem al e Father's equal attitude
Low M ale 24 11.67 4.04 14.75 3.55 10.96 3.14 H i gh l i t・cu p L ov、, female 22 11.55 3.84 12.86 3.50 10.36 2.67 High M ale 26 13.77 3.90 12.35 4.72 11.27 2.82 female 50 13.56 3.17 11.16 3.29 9.56 3.30 Father's dominative attitude Low M ale 23 13.26 3.96 13.13 4.07 11.52 2.71 female 29 13.07 3.92 10.83 3.23 9.83 3.26 High
Table3 M ean and SD of father 's Childrearing style (supportive/acceptive, equal and dominative attitude) for constructive and destructive aggression.
Constrctive Destructive
M ale 27 12.33 4.19 13.81 4.59 10.78 3.15 female 43 12.86 3.21 12.26 3.47 9.79 3.06
Fi gure 2 Constr uctive aggression score
Discussion
Some findings, in terms of the relation between father's rearing styles and attachment styles, were founded out. Firstly, it could be said that father 's supportive or equal rearing style support to make a secure attachment in male group in college students and also the father 's rearing style affect on their interpersonal relationship. According to the results, it could be interpreted that male group might tend to have more stable internal working model
and friendly relationship i f their fathers value father-child relationship treating their children acceptably. Thus, in terms of secure attachment, male group showed more
highly scores than female did, and from this point of
view, there might be some influence by father as a same- sex parent. Secondly, it was shown that father 's supportive or equal rearing behavior also influenced on ambivalent interpersonal relationship in male group in college stu- dents. In this case, we have not found some reason for the results, so it is necessary for us to analyze samples again or consider increase in the number of sample size. Thirdly, it was found that father's dominative attitude re- lated to ambivalent or avoidant attachment in male group. Kubo (2000) reported that boys who rarely had a praise or acceptable experience by their fathers in childhood tended to be nervous about getting along with people or scared of making interpersonal relationship. That is, boys who are taken care by dominative fathers feel scared or trouble to make a good relation with their fathers and the father- child relation promote interpersonal anxiety in adolescence. Next, we discuss about the relation between father 's rear- ing behavior and aggression.
The results showed there was an interaction effect of gender X father's acceptable or equal rearing behavior on constructive aggression. Those findings indicated that fa- thers who had a supportive/accretive rearing style or equal rearing style seemed to improve their child constructive aggression. Freud (1975) supported a hypothesis of identi- fication, which states that the child adopts the characteris- tics of the same-sex parent and begins to associate themselves with and copy the behavior of significant oth- ers. Also, Freud (1975) suggests that this process involves the development of the child's superego (our moral guide in li fe - the moral component of personality) which is done by incorporating characteristics of the parent's su- peregos into the child's own. So, for instance, a young male child wi ll begin to take on characteristics of the fa- ther (act more like his father than his mother in the sense of being a male) and will develop a superego that has
similarities to the moral values and guidelines by which the parents live their lives. Fraud (1975) also implies that
identification is more than the modeling of another 's be- liefs, attitudes, and rules of conduct, and it means the sharing of another's state of mind, more than the copying
of another's behavior. Additionally, Kohlberg (1966) sup-
ports the theory that the child spontaneously develops sex- appropriate values and standards, once the child constructs a stable gender identity. This follows from the child's
natural tendency to value positively objects and activities that represent his gender identity because his gender iden-
tity is part of himsel f (Kohlberg 1966). Here, the signifi-
cant point is that the final step in his theory (K ohlberg 1966) asserts long-term modeling relationship generally breed emotional-affection attachment, which in return leads to identification proper. Adachi (2001) also reported that male showed high scores in passive or constructive aggres- sion only when their level of approach-avoidance or target aspiration marked low. That is, mak ing stable or good re- lation not only with parents but also others ( friends so on) could play a rule in leading to passive or constructive ag- gression.
Considering these theories, it could be said that males are influenced by father 's supportive/acceptation attitude or equal attitude more than females, this is because children adopts the characteristics of the same-sex parent and be- gins to associate themselves with and copy the behavior of significant others. Thus, it is seemed that children create emotional bonding (Kohlberg 1966) with same gender per- son ( father), once they recognize their gender. At the same
time, child follow their model due to gain their approvals
or to be near the model. In other words, more fathers deal with their children acceptably or honestly more children tend to create strong emotional bond with their father, and they internalize father 's value or activities, so children tend to build up constructive aggression and secure IWM (or stable relationship with others).
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The present study was presented at 2011 Hawaii
International Conference on Education held in
